Theories of motivation

1. LEADING
NAISON P SUNNY
ROLL NO:12

2. CONTENTS
• LEADING
• MOTIVATION
• NEED THEORY
• REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• EQUITY THEORY
• EXPECTANCY THEORY
• GOAL-SETTING THEORY
• LEADERSHIP
• TEAMS & TEAM WORK
• COMMUNICATION & NEGOTIATION

3. LEADING
• Managerial effort to keep people focused on the goals for
an organisation
• It consists of
• Motivation
• Leadership
• Teams and team work
• Communication and negotiation

4. MOTIVATION
• Motivation is a human psychological characteristic that
contribute to a person’s degree of commitment.
• Motivating is the management process of influencing
people’s behavior based on this knowledge “what makes
people tick”

5. MOTIVATION
Reflex
Habit
Influenceable
Focus of
Motivation
Theory

6. ASSUMPTIONS
Basic assumptions about motivation and motivating are
1. Motivation is commonly assumed to be a good thing
2. Motivation is one of several factors that goes into a person’s
performance
3. Motivation is in short supply and in need of periodic
replenishment
4. Motivation is a tool with which managers can arrange job
relationships in organizations

7. EARLY VIEWS OF MOTIVATION
Traditional Model – Frederick Taylor and scientific
management.
System of wage of incentives- the more workers
produced, the more they earned. Commission basis.
Accept management authority in return for high wages
Human Relations Model - Elton Mayo
Boredom and repetitiveness of many tasks reduced
motivation
Social contacts create and sustain motivation
Accept management authority because they are treated
with consideration. Suggestion boxes, uniforms

8.  Human Resources Model
Douglas McGregor - Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
 Holds that people have an inherent dislike of work.
 Although workers may view it as a necessity, they will avoid it
whenever possible.
 Leaders must push subordinates to work.
Theory Y
 Holds that work is as natural as play or rest.
 People want to work and derive a great deal of satisfaction from
work.
 People have Capacity to accept, seek responsibility and supply
imagination ingenuity and creativity to organizational problem.
 This is achieved by participative management.

9. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The contemporary views of motivation or different
theories of motivation are,
 NEED THEORY
 REINFORCEMENT THEORY
 EQUITY THEORY
 EXPECTANCY THEORY
 GOAL-SETTING THEORY

10. NEED THEORY
 MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
 ERG THEORY
 THREE NEEDS
 TWO FACTOR THEORY OF MOTIVATION

11. MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow
• Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy,
• ascending from the lowest to the highest,
• when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need
ceases to be a motivator.

12. ERG THEORY
Clayton Alderfer
Three categories –
1. Existence
2. Relatedness
3. Growth
 Isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal
development
 When higher needs are frustrated, lower needs will
return even though they were already satisfied.

13. THREE NEEDS
John W. Atkinson
• Three basic drives in motivated persons
1. The need for Achievement (nAch)
2. The need for Power (nPow)
3. The need for Affiliation (nAff)
David C. McClelland
 People with high need for achievement like to take
responsibility for solving problems.
 Telecommuting not widely spread.
 deals with the degree of control a person desires over
his/her situation. Fear of failure/success

14. TWO FACTOR THEORY
 1950- Frederick Herzberg Job dissatisfaction and job
satisfaction arose from two separate sets of factors.
Dissatisfiers( Hygiene factors)
 Salary, working conditions, company policies
 Positive ratings of these factors – did not lead to job
satisfaction- only absence of dissatisfaction
Satisfiers ( Motivation factors)
 Achievement, responsibility, advancement

15. REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• Proposed by BF Skinner and his associates.
• States that individual’s behaviour to a situation or event
is a function of its consequences
• It is based on “law of effect”.
• Past behavior affect future actions in a cyclical learning
process as
Stimulus Response Consequences Future response

16. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Use of reinforcement theory to change human behavior.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Use of positive consequences to encourage desirable behavior
AVOIDANCE LEARNING
Individuals change behavior to avoid unpleasant circumstances
EXTINCTION
Absence of reinforcement so that behavior eventually stop recurring.
PUNISHMENT
Application of negative consequences to correct improper behavior.

17. EQUITY THEORY
 Assumption - a major factor in job motivation is individual’s
evaluation of equity or fairness of reward received.
 Equity - ratio between the individuals job inputs and job
rewards
 People compare what they are being paid for their efforts
with what others in similar situation.
 When inequity exist, they adjust their behavior.
 It depends on his / her experiences of inequity.

18.  There is a threshold up to which an individual will
tolerate a series of unfair events.
 People use different methods to reduce inequity.
Some rationalize their efforts.
Some make the co-workers change their behavior.

19. EXPECTANCY THEORY
 People choose how to behave among alternative course of
action based on their expectations of what there is to gain
from each action.
These assumptions are the basis for so called Expectancy
model.
1. Behaviour is determined by a combination of factors in the
individual and in the environment.
2. Individual make conscious decisions about their behaviour
3. Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
4. Individuals decide alternate behaviour on the basis of their
expectation that a given behaviour will lead to a desired
outcome.

20. EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy model has three component:
1.Performance outcome expectancy - Person expect certain
consequence of their behaviour.
2.Valence - The outcome of a particular behaviour has a
specific valance or power to motivate
3.Effort performance expectancy - Peoples’ expectation of
how difficult it will be to perform successfully,

21. EXPECTANCY THEORY
 An individual’s behaviour will depend on the types of
outcome expected
Leaders must therefore,
1. Determine the reward valued by each subordinate
2. Determine the reward you value.
3. Make performance level attainable.
4. Link rewards to performance.
5. Analyse the factors that counteract effectiveness of reward.
6. Make sure reward is adequate.

22. GOAL-SETTING THEORY
 Proposed by psychologist Edwin Lock,
 Strive for goals is useful only if individual understands
and accept a particular goal.
 Workers will not be motivated if they do not possess
-and know that they do not possess - the skill needed to
achieve the goal.
 Individuals are motivated when they behave in ways that
move them to certain clear goals that they can accept and
reasonably expect to attain.

23.  when goals are specific and challenging, they function more
effectively
 motivation and commitment are higher when subordinates
participate in the setting of goals.
Goal setting process in Four Phases of a Person’s Reasoning
1. Establishment of a standard to be attained.
2. Evaluation of whether the standard can be achieved
3. Evaluation of whether the standard matches personal goals.
4. The standard is accepted, the goal is thereby set and behavior
proceeds towards the goal.

24. LEADERSHIP

25. LEADERSHIP
 The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a
vision or set of goals.
 The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to
contribute to the effectiveness and success of the
organizations of which they are members.

26. 4 ASPECTS
 Leadership involves other people.
 Leadership involves an unequal distribution of power
between leaders and group members.
 Leadership is the ability to use the different forms of
power to influence followers behaviours in a number of
ways.
 Leadership is about values.

27. APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
 TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
 CONTIGENCY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP

28. TRAIT APPROACH
Assumptions
 People are born with inherited traits.
 Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.
 People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient)
combination of traits.
 Leaders are born, not made.
In searching measurable leadership traits,
 Leaders and non-leaders
 Effective and ineffective leaders

29. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
 Researcher determined what effective leaders do.
 Behaviors, unlike traits can be learned.
 Individuals trained on appropriate leadership behaviors
would be able to lead more effectively.
Mainly focused on two aspects of leadership behavior
 Leadership functions
 Leadership styles

30. LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS
Effective leader is able to perform
 Task-related or problem solving functions
 Group –maintenance or social functions

31. LEADERSHIP STYLES
The various patterns of behavior favored by leaders
during the process of directing and influencing workers.
Main leadership styles are
 Employee- oriented style
 Task oriented style
3 forces a manager consider in choosing a leadership style
 Forces in the manager
 Forces in employees
 Forces in the situation

32. CONTIGENCY APPROACH
The view that the management technique that best
contributes to the attainment of organisational goals
might vary in different types of situations or
circumstances.
This approach focus on the following factors
 Task requirements
 Peer’s expectations and behavior
 Employee’s characteristic, expectations and behavior
 Organizational; culture and policies

33. There a re four well known contigency models of leadership.
They are
 SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL
 PATH-GOAL MODEL
 VROOM-YETTON-YAGO MODEL
 FIEDLER LEADERSHIP MODEL

34. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL
By HERSEY and BLANCHARD
 Most effective leadership varies with the readiness of
employees.
 Readiness - desire for achievement, willingness to accept
responsibility, skill and experience.
 Relationship between a manager and a follower moves
through four phases
 As employees managers need to vary their leadership
style.

35. RELATIONSHIP
BEHAVIOR
LEADER BEHAVIOR
TASK BEHAVIOR
(High)
(High)
(Low)
(Low)
1
23
4
High Relationship
and
low Task
High Task
And
high Relationship
Low Relationship
and
low Task
High Task
And
Low Relationship
SITUATIONAL MODEL OF
LEADERSHIP

36. FIEDLER LEADERSHIP MODEL
 Developed by Fred E. Fiedler.
 Basic assumption – It is quite difficult to alter the management
styles that made them successful.
 LPC – Least Preferred co-worker
Fiedlers measuring instrument for locating a manager on the
leader ship –style continuum
3 leadership situations that help determine which leadership style
will be effective.
 Leader-member relations (good or poor)
 Task structure (high or low)
 Position power (strong or weak)

37. PATH-GOAL MODEL
It tries to help us understand and predict leadership
effectiveness in different situations.
Model was formulated by Martin G. Evans and Robert J.
House.
Based on Expectancy model of motivation
Managers leadership style influenmces the rewards available
to employees

38. VROOM-YETTON-YAGO MODEL
Autocratic
A1: Use available information; makes sole
decision
A2: Get employee to acquire some information;
makes sole decision
Consultative
C1: Leader gets individual input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
C2: Leader get group input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
Group G2: Total group decision-making; leader is
an equal member in the group

39. Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)
General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy
A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)
B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision
required)
C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)

40. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 Idealized Influence (charismatic, establishing visions, role-
modeling)
 Inspirational Motivation (providing challenges, goal sharing,
go beyond self-interests)
 Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem
solving, critical thinking, flexible)
 Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support)
 Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice
perceptions, high trust, more organizational citizenship
behaviors
 Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader

41. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
Assumptions
 People are motivated by reward and punishment.
 Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
 The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their
manager tells them to do.
Transactional leader works through creating clear structures
 – Work requirements are clear
 – Reward structure is clear
 – Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also
well understood and formal systems of discipline are usually‐
in place

42. TEAMS AND TEAM WORK

43. TEAM
• Team – Two or more people who interact and influence
each other towards a common purpose.
• FORMAL AND INFORMAL
• HIGH PERFORMANCE TEAMS OR SUPERTEAMS
• SELF MANAGED TEAMS

44. FORMAL TEAMS
 Created deliberately by managers
 For carrying out specific tasks for organization goals
 Common type of formal team – Command team
consists of a manager and the employees who report to him
defined in terms of the organization's hierarchy
 Another type – Committee
Lasts a long time
Members changes

45.  Temporary formal team – Task forces or Project teams
made up of employees who work together to complete a
particular task or project.
boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical
superior. It can cross command relationships.
may be temporary with an established life span, or they
may be open ended.

46. INFORMAL GROUPS
 Naturally formed in the work environment that appear in
response to the need for social contact
 Have 4 major functions
Maintain norms(expected behavior) and values
Feelings of Social satisfaction status and security
Help members to communuicate
Help to solve problems
 Types
Friendship Groups
Interest Groups
Reference Groups
Membership Groups

47. SUPER TEAMS
 Groups having chara of both formal and informal teams.
 And super teams are not the right choice for every
company culture.
 Middle managers can feel threatened by super teams
because they leave fewer rungs on the corporate ladder
to move up.

48. SELF MANAGED TEAMS
 Manage themselves without formal supervision.
 Team has responsibility for a “relatively whole task.”
 Team members each possess a variety of task-related
skills.
 Team has the power to determine such things as work
methods, scheduling and assignment of members.

49. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT
 FORMING
 STORMING
 NORMING
 PERFORMING
 ADJOURNING

50. FORMING
First stage of team building,
Individual's behavior -desire to be accepted by the others,
and avoid controversy or conflict.
Team members are usually on their best behavior but very
focused on themselves.
Leaders of the team tend be directive during this phase.
A good opportunity to see how each member of the team
works as an individual and how they respond to pressure.
Ground rules are set for group dynamics and for some tasks

51. STORMING
The team addresses issues such as what problems they are really
supposed to solve, how they will function independently and
together and what leadership model they will accept.
Members open up to each other and confront each other's
ideas and perspectives.
Members may oppose formation of group structure
Members often become hostile and even fight ground rules.
Maturity of team members
Presence of supervisors
Growth of team and tolerance of members

52. NORMING
The conflicts that arose in the previous stage are addressed and
hopefully resolved.
Structural issues are resolved
Establishing of common goals, norms
Group unity emerges
Members develops close relationships
Members begin to voice personal opinions

53. PERFORMING
The conflicts that arose in the previous stage are addressed and
hopefully resolved.
Establishing of common goals, norms
Group unity emerges
Members develops close relationships
Members begin to voice personal opinions

54. ADJOURNING
For temporary groups such as task forces this is the time
when group wraps up activities.
Groups focus shifts from high task performance to
closure.
Attitude of members varies from excitement to depression

55. TEAMWORK
 Old model of organisation was based on assumptions of
hierarchy – top leadership knows all the answers and is in
charge of goals and work processes.
 New – Knowledge, insight and answers are found
throughout the organisation
Benefits of Teamwork
 Problems solving
 Accomplish tasks faster
 Healthy competition
 Developing Relationships
 Everyone has unique qualities

56. COMMUNICATION
AND
NEGOTIATION

57. COMMUNICATION
 Process by which people seek to share meaning via
transmission of symbolic messages.
 Lifeblood of organization
 The communication process is complete once the receiver
has understood the message of the sender.

58. COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 SENDER
 RECIEVER
 MESSAGE
 ENCODING
 DECODING
 NOISE

60. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
All factors in interpersonal communication is also
applicable to communication in organizations.
The types of communication in organizations are
 Vertical communication
 Lateral and informal communication

61. VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication up and down the organizations chain of
command.
 Downward communication starts with top management
 Purposes – advise, inform, direct, instruct, and evaluate
employees and to provide members with
information about goals and policies .
 Problems – Filtered or modified communication.
Inaccurate or incomplete.

62. LATERAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication between departments of an organization that
generally follows the work flow rather than the chain of
command
 Mainly takes place outside the chain of command.
 Purposes –
Provides a direct channel for organizational coordination and
problem solving .
Avoids much slower procedure of communication through chain
of commands.
Enables to form relationship with the peers.

63. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication within an organization that is not officially
sanctioned.
 One type is grapevine. – made up of several informal
communication networks that overlapand intersect at a number of
points.
 Grapevine chains –
 Single strand
 Gossip
 Probability
 cluster

64. FACTORS INFLUENCING ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
 Formal channels of communication : It is a means of
communication that isendorsed and probably controlled
by managers.
 Authority structure: Content and accuracy of
communication will be affected by authority differences.
 Job Specialization: It facilitates communication within
differentiated groups.
 Information ownership : Individuals posses unique
information about their jobs.

65. NEGOTIATION
Negotiation - The use of communication skills to manage
conflict and reach mutually satisfying outcomes
Conflict – Disagreement about allocation of scarce resources
or clashes regarding goals, values etc.
Negotiation situations have 3 characterstics
1. Conflict of interest
2. No fixed or established set of rules
3. Search for agreement

66. FACTORS OF NEGOTIATION

67. GUIDELINES FOR NEGOTIATION

68. CONCLUSION
 Leading is one of the major functions of management
It was understood by analyzing almost all the areas
regarding it.
 Motivation, leadership, Teams and teamwork and
communication and negotiation were also understood
thoroughly and their importance organisations was
understood.

69. REFERENCE
 “MANAGEMENT” 6th
edition by James A.F. Stoner, R.
Edward Freeman and Daniel R. Gilbert, Jr.

70. Thanks………