1. Making Computer Tasks at Work More Playful:
Implications for Systems Analysts and Designers
JANE WEBSTER
Graduate School of Business Administration
New York University
114 Liberty Street
New York, N. Y. 10006
(212 285-6006)
2. PLAY - -- EXPLANATION
- AS AN FOR INTERACTIONWm
COMPUTERS
1. INTRODUCTION
Chris sits in front of a computer terminal,
Based on the literature on play, this paper mesmerized by the report facility of a
argues that designing computer systems to make database program. She designs a report and
tasks at work more playful may result in real prints it; she discovers another feature of
advantages to users and organizations. the report facility, modifies the report, and
prints it again; she explores more attributes
The paper first argues that computers are of the system, trying out different features.
particularly suited to play, and goes on to Chris has not noticed what has gone on around
demonstrate the importance of the topic. her at work since she began to use the
After reviewing the consequences of play, the database program. Down the hall, Pat is
paper then describes the characteristics of learning to use a word processor. He explores
activities that encourage playful behavior, the command to space a document: he tries
such as user control. Findings from a pilot double spacing and admires his document; he
study of 10 professionals and 5 clericals changes the spacing back to single, and then
highlight these reviews. Next, the paper up to triple, all the time feeling in control
makes specific suggestions for designing these of the process. Both of these employees are
characteristics into tasks on computers. The exhibiting playful behaviors in their use of
paper compares the designs of two similar information technologies.
computer systems which differ in playfulness.
The paper concludes by summarizing the Computers seem a natural area for exploring
findings. playfulness in work activities: certain
characteristics of computers lend themselves
Grossman [l83 stresses the importance of to the development of playful tasks [34].
playing at non-work related games as a respite When the consequences of play are compared
from the problems of work, and Marvin 1241 with those of individuals using interactive
argues that employees often incorporate a play computers, parallels appear. For example,
element into computer systems as a rest from some individuals concentrate so much on the
work. Notwithstanding the importance of computer that they lose awareness of what is
taking breaks from the pressures of work, the going on around them and of the passage of
present research does not focus on this aspect time. Some dawdle over tasks on computers,
of play at work. Rather, it focuses only on playing with the functions of the computer
the playfulness of computer tasks at work. systems. Others may interact with their
computers to the detriment of other work.
Permission to copy without fee all or part of this
material is granted provided that the copies are not Therefore, the consequences of using computers
made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, may be very similar to the consequences of
the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publi- play for some individuals, because these
cation and its date appear, and notice is given that individuals are actually playing on their
copying is by permission of the Association for computers. Even in routine jobs, employees
Computing Machinery. To copy otherwise, or to re- try to make their work more playful [15]. For
publish, requires a fee and/or specific permission
example, Carson [I61 studied keypunchers who
injected play elements into their jobs by
creating a game to play: they would
@ 1988 ACM O-89791-262-4/88/0400-0078 $1.50
78

2. arguments that do not support critical
Synchronize their typing, and then would race interpretations of computers as sources of
with the other keypunchers. organizational control.
3. IMPORTANCE TOPIC
OF
--
4. CONSEQUENCES PLAY
OF
--
This paper studies the phenomenon of
playfulness at work. In contrast, most Writers advance many advantages of play, from
research on play has examined children’s play, the immediate subjective experiences of
rather than the play of adults. Although play players (such as positive affect), to the
occurs in many activities, much of the acquisition of new skills and practices, to
research has focused narrowly on games, rather learning, and to a precursor of creativity,
than on the notion of playfulness in a wider abstract thinking, spontaneity, imagination,
sense. Similarly, most research on playing on make-believe, and flexibility. Researchers
computers has studied children or has have also enumerated such negative
concentrated on games. consequences as an increased time to task
completion and the over-involvement in an
Much interest has focused on the consequences activity. Webster [341 reviews these
of computers to individuals and organizations. consequences in detail.
First, computer impacts arose as a major
factor in information systems research [13], First, if findings on subjective experiences
and interdisciplinary groups (e.g. at resulting from play may be extended to playful
Carnegie-Mellon) have formed recently to study computer tasks at work, we may hypothesize
this problem. Impacts at the individual level that employees will experience more positive
of analysis have often meant job attitudes, affect at work, heightened concentration, and
but have also included changes in income, less awareness of time. For organizations,
employment, social contact, ability to control these outcomes could translate into more
events (specifically, deskilling and dedicated employees for these particular
upgrading), and health [331. However, the tasks.
impaCtS Qf the playfulness Qf COqNterS have
received little study. Second, if findings on learning resulting
from play can be extended to learning computer
Unions are very concerned with the impacts of tasks at work, we may hypothesize that
computers, citing such phenomena as computer employees will be more likely to put effort
monitoring, health effects, arbitrary company into learning new systems, will learn more
policies, unfair wages, and stress [l, e.g.]. effectively, will be more likely to extend
Governments have enacted legislation to what they have learned to other situations,
protect employees for health and monitoring will become more self-directed in their
reasons (Missouri House Bill No. 406, e.g.). learning, and will experience more control.
Findings from this research should be of Third, if findings on cognitive flexibility
interest to those investigators focusing on resulting from play may be extended, then we
implementation successes and failures, and to may expect greater creativity on the job, as
those designing new computer systems. well as more adaptable employees, who are
Designing playfulness into computers may better equipped to respond. Any increased
result in positive consequences both for flexibility due to play can therefore aid in
employees and organizations. In addition, any organizational problem solving.
impacts of playfulness on performance
represent a major concern of organizations. Fourth, we may expect that playful behaviors
on computers at work will take longer to
Lastly, in the critical literature, a common complete than less playful computer tasks.
theme cQncerns the use of computers by Consequently, making computer tasks at work
management to control more playful would not be appropriate in
employees [5, 17, 19, 27, 28, 301. These situations in which time is critical (e.g.,
writers argue that control of employees may be dispatching ambulances).
accomplished through centralization, through
deskilling, through power changes, and through Lastly, we may hypothesize that playful
decreases in employment levels. Less computer tasks at work can be made so
attention has focused on the opposite enjoyable that other tasks at work are
arguments. This paper does not argue that neglected. Therefore, making some tasks at
management control is absent from the use of Work more playful may be at the expense of
computers. However, it does emphasize other tasks.
79

3. 5. CHARACTERISTICS PLAYFULACTIVITIES
OF since individuals do not need to negotiate
-~ roles far these activities. Other methods of
focusing attention include competition, the
Ellis [151 argues that little effort has probability of material rewards, and danger.
focused on outlining the characteristics of Third, individuals control their own actions.
human play, and Berlyne 131 concludes that
Fourth, playful activities provide coherent
much disagreement exists on the key requirements and clear feedback. Finally, play
characteristics of human play. However,
needs no external goals or rewards. However,
Sandelands et al. 1291, Csikszentmihalyi [121,
unlike Deci and colleagues, Csikzentmihalyi
and Malone [21] have reviewed the literature
argues that the presence of external goals or
on some of the characteristics of playful
rewards does not stop the activity from being
activities. This section first reviews these
play. He verified the existence of these five
characteristics, and then concludes by characteristics through extensive interviews
outlining their relationships to work.
with chess players, rock climbers, rock
dancers, and surgeons; Kusyszyn [201 argued
First, from a review of the literature on that these characteristics hold for gamblers;
play, Sandelands et al. [29] outline template and Bowman[41 demonstrated the applicability
theory, a cognitive classification theory of of these characteristics for video we
perceptions of task structure. This theory players. In addition, support for control and
argues that five perceptual characteristics centering of attention through competition
(the activity must exist outside of the real comes from studies of video game players.
world; outcomes of the activity must be Mehrabian and Wixen [251 found a positive
nonproductive; the activity must be freely relationship between male undergraduate
engaged in; the activity must be governed by students’ preferences for video games and
rules; and outcomes of the activity must be their self-reports of power, control, and
uncertain) of play must be present to identify influence, and Morlock et al. [261
an activity as play. If any of these demonstrated that undergraduates who
characteristics is missing from a task, the frequently played video games were more
theory hypothesizes that the task will not be motivated to master the games through
perceived as playful. Their assumption that competition with themselves and others, than
all five of these characteristics must be were those who played less frequently.
present seems overly restrictive. For
example, the activity of surgery is not
Lastly, in Malone’s 121, 221 review of play,
outside of the world, nor does it have
he labels Csikszentmihalyi’s characteristics
nonproductive outcomes. Yet of play as challenge. He suggests that all of
Csikszentmihalyi 1121 demonstrated that the
these characteristics of playful activities
occupation of surgery possesses many features result from the requirement of a challenging
conducive to play.
activity to have a goal with an uncertain
outcome. Malone also emphasizes the
Second, in Csikszentmihalyi’s [12] review of importance of fantasy and curiosity to playful
play, he argues that the most important activities. Activities may be more playful if
requirement of a playful activity is the they encourage fantasies and arouse curiosity.
provision of clear challenges, either through Based on the writings of Berlyne [2l,
the unknown or through competition. However, increases in novelty, complexity,
the resulting uncertainty of the outcome must surprisingness, and incongruity (up to an
still be under the control of the individual. optimal level) may increase curiosity. To
Csikszentmihalyi outlines five characteristics arouse curiosity, these characteristics must
of playful activities. First, playful increase over time, as the individual gains
activities must be feasible; that is, the knowledge and experience 1151. To determine
tasks must be within the individual’s ability. the importance of these three characteristics
Rules aid in creating feasible activities. In (challenge, fantasy, and curiosity) to playful
addition, a variety of graduated activities activities, Malone [211 studied students
provide opportunities for play for a range of playing computer games. In one study of
individual skills, and for learning of new elementary school students, the existence of a
skills over time. Second, attention is goal was the most important characteristic to
focused through a limited stimulus field. preference for the computer game, followed by
Again, rules help center attention on the scoring, audio effects, and randomness. In a
relevant stimuli. Individuals lose self- second study of undergraduate students,
consciousness during playful activities. challenge, goals, and scoring comprised the
Rules aid in the loss of self-consciousness, most important characteristics. In a final
80

4. Table 1: Characteristics of Playful Activities
Possible to
Characteristic incorporate
into work?
------------------------------------------- ------__---
Activity outside of real world f29] Yes/No
Nonproductive outcomes 1291 Yes/No
Activity freely engaged in [291 Yes/No
Activity governed by rules 112, 291 Yes
Uncertain outcomes [12, 291 Yes
Activity feasible cl21 Yes
Limited stimulus field [I21 Yes
Activity controlled by individual cl21 Yes
Activity provides clear feedback cl21 Yes
Activity does not need rewards (intrinsic
motivation) 112, 141 Yes
Activity has a goal [21] Yes
Activity encourages Yantasies [21] Yes
Activity arouses curiosity [21] Yes
81

5. study of elementary school children, he found the methods for performing these activities.
individual differences in the types of The remaining characteristics, however, could
fantasies enjoyed. be incorporated into work situations more
easily.
Carroll 171 developed a similar list of
characteristics of exploratory activities on
6. METHODS MODIFYINGTRE PLAYFULNESS
OF 01
computers, but concluded that: “I can It call
on any substantive psychological theory . . . to COMPUTERS - -
clarify my list, since no theory really
exists” (p. 54). He included such Several writers have suggested methods for
characteristics as responsiveness, benchmarks modifying the features of computers to vary
(goals), acceptable uncertainty, safe conduct, the playfulness of the systems. Table 2
and individual control. summarizes these suggestions. For example,
Carroll and Mack [91 outline several
In the pilot study, when asked to describe characteristics of ITS supportive of
situations in which computers seem like play, exploratory behavior. Related to ‘activity
the white collar workers listed these feasible’, they suggest that the system should
situations as more play-like: asking ‘what be simple, yet functional. Pertaining to
if t questions; massaging data; investigating ‘activity outside of real world’, they propose
the possibilities available; learning new that the system should exhibit safety, that
functions or programs; producing graphs or is, the protection of the user from extreme
charts; seeing results; receiving positive consequences. Safety could result from help
feedback from tutorials; figuring out new or learn modes. Carroll and Carrithers [81
functions; and designing new systems. tested this last characteristic on new
They
attributed the play-like situations to their computer users : They protected users from
enjoyment in solving puzzles. Computers seven common errors often faced when learning
seemed more like work when using a well-known a word processing system. In an experiment
sys tern. Clericals also suggested that working comparing new users protected from these seven
with computers seemed like play when figuring common errors with a control group, Carroll
out new features, iihen devising ways to make and Carrithers found that the protected group
the systems work more efficiently, and when performed better, learned more, and had a
learning new systems. Similarly, they said better attitude towards the work. Therefore,
that computers seemed like work when using a learn modes would protect users as well as
well-known system. Therefore, from the pilot, have ‘nonproductive outcomes’.
play-like situations with computers seem more
likely for new functions, with pictorial Play modes, simulator modes, and undo
output, and with immediate knowledge of commands also relate to ‘activity outside of
results. This supports the characteristics of real world’ and ‘nonproductive outcomes’.
playful activities of uncertainty (new First, Carroll and Rosson [ll] suggest
functions), fantasy (pictorial output), and incorpating a play mode into systems, where
feedback (immediate knowledge of results). users receive scores, based on their
abilities, for accomplishing tasks. This
Table 1 summarizes characteristics of playful suggestion also relates to the labelling of
activities, and indicates those the task as play, and therefore, based on
characteristics that could be incorporated in social information processing theory, this
work situations. Clearly, the first two labelling may increase playful behaviors.
characteristics (an activity outside of the Second, Carroll and Rosson discuss a simulator
real world, and nonproductive outcomes) are mode, in which the computer simulates actions
not as appropriate in work situations as in requested by the user; these actions have no
nonwork situations. The third characteristic, real consequences. The user may actually
an activity freely engaged in, may be request these actions later when out of the
possible. Some employees may not have the simulator mode. Third, undo commands (that
freedom to choose their activities; however, is, inverses of operations) build safety into
at another level, they may be free to choose systems, and therefore allow users to explore
functions at little risk.
82

6. Table 2: Methods of Modifying
the Playfulness of Activities on Computers
Characteristic Features of IT
------------------------------------
Activity outside of real world * protect user from commonerrors
and 4f help mode
Nonproductive outcomes * learn mode
* play mode
* simulator mode
* undo commands
Uncertain outcomes * variable difficulty levels
* multiple level goals (e.g., score
keeping; user programming
capabilities)
* successive interfaces reveal
additional functions
Activity feasible * system simple yet functional
Limited stimulus field * little reliance on manuals
Activity controlled by individual * user given options to:
bypass well-known sections;
scan forward to more novel
sections; control sound and
colour ; control staging of
disclosures of new functions
Activity provides clear feedback * provide increased or
faster feedback
Activity encourages fantasies * metaphors analagous to
familiar objects
* icons, mice
* cover stories
* painting and drawing
Activity arouses curiosity * audio or visual effects
* maintain on-line cognitive
models of users to highlight
or create incongruities
* prompting dialogs
------_--_----__--__----------------------------------------------------
83

7. Incorporating training, learning, and help in example, though MacPaint) should also increase
the software (rather than through manuals) the fantasy component of the activity.
will result in a ‘limited stimulus field’. Carroll and Wack [g] also argue that the best
&is may explain some of the playfulness of metaphor is one that suggests itself
the Macintosh. Without reference to a manual, implicitly and automatically by the program,
users can often discover many of the functions such as the Query-by-Example system that
of the software, simply by exploring it. utilizes the metaphor of paper tables.
Carroll and hack [lOI go on to suggest that
To increase 1control of activity by salient dissimilarities between the metaphor
individual’, Mehrabian and Wixen [25] suggest and the task stimulate thought and enhance
giving users options to bypass well-known learning.
sections of programs, to scan forward to other
more novel sections, and to have control over To increase curiosity in computer tasks,
the use of sound effects and colour in the Malone [21, 231 suggests that sensory or
program. cognitive curiosity may be increased. Audio
or visual effects increase sensory curiosity
To enhance challenge in computer tasks, when used as decorations, as enhancements for
Malone [21, 231 proposes that the attainment fantasies, as rewards, or as representation
of a goal may be made uncertain by variable systems. Sound or graphics may represent
difficulty levels, multiple level goals, information more effectively than characters.
hidden information, or randomness. Building For example, three-dimensional graphics should
additional hidden information and randomness provide visual stimulation that increases
into work situations does not seen curiosity. Providing just enough information
appropriate. However, Malone suggests that to make a user Is knowledge seem incomplete,
variable difficulty levels can be incorporated inconsistent, or unparsimonious (but not so
automatically by the computer or chosen by the much that the user feels inadequate) will
individual. Multiple level goals may be added enhance cognitive curiosity. This could be
through score-keeping, such as typing speed, accomplished through the maintenance of on-
(which also increases feedback) or through line cognitive models of users [61 that
user programming capabilities. Feedback may highlight or create incongruities. Carroll
also be enhanced by providing faster feedback. and Rosson Cl11 also propose the use of a
Carroll and Mack [91 argue that successive prompting dialog to encourage the user to try
interfaces could reveal additional functions new things.
of the system. In addition, if the user has
control over the staging of these disclosures, As an example of the comparison of the
user control will also increase Kg]. playfulness of two systems, Table 3 contrasts
the playfulness of two spreadsheet packages.
To increase fantasy in computer tasks, It is hypothesized that one system (Excel)
I&lone [21, 231 suggests providing one fantasy incorporates more of the characteristics of
for all users, several fantasies for users to play than does the other (Lotus 1-2-S). Both
choose from, or a task which encourages the of the systems will run on the same personal
projection of a fantasy. For example, Carroll computer using software designed for
and Rosson [ill propose that computer tasks spreadsheets. Therefore, the two systems
could be presented under various cover differ mainly in characteristics of the
stories, such as interacting with a flight software. Both systems incorporate
simulator. Malone recommends the use of characteristics of playful activities.
metaphors analogous to familiar objects, such However, based on a comparison of Excel and
as VisiCalc which resembles the well-known Lotus l-2-3 developed by Taylor [32], Table 3
spreadsheet, or the utilization of icons in links additional features of Excel (not found
user interfaces, such as the Xerox Star in Lotus l-2-3) to characteristics of play.
workstation. Mice may also increase fantasy Therefore, it is hypothesized that Excel
in conjunction with icons, because users may includes more of the characteristics of play
feel that they are actually pointing to and than does Lotus 1-2-3.
moving objects. Painting or drawing (for
84

8. Table 3: Relationships between
Characteristics of Playful Activities
and Two Computer Systems
Characteristic Features common Features
to Lotus l-2-3 of Excel
and to Excel only
------------------------------- -__-------_---- -----------------
Activity outside of real world learn mode;
undo
Nonproductive outcomes learn mode
Activity freely engaged in
Activity governed by rules
Uncertain outcomes
Activity feasible
Limited stimulus field
Activity controlled by individual can vary row height;
links spreadsheets;
calls user-written
programs; undo;
customizes functions;
prints from screen;
offers print preview
mode.
Activity provides clear feedback X
Activity does not need’rewards
Activity has a goal X
Activity encourages fantasies icons, mouse
Activity arouses curiosity can display graphs
with spreadsheets;
displays colors and
fonts.
85

9. 7. SUMMARY 5. Braverman, H. Labor and monopoly
capital: The degredation of work in the
This paper contends that the characteristics twentieth century. Monthly Review, New York,
of computers can encourage playful behaviors. 1974.
These playful behaviors at work can have
6. Burton, R. R., & Brown, J. S. “An
significant consequences for employees and
investigation of computer coaching for
organizations. For example, users may informal learning activities”. International
experience more positive affect at work, Journal of Man-Machine Studies 11 (1979),
heightened concentration, and less awareness 5-24.
of time. For organizations, these outcomes
could translate into more dedicated employees 7. Carroll, J. M. “The adventure of getting
for these particular tasks. In addition, to know a computer”. Computer 15, 11 (19821,
users may be more likely to put effort into 49-58.
learning new systems, to learn more
effectively, to extend what they have learned 8. Carroll, 3. M., & Carrithers, C.
to other situations, to become more self- “Training wheels in a user interface”.
directed in their learning, to become more Communications of the ACM 27 (19841, 800-806.
cognitiveiy flexible, and to experience more 9. Carroll, J. M., & Mack, R. L. Learning to
control. use a word processor: By doing, by thinking,
and by knowing. In Human factors in computer
The paper outlines the characteristics of systems, Abler, Nornood, New Jersey, 1984, pp.
playful behaviors, and then reviews methods 13-51.
for designing these characteristics into
computer systems. For example, properties of 10. Carroll, J. M., & Mack, R. L. “Metaphor,
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11. Carroll, J. M., & Rosson, M. B. Paradox
effects and color in programs [25]. Finally,
of the active user. In J. M. Carroll, Ed.,
based on the characteristics of playful
Interfacing thought, The MIT Press,
behaviors, the paper contrasts the playfulness
Cambridge., Mass., 1987, pp. 80-11.
of two computer systems.
12. Csikszentmihalyi, M.. Beyond boredom and
anxiety. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1975.
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