for changing words

1. The Conceptand Profile ofWomen’s Empowermentin India
4.1. EMPOWERMENT: CONCEPTAND ITS MEANING
Empowerment can be viewedas means of creatinga social environment in which one canmake decisions andmake
choices either individuallyor collectivelyforsocial transformation. It strengthens the innate abilityby way of acquiringknowledge,
power andexperience (Hashemi Schuler andRiley, 1996). Empowerment is the process of enablingor authorizingindividual tot hink,
take action andcontrolwork in an autonomous way. It is theprocess by which onecan gain control overone‟s destinyandthe
circumstances of ones lives. Empowerment includes control over resources (physical,human, intellectual andfinancial)andover
ideology (beliefs, values andattitudes). (Baltiwala, 1994). It is not merelya feel of greaterextrinsic control,but also grows intrinsic
capacity,greater self-confidence andan internal transformation ofone‟s consciousness that enables one to overcome external barriers
to accessingresources orchangingtraditional ideology (Pinto, 2001).Women‟s empowerment is veryessential for thedevelopment of
society. Empowerment means individuals acquiringthe power tothinkandact freely,exercises choice andfulfill their potential as full
andequal members of society. As per the UnitedNational Development Fundfor women (UNIFEM), the termwomen‟s
empowerment means:  Acquiringknowledge andunderstandingof genderrelations andthe ways in which these relations maybe
changed.  Developinga sense of self-worth,a belief in one‟s ability to secure desiredchanges andthe right to control one‟s life.
Gainingthe ability togenerate choices exercise bargainingpower.  Developingthe abilitytoorganizeandinfluence the directionof
social change, tocreate a more just social andeconomicorder,nationally andinternationally.Thus, empowerment means a
psychological sense of personal control or influenceanda concernwith actual social influence, political power andlegal rights. It is a
multi level construct referringto individuals, organizations andcommunity. It is an international, ongoingprocess centered in thelocal
community,involvingmutual respect, critical reflection,caringandgroup participation,through which people lackingan equal share
of valuedresources gain greateraccess tothe control overthese resources.
4.2 EMPOWERMENTAND EDUCATION
Education as means ofempowerment of women canbringabout a positive attitudinal change. It is therefore, crucial for the
socio-economic andpolitical progress of India. The Constitution ofIndia empowers the statetoadopt affirmative measures for
promptingways andmeans toempower women.Educationsignificantlymakes difference in the lives of women. These canbe direct
or indirect. Feware beingmentionedhere.a) ImprovedEconomicGrowth Education increases the economic, socialandpolitical
opportunities available towomen.It leads to direct economic benefits in the form ofhigherlifetime earnings for women. The society
andcommunity also benefit fromthe higher productivity ofits labour force.Besides improvinghumancapital andincreasing
economicgrowth, female educationalso reduces the fertilityrate. The loweringin thenumber ofdependants is referredtoas the

2. “demographicgift”.Keepingwomenilliterateclearlyretards economic growth. Societies that do not invest in girls‟ educationpaya
price for it in terms of slower growthandreducedincomes.Investments in femaleeducationstart a virtuous cycle that leads to
improvedlevels of income, growth andgender equality. Inequalityin educationis like a distortionarytaxthat misallocates resources,
thereby reducingeconomic growth(Dollar andGatti,1999). b) Lower Population Growth Education increases women‟s knowledge
about controllingfertilityandaccess tofamilyplanningservices andoftenencourages them to delay the age at which theymarry. In
the fieldsurvey Table 5.2indicates clearly that the higher literacy rateimproves themonthly income ofthe familyandvice-versa
(Table 5.3). They also havemore control overhouseholdresources (Table 5.6) andgreaterinvolvement in reproductive decisions.
Women withmore thana primaryschoolinghada smaller genderbias in sendingchildren to school thanwomenwith less than
primary schooling. But thequestionarises if all sections ofsocietydo not have access to theright toeducationas a fundamental right,
howcan empowerment take place? Andhowcan education leadtothe promotionofother human rights?The political commitment
behindmany education campaigns has remainedunfulfilled. Disparities in education between various social groups definedby region,
area, caste, sex, class, disabilities etc.still exist. The lackof educational opportunities for girl is contrarytoArticle 10ofthe CEDAW
(Conventionon theEliminationof all forms ofDiscriminationAgainst Women) states that governments shouldundertake all
appropriate steps towards the eliminationof any stereotypedconcepts in all forms of education. Theyare indicative ofgovernment‟s
failure to deal with the problem ofright toeducation. There is an urgent needto convert the government‟s commitments regarding
education into action. Onlythenit will be possible to use educationas a key instrument for bringingchanges in social and cultural
attitudes in relationtohumanrights.
4.3 IMPACTOFEDUCATION ONWOMEN
The situationfacedby women in India is one ofthe bleakest in the world. Of all thediscrimination anddenial of
opportunity that these womensuffer,the most damagingis the denialof the right andopportunitytoeducation. Widespreadpoverty
anddiscriminatorycultural practices are frequentlycitedas prime reasons for thepersistenceof theirgender gap in education. If
poverty is the chiefculprit,howdo we explain the achievement of countries like Kenya,Vietnam andTajekisthan, which have a lower
per capita income thanIndia but score muchbetter, with literacyrates of 78percent, 94percent and100percent comparedto 52
percent for India (1995). The correspondingliteracy rates forthese countries are: Kenya 70percent, Vietnam 91percent, Tajekisthan
100 percent andIndia 38percent ( HaqandHaq,1998). Cultural bias surely does exist andpovertydoes constitute a factor in
influencingeducational attainments especially for girls. But it wouldbe very dangerous tolimit the analysis of causationt othese
factors. Validas these constraints are, they all toooften serve tocamouflage the political indifference, bureaucratic inertia andsocial
apathythat lie at the core ofthe problem. The status quo thus becomes a way of life. Breakingthis circlerequires new forms of
realizationandmobilization,not just ofresources but also of communities themselves. Ina wide range of low-income countries, the
holdof poverty andnegative cultural factors havebeen broken by concertedpolitical action, genuine people movements or because of
a sustainedpublic demandof education.The 1980s and1990s brought withthemyet another dauntingchallenge. Theexpansionof the
market economyandindustrialization andglobalizationbrought increasedinequalities,resultingin lose of livelihoods, erosion of
natural resources andwith it decreasedwomen‟s access to water, fuel, fodder andtraditional survival resources .It also brought new
forms of exploitation-displacement, tourism, sextrade andretrenchment tomentiona few. Women are beingpushedinto less
productive sectors. Increasedpressure on rural resources acceleratedmigrationtourban areas in search oflivelihood. People from
backwardregions, tribal communities, disadvantagedcastes andthe displacedcommunities were beingpushedagainst the wall.
Women in such countries shoulderedthe brunt andthis phenomenonwas labelled„feminizationof poverty‟. The wordempowerment
in the context of women in theIndianpolicy was usedin 1986- Educational Policywhich is known as the “NPE1986” andthe title of
the chapteris „Education for Women‟s EqualityandEmpowerment‟.It has actuallytwo aspects ─ empowerment first means self
empowerment that is women beingable tohelpthemselves through whateveris impartedtothem anduse t hemtoget strengthfor
themselves. It maybe education, health orso on andthesecondis that theyshouldbe able to help others tobecome empowered.
Education is important because literacyhas become a tool ofevaluatinga personwhetheronecan reador write. Illiteracyhas become a
very pejorativewordin our society.Todaywe findthat literacy itself gives youstatus. If one canreador write is educatedhe/she may
get access to so much of information. Informationabout what youcanaccess forothers andforyourself, whether it is educational
facilities, health, employment opportunity, legal literacyandso forth.These are very extrinsic reasons, but intrinsically education is
important for individual development andconfidence. But we see todaythat evenwhere all these conditions exist,womendo not
come forwardto claimtheirhuman entitlements.True empowerment is achievedonlyif womenthemselves „realize‟ that it is
important for them to be empoweredto enjoya just, fair andhappy life. Then why is it that theyhesitate tocome forward? A simple
answer to this can be that our government is corrupt andthe justicesystem longdrawn are expensive.But thereis more to this than
puttingthe blame on“systems”. There is an “inherent” reluctancetoleavethe “comfort zone of self andsocietal notions” ononehand
andthe lack of “skill” to handle such situations in real life onthe other (Women‟s Link-Jan-Mar2005). Empowerment of women as a
goal of development projects andprograms has gainedwider acceptance since1990s.It is not a simple linearprocess. It has longbeen
argued by various UN agencies that thecritical determinant of women‟s socio-economicstatus is education, andthat education is the
key to achievingsocial development by improving the well beingof the girls andwomen andthus promotinggender equity. The
experience of numerous programs in the government andthe NGO sector shows that it is indeedpossible. Empowerment ofwomen
was one of the nine primaryobjectives of the Ninth Plan(1997-2002)andevery effort was made to create an enablingempowerment
where women couldfreely exercise their rights withinandoutside their home as equal Partner withmen.Educationis one of themost
critical factors responsible for thedevelopment of a humanperson. Right toeducation, therefore, is heldas a very important human
right. It is the veryfoundationof goodcitizenship.Todayit is the principal instrument in awakeningthe childto cultural values, in
preparinghimforlater professional training, andin helpinghimtoadjust normally to his environment. Inthese days, it is doubtful any
childmay reasonablybe expectedto succeedin life if he is deniedtheopportunityofan education. Theinternational communityhas
realizedthe importance of educationfor individual andcollective well beingmade explicit provisions in several human rights
instruments onthe rights to education. The Constitutionof India was recently amendedtoprovide forthe right to compulsory
elementaryeducation to childrenfallingbetween the age group of6- 14years. Amongtheworld‟s 900 millionliteracypeople, women
outnumber mentwo toone. Girls constitute the majorityof 130 millionchildren without access toprimaryeducation (Human
Development Report 1995).The illiteracyrate of women is 55.16percent as against 75.85percent formen(2001).Theycanbe seen
as beggars on roadcrossingandragpickers.Kabeer (1990)estimates that the deaths ofyounggirls in India exceedthose of young
boys by over 300,000each year andeverysixth infant deathis specifically due to genderdiscrimination.Of the 15million baby girls
born in India each year, nearly25 percent will not live tosee there15thbirth day (Patel, 1995).Of late, the girl child‟s educational

3. needs receivedspecial attentionin the wake of national andinternational efforts onempoweringwomen.Education, in a broad sense,
essentially involves penningthe mind, enhancingself-esteem andself-confidence, buildinga sense of positiveself-worth, accessing
informationandtools ofknowledge andacquiringthe ability to negotiatethis unequal andunjust worldfrom a positionof st rength.No
society has everliberateditself- economically,politicallyor socially –without a soundbase of educatedwomen.Manycountries
experiences aroundtheworldhave demonstratedthat investment in educatingwomenis the most precious investment a society can
ever make.
4.4 HEALTH AND SAFEMOTHERHOOD
Women‟s health is anotherimportant issue under Human Resource Development andalso highest prioritizedarea in family
welfare programs. However, the accumulatedresearch evidences showthat the achievement levels in providingbetterhealthcareand
safe motherhoodfor women,especially for rural women,are not at expectedlevels.In India,the highest number ofdeaths in the age
group of 16 to 25is recordedamongwomen.Anaemia is oneof the most commonlyfounddeficiencyamongthewomen andit is also
mentionedby several studies that theyare often not toohealthywhen theybear the first childandnone of them arephysicallyreadyto
bear a secondchild. A pathetic realityis that nearly88 percent ofthe pregnant women(1985-95)reportedto be anaemic.World
Health Organization figures also showthat the lifetimerisk of dyingfrompregnancyor child-birth-relatedcauses is one in twentyin
some developingcountries, comparedto one in ten thousandin some industrializedcountries. About one infive ofthese deaths stem
from unsafe abortions. The available data says that in India about 20percent of the women in theage group of 15-49years are at the
risk of unintendedpregnancy.Comingtoanti-natal care only10 percent ofthe pregnant womenreceive it on anaverage in rural India.
In this regardTamil Nadu, Himanchal Pradesh, Karnataka,Punjab, West Bengal is in betterposition than otherstates. Nearly33
percent of the babies are under lowbirth weight category. During1993, 5.5percent stillbirths are recordedat all India level andthis
percentage is more in Bihar andWest Bengal (around15%). The reasons for such high percentage ofstillbirths are usually associated
with lowage of mother,poornutritional level of women andlowutilizationof primaryhealthcare.During1998male childmortality
rates was at 29 percent where as female childmortalityrecordedas high as 42 percent. Infact, childmortalitybettercaptures the
effect of gender discriminationthaninfant mortality, as malnutritionandmedical interventions are more important in this age group. If
female children mortalityis at higher level, it is likely that girls have unequal access toresources. Theresearch evidences are saying
that there are noteworthygender disparities in expenditure on healthin Indiansociety. Though most of thedeaths occurringat preand
post pregnancystages are preventable,merenegligenceat formal andinformal level healthcare leadtodeath. Primary health centres
at rural areas are not cateringthe health needs of womenat requiredlevels andthe reasons areobviously well known facts. Our field
study reveals that these primary healthcentres eitherremainedclosedor no adequate facilities available.Mostly, people go for village
medicines, soothe-sayers orwitchcrafts. Lackof basic healtheducationamongwomen is anotherprime reasonforneglectingtheir
basic ailments at preventable stage. The concept ofhealtheducationis negligible andhealthcounsellingis almost not existent in India.
Women areparticularlyvulnerable toSexually TransmittedDiseases (STD), includingAIDSandtheir bodies are also at risk ofbeing
infectedwith HIVin thewomb. In this areastatistical informationis not available.However, WorldHealthOrganizationreport says
that during1997 there were about 4,100,000 people in India found tobe infectedwith HIV. Out of this total experts are assumingthat
50 percent will be women. However, with WorldBank/WorldHealthOrganizationaidseveral special programs were initiatedto
create awareness about this dreadful disease the achievement is saidto be at belowminimum level.Discriminationagainst girl
children start even in thewombanduntoldnumberof femalefoetuses is abortedin prenatalsex-selectionstage. This is, in spite of
legislations, prevalent in manyparts of India.In manycommunities the mothers ofgirl childrenare sometimes neitherget nutrition
nor theycare whenthey are pregnant. Empowerment literallymeans „enable or authorize‟. Whenwe talk of empowerment of women,
it entails political, social, economic andculturalaspects. Translatingthis intopractical lives means conditions wherein women areable
to participate andhave access andcontrol ofresources andopportunities in all these areas oflife. An idealistic approach is tomake
laws that promotegender equality, setup institutions toimplement these laws andmost important, spreadawareness andeducation
about them so that thejust andfair conditions are createdforall.
4.5 WORKPARTICIPATION
On the worldlevel, womenandgirls together carrytwo-thirdof the burden of the world‟s work yet receive only a tenthof
the world‟s income. Theyform 40% ofthe paidlabour force.Though womenconstitutehalf ofthe world‟s populationyet they own
less than one percentage of theworld‟s property.The condition ofwomenin India is moremiserable than the rest of the worldin
almost every fieldof social life. Theyare paidhalfof three-quarters ofthe money while theirmale counterparts earnforthe same job.
India is predominantly agriculturalcountry.Womendo more than halfof thetotal agricultural work. But theirwork is not valued. On
an average a woman works 15to16 hours a day unpaidat home andunderpaidoutside. Accordingto1971census, every one-fourth
works in the countryis an agricultural labour. Onethirdof the agricultural labour is female.Only2.5percent ofthe central
government employees are women. AccordingtoNational Committee onWomen,the growthin the percentage of womenlabourer
force in the organizedsectoris minimal inthe last sixtyyears i.e. 3.44percent in 1911to17.35percent in 1971; besides the workload
either in the fieldor in thefactories oroffices, thewomen havetodo thehouseholdsuch as cooking, washing, cleaningup the house
etc. Theyounger womenbesides all these have tocarrythe burden of earlypregnancy, childbirthandbreast-feeding. In terms of help
offeredto people for theirvarious function women seemtoreceive theleast attention fromthe society.
4.6 WOMEN EMPOWERMENTPERSPECTIVE
The termempowerment pre-supposes primacy ofpower overother dimensions. We speakof women‟s sharingof political
power andparticipationin government. Animportant issue relatedtowomen‟s empowerment is the reservation ofseats for them in
the statelegislatureandunionparliament.The 73rdand74th Constitutional Amendment Act 1992has provided33 percent seats for
women in Panchayats andmunicipalbodies. Though theexperience of theIndianPanchayat Raj Institutions, one millionwomenhave
actively enteredpoliticallife in India. Since the creation ofthe quotasystem,local women-thevast majorityof theilliterates andpoor-
have come tooccupyas much as 43 percent of seats-spurringthe election ofincreasingnumbers of women at the district, provincial
andnational level. Since the onset ofPRI,the percentages of women in various levels of politicalactivityhave risenfrom4-5 percent
to 25-40percent. Accordingtoan Indianwriterandactivist Devaki Jain, “the positive discriminationofPanchayat Raj Institutions has
initiateda momentum ofchange. Women‟s entryintolocal government in such large numbers often more thanthe required33
percent, andtheirsuccess in campaigning, includingthe defeat ofmale candidates, has shatteredthe myth that womenare not
interestedin politics, andhave notime tomeetings or to undertake all the otherwork that is requiredin political party processes.

4. Panchayat Raj Institutions reminds us of central truth: power is not somethingpeople give away, it has tobe negotiated, andsome
time wrestedfromthe powerful.” says Noeleen Heyzer, executive directorof UNIFEM, “this is one ofbest innovations in grass-roots
democracy in theworld” (Women‟s Link,Jul. to Sept.,2003, p. 30). Seats in local bodies have been reservedfor women for their
active participationin decision-making, but the parliament has so farfailedtoprovide a similarrepresentationtowomen. Ugly scenes
were witnessedover tablingthe women‟s reservationbill that has brought thegrim truthintosharperfocus that Indian society
continues tobe male dominatedandmale hegemonyis still the dominatedreality. InIndia, theparticipationof women in politics has
actually been declinedsince the days offreedom movement (10%).It reacheda high of 8 percent in 1984elections.This figure has
not crossedsince then. The account ofmeasures takenfor women‟s empowerment inIndia clearly shows that there is a deep concern
in the countrytouplift theirsocial andeconomic conditions, so that they may plan an active role in the taskof national developments.
Government is not serious forthe political participationof women; the data shows that theyare laggingbehindin political sphere.
4.7 STRATEGIES OFEMPOWERING DALITWOMEN
Empowerment ofthe Dalit womenis a means topoverty alleviation. The goals of povertyeradicationcan be effectively
achievedif Dalit womencouldbe organizedintogroups forcommunityparticipationas well as for assertionoftheir rights. Any
strategy ofsustainable development relatingto poverty eradication has to involvethe large numberof poorwomen. Social
mobilizationandbuildingorganizationof the poor areessential prerequisites forpovertyalleviation. Thereare several strategies,
which enable overall development ofDalit women. Thefollowingstrategies were foundmore effective foroverall development. They
are: a) Empowerment of womenthrough development ofwomenandchildrenin the rural areas/ Self-HelpGroups. b) Empowerment
of women through educationandtraining. c) Empowerment through political participation. d) Empowerment evaluationas strategies
of empoweringwomen. These different strategies are not independent andexclusive but usedinteractively.a) Empowerment of
women through DWCRA/SHGapproach Women‟s empowerment is usedto alleviate povertyandother socio-economic issues. Self -
Help movement through thrift andsavings has been taken ofas a mass movement under thegovernment programof development of
women andchildren in the Rural Areas (DWCRA), some of theStateGovernments assistedthese self- help groups by providing
revolvingfundandhelpingthemin micro- enterprise activities. DWCRA program ofself-helpgroups helpedthe womentoearn
additional income.Withimprovement in economic status, there is enhancement insocial status as well. Thesewomen showincreased
awareness of family welfare,promotetheir children‟s nutritional andeducational status, shows concernabout environment andhealth,
issues of sanitationanddrinkingwater. Thus mobilizingthe poor womenin rural areas for self-help group formationeither State
Government assistedSHGs or SHGs assistedby Non-Government Organization is an effort towardparticipationof womenin poverty
alleviationandsubsequently increases their awareness towards various social problems. Buildingthe commoncorpus is the first step
towardempowerment of women. The Report ofthe Independent South Commission onPoverty Alleviation(1992),statedthat when
poor participateas subjects andnot as objects ofthe development process, it is possible togenerate growth,humandevelopment and
equity, individually thepoor women wouldnot be able to overcome obstacles in theirstruggle for survival, securityandself-respect,
which they coulddo through collectives action.T he support mechanisms likegovernment andnon-government organizations provide
the poorwomena partnership. Thepoor collectivelycan start income generationactivities with theirown resources toachieve self-
reliance with the support ofthis organization. Thus, startingfromthe socio-economic base the poorwomenshowincreasing
awareness, cooperation,self- reliance, selfmanagement andmove towards social consciousness, empowerment andself- respect. The
emancipationof the Dalit womenfromeconomicand social bondage enables tobecomemore productive. The establishment ofa self-
reliant activitywill mutually reinforce the process of promotingpositive attitudes andvalues. b) Empowerment of women through
education andtrainingOne ofthe most critical components in the development ofa societyis the investment in humandevelopment.
The South Asian countries are poorest, most illiterate,malnourishedandleast gender-sensitive. The HumanDevelopment Report on
South Asia (1998)shows that South Asia has the lowest adult literacyrate (49%) in the world, which is lower thanthat of sub-Saharan
Africa (57%).In India public primaryeducationfacilities have beenexpandedandnational literacy shows an increaseof 38percent in
1991 to65.38percent in 2001. Participationofwomen in education programhas grown faster than those ofmen.Femaleliteracy
increasedtwo the half times fasterthanmale literacybetween1970and2001.However, these achievements are small as India still
accounts for30 percent ofthe total adult literates all overworld, where 24percent ofgirls of primary age are still not in school
comparedwith 16percent of boys. Povertyandother economic andsocial pressure continue tobe the majorchallenge to the
achievement ofeducation for all. Keepinggirls out of the school is costlyandundermines developments.Povertycan be effectively
tackledby educatingthe girls. Educatedwomen keep their families healthier, showconcernabout their children‟s education and
nutrition.Total literacycampaignstartedby the National LiteracyCommissionin some regions in India brought rapidsocial change.
The Non-Government Organization(NGOs) plays a significant role in the area ofeducation. To large extent the NGO activities have
been confinedto non-formal educationsector. Nowa partnershipis emergingbetweenthe NGOs in the area of basic educationas seen
in the model of Lok Jumbish, a governmentsponsoredproject forprimaryeducationin Rajasthan.Various NGOs are participating in
the formal educationsector, forexample, ActionAid, PlanInternational,Aga Khan Foundation etc. NGO actionin primary education
emphasizes delivery systemof qualityeducationtothe marginalizedpeoplelike, poor womenandgirls. Programs offormal and non-
formal education areemphasizedby thegovernment in collaborationwith local NGOs andthe communities. TheNGOs use the
strategy ofpopular education in spreadingknowledge amongpeople. This is seen in people‟s participation in developing“IEC”
(Information,EducationandCommunication)package ofspreadingknowledge about HIV/AIDS, healthpromotion, environmental
risks, etc. In the populareducation, cultural forms ofeducationare usedlike, drama, music, stories, etc. Populareducation is effective
in increasingawareness towards various social issues like, immunization, girls‟ education, sexual harassment,etc. Popular education
can be appliedanywhere,adaptingto local context, the ideology andculture of thepeoplewith in the existingpolitical system. Thus,
the NGOs can play a significant role in empoweringwomenthrough educationandtrainingandit is also the basis in the strategy of
women‟s participationin political field. c) Political participationandempowerment There is lowrepresentationof womenat all levels
of political institutions. Women still face majorobstacles in seekinghigherpositions in society. Political participationis a human
right, recognizedin the Universal Declaration ofHumanRights.Womenare poorlyrepresentedat different levels of politicallife and
decision-making. Thus, thereis widespreadneglect of women‟s priorities by politicians andbureaucrats. As per the Human
Development Report, 1999womenholdonly12.7 percent ofthe world‟s parliamentary seats andonly 8.7 percent ofthose in the least
developedcountries. In India, the process of politicallyempoweringthrough reservationin the local bodies has helpedin thewider
mobilization. Onmany occasions, electedwomenhaveprovidedthe leadershipfororganizingwomen andget their legitimate
demands fulfilledlike, widow pensions, gas connections, etc. Thereis a growingrealizationamongthe womenthat local elections are
a means to bringpositivechange in theirlives. Indifferent parts of the country,the SHGs have jointly put a womencandidate forthe

5. election in thelocal bodies such as Zila Parishad, Gram Panchayat,etc. Womenare motivatedto change the traditions. The women‟s
political campaigns refertosolvingthe issues that affect their daily lives like safe drinkingwater, schools,healthcentres, roads, etc.
some women havetakenthe agenda furtherby displayinga mature understandingof the contexts in which the political economy
functions.In our society men,havingattitudes resist the political empowerment of women. There is a feelingthat womenshouldonly
contest the reservedseats andnot thegeneral seats.In some parts of our country, there is some change,for example, women in the
villages of the Hill State ofUttaranchal arewagingtheir own political battle ofassertionandarticulationof identification. Several
NGOs workingin the area tries to educate womenabout the votingbehaviour andelectionprocedures. Electedwomen members learn
to negotiate theirnewfoundpositions in an inherently male dominatedsystem, fightingthe adverse institutionalizedpractices like,
corruption. Women face manyobstacles while contestingelection such as sabotage, threats, boycott andpressure fromfamily.
However, women ongainingthe political power canbringrapidchange in thelives of otherwomenandattainequality. d)
Empowerment evaluationandstrategyof empoweringwomenEmpowerment evaluation is the basis of empoweringwomen and
community development. Empowerment evaluation reflects theprocess of participatorycommunication. SHGformation, popular
education andpolitical participation areall basedon the process of participatorycommunication. Empowerment evaluation as a
capacity buildingprocess is basedon the principles of participatory inquiryresearchandevaluation.Its objectiveis to highlight
community member‟s own knowledge andto empower them. This canbe attainedby participatingthe womenin eachstage of
program development that is, needassessment program,objectives, implementation monitoringandevaluation. Empowerment
evaluationwouldpromote self-determinationandcommunitycontrol. The traditional evaluation is done by the professional experts,
usually for fundingof the organization. It is a close decision-makingprocess andcommunity participationis limitedto providingfeed
back. In the empowerment orparticipatory evaluation there is sharedresponsibility anddecision makingpower lies with the
participants.In the empowerment evaluation participants not onlyare evolvedbut also control the process. Despiteits focus onself-
determinationandcollaborationempowerment evaluationandtraditional external evaluationare not mutually exclusive. In fact, the
empowerment evolutionprocess produces a rich data source that enables a more complete external examination. Self-determination
defines as the ability todecide one‟s own course in life, forms the basis of empowerment evaluation.It consist ofnumerous
interconnectedcapabilities such as the ability toidentifyandexpress needs, establish goals orexpectations andplan ofactionto
achieve them,identifyresources, make rational choices fromvarious alternative,take appropriate steps topursue the objectives and
evaluate theresults.Womenfaceresistance because a traditional social structures, norms andvalues. NGOs can facilitatethe process
by trainingthepeople. Training, facilitation, advocacy andliberationare the facets of empowerment. Liberationmeans being freedor
freeingoneself frompre-existingroles andconstraints. It often involves conceptualizationof oneselfandothers. Empowerment
evaluationcan also be liberating, as womenliberate themfromtraditional expectations androles, findnewopportunities in perceiving
existingresources in al newlight,andredefine theiridentities andfutureroles.Empowerment evaluationis a long-termprocess
resultingimprovement ofquality oflife of communitywith support fromdevelopment agencies.
4.8 GOVERNMENTPOLICIES AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
a) Reservations The Government of India has made structural provisions touplift thesocioeconomic conditionof the
Scheduled Caste, through a policyof reservations orprotective discrimination. Protective discriminationis an affirmative state action
(Lal, 1986) that promotes Sanskritisationprocess amongtheScheduledCastes. ScheduledCaste personchanges his or hercustoms,
ritual ideology andway of life in the direction ofhighercastes (Guru, 1986).Protectivediscriminations have three components:1)
political reservation(articles 330 and332), whichconsists in reservationof 18% ofseats for ScheduledCastes in legislative
Assemblies andPanchayats; 2)Educational reservations [articles 15(4)] and29 that require state andunionterritories toreserve for
the ScheduledCastes andScheduled Tribes 20 percent of all seats in educational andtechnical institutions; and3 percent job
reservations [articles 16 (4), 320(4)]and333 requiring15 percent and7 percent positiontobe reservedfor themat all levels in
government and public sector undertaking(Shah,1986). Reservations prevent total injustice promotes social mobilityandleads to
class-consciousness amongthe ScheduledCastes besides guaranteeinga minimumshare(Khan,1994). The policyof reservations has
helpedmostlythose who are nowin the higher income groups; but onlyless than5 percent in rural areas got jobs through reservations
(Selvanathan,1989). DatafromTamil Nadushowthat theScheduledCastes Hindus are somewhat betterrepresentedin the higher
occupational categories comparedtothe ScheduledCastes Christians. This might be because of the reservations policythat benefits
Hindus andnot ChristianScheduledCastes (Balakrishnan, 1993). Unfortunately,implementationofreservation policies has so far not
been fully satisfactory (Vijayendre& Pradeep, 1982).ScheduledCastes are conscious of the ineffectiveness of the policies of
protective discriminationof thegovernment, since the advanceof ScheduledCastes is oftenblockedby stubborn social forces. The
civil rights enforcement cell that is expectedtolook intothe non-implementationofreservations andeconomic deprivations of the
Scheduled Castes is more a laughingstock thana helpful agencyas it has no power toinvestigate andproceeds further (Khan,1993).
Besides, a longtradition ofoppressionandservitude makes it difficult for theScheduledCastes to developedin a short time the
confidence theyrequiredforthe total utilizationof the benefits provide by thegovernment (Beteill,1969). Subharao (1982) suggests
that while reservationpolicy is a must, it shouldnot impair telnet andexcellence.One ofthe consequences of reservations, however, is
that theywill accentuate the alienationof ScheduledCastes, theywill continue tobe a separate categorytoenjoy thebenefits of
reservations andthus remains unintegratedwith the mainstreamof the society (Sinha, 1986). b) Concessions Toenable theScheduled
Castes to secure professional jobs, a numberof concessions are given to them: some of these are,relaxation in age, payable fee,
standardof suitability, experience andqualification(Brochure, 1988), Chitnis (1986) suggests that social class considerations and
vestedinterests seem tooperate imperceptibly in the mannerin which requirement forthe several occupational positions available in
society are defined. Requirements are not definedpurely in terms of knowledge or skill required. Expectations regarding“suitable”
manners, bearing, behaviour, values, style oflife, andfunctioningare subtly involvedin such a mannerthat the nexus between social
class/family backgroundandoccupational placement is retained. Hence,one ofthe relaxations of rules forjobs is that Scheduled
Castes be interviewedseparately to ensure that they arenot judgedin comparisonwith othergeneral candidates (Rozika, 1982).
Unfortunately, the bureaucrats are generallyunhelpful to theScheduledCastes (Khan, 1979).Theydo not implement the various
welfare programs (Kakade,1990). The programmes or schemes, designedfor theScheduledCaste, are formulatedat the top(central
andstate government levels)andso local needs are generallyoverlooked. Such an approachleads tofailure of reachingthe objective.
What is neededis area specific programs (Parashar,1995). IfScheduledCastes have not takenmuchadvantage of theseschemes, it is
because of the ineffectiverole ofvillage officials, who neithermakethe scheme known tothemnorhelpthemin the cumbersome
procedures (Khan, 1979). Another reasonforthe slowdevelopment ofScheduledCastes is that the special programs meant fortheir
development tent to be formulatedin an adhoc manner(Report, 1983).AccordingtoNautiyal andSharma (1979), some ofthe serious

6. pitfalls regardingthe quantum andutilisationof financial assistancetoScheduledCastes are: 1) inadequate financial or material
assistance; 2) delay in grants ofstipends or scholarships; 3)poor hostel facilities forstudents; 4)misutilisationof financial assistance
by students; 5: cumbersomeandbureaucratic procedures followedto grant financial assistance; and6) lackof awareness onthe part of
Scheduled Castes of benefits meant for them. Otherreasons suggestedby the authors forthe failureof the schemes are absence ofa
follow-up of theimplementedscheme; lack ofseriousness on the implementingschemeor onbank to disburse quota amount leading
to year-end-rush. However,insist Shukla andVerma (1993),when there is monitoringof theimplementationandevaluationof the
schemes, they seemmore political than administrative. Parvathamma(1989) reports that onlyabout 10percent to15percent of the
rural Scheduled Castes knowof their Constitutional benefits. c) Social legislation Constitutionof India has made special provisions
for the welfare ofwomen. Article50 ofthe Constitutionprovides special status andprotectionof women andtothis extent equates
them with those who belongtothe deprivedsection ofsociety. The directive principleof statepolicy (article39)provides equal pay
for equal work irrespectiveof their sex. Article 243 andarticle 243(1)provide various laws passedfor the protection andsafeguardof
women andtheir rights likeHindumarriage andDivorceAct, 1955. HinduSuccession Act 1956, HinduGuardianship Act 1956,
Dowry ProhibitionAct 1961, MaternityBenefit Act 1961, Equal RemunerationAct 1976, Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act,1999
andDomestic Violence Bill 2000. The various laws were enactedto raise thesocial status of womenhave failedtoremove social
prejudices andsocial inequalities. In India, laws are violatedwith impunity without fearof any deterrent actionor social disapproval.
Everyday we readin the newspaper about dowry deaths, rape, abduction, traffickingof women, sexual harassment at work place and
eve testingin buses andstreets. Patternofcrimerates of 1999 over1998shows a slight drop in dowry deaths from6975to6696, but
much of these cases go unreported(NCRB 1998-99). Half thenumber ofwomenin India is killedin their bedrooms or one womanis
killedevery 102minutes in thenameof dowry.In India,6000-dowry murders arecommittedeach year. This reallyexists eventhough
the dowry prohibitionact has been in existence for41 years andthere are virtuallyno arrests under the act. Inrecent year, there has
been an alarmingrise in atrocities against womenin India. Onan average there are more than15000rapes everyyearin India andthe
convictionrate below30 percent. National CrimeResearchBureaufigures indicatethat the incidence of rape has increased: from
15330 in 1997 to 16496in 2000. The datareveals that 20percent were mostlyin the age group of 16to25years and10 percent were
minor girls below15 years of age. A study conductedamongmen andwomen in Jullandhar district of Punjabin northIndia reports
that about 75 percent ofwomenreportedbeingbeaten frequentlyby their husbands; andlikewise about 75percent menreported
beatingtheir wives (Jahan,1994). Government has passedlegislation to curbthe misuse of amniocentesis techniques (1975)for sex
selection andabortionof femalefoetuses. In1971therewere 930females forevery 1000 males. A decade laterthis figure had
increasedto 934, but by 2001, insteadof continuingto rise,the ratiodropped to933,lower thanthe 1971figure. The sex ratiois one
of the lowest in the world. Desai Sonalda (1994)reports that there are posters in Mumbai advertisingsex-determinationtests that read,
“it is bettertopay500rupees nowthan 50000rupees (in dowry) later.” There is a cultural andreligious bias against women.A man
cannot attain „Moksha‟ unless he has a son tolight his pyre. Even thewoman who espouses feminismchooses to abort a femalechild
in her womb. The womanherself has internalizedsocial bias against a female childandin favour ofmale child. Pre-Natal Diagnostic
Techniques (PNDT) (RegulationandPreventionofMisuse) Act,1994that came intoforce onJanuary1, 1996 has failedto check
abortingof female foetus. ThePNDT clinics are flourishingin cities andtowns. Mobiles clinics are also functionalin the field. A
South Indian woman workingforHaryana UrbanDevelopment Authority (HUDA)office. A local manapproachedher andsaid
“Sister, couldyoufinda girl for my son?”, andcontinued“youbringone fromyour state”.She was curious. “Whyfrom mystate, why
not someonefrom here?”, “There are nogirls here,we have been searchingfor a bride for himbut can‟t findone”.He was downcast.
When she visitedanotherHaryanvi familyrecently, thedaughterin the family was at home.She hada newborn baby girl. Thefather
toldher if it were a son theywouldhave celebratedas the oldsayinggoes, “ Chhore pe baje thali, chhori thekere phoren” which
means “announce thebirthof a son by beatingof brass plates but at the birthofdaughterbreak earthenpots”. The mancontinued, with
pride in his custom, that at the time ofmarriage a bride is blessedby saying“Ashta putrasowbhagyavati bhave” which means, “may
yoube blessed with eight sons”. Once conceptiontakes place, mantras from Atharva,oneof the four most sacredbooks of Hinduism,
are prescribedfor chantingso that if thefoetus is female it is transformedin toa male. The Indian psychic is still frozenwith the
notionof havingmale children.It seems parents aremostlyobsessedwith the birthofboys. Oneson is a cause for joy, while two are
seen as a lifetime celebration, the traditional thinkingbeingthat if onedies, at least the other will live to take care of the parents. Inthe
bargain, women who give birth to girls are lookeddown. Most oftenthe girl childis consideredan economic loss as her marriage and
dowry crush her family under huge burden of debts. Despitethe Constitutional provisions anda host of legislations enactedtoprotect
women the groundrealityis distressing. Misuse sex-determinationtests andtheterminationof pregnancyin the event of female foetus
give an indicationof the despicable behaviorpattern.The fact is that women‟s exploitation is a reality andgender justice is fragile
myth. Unless thereis recognitionof herrights by her counter part,her basic rights, gender justice wouldonly herbe a “lip service”
with no tangible results. Fight for justiceby women orcry for genderequality is not a fight against men.It is a fight against traditions
that have chainedthem – a fight against attitude that is ingrainedin the society; it is a fight against proverbial Lakshman Rekha,which
is different for men andwomen. InIndia,IndianPenal Code sections 354 (Criminal assault of womentooutrage women‟s modesty)
and509 (word, gesture or act intendedtoinsult the modestyof woman) provide relief tovictims of sexual harassment. Still, with the
interpretationlargely left to thediscretionof thepolice officer, womengroups havesince the early 1980‟s voicedtheirprotest against
the malice. The Protection ofWomen Against Sexual Harassment at theWorkplace Bill 2007is designedto defendwomen against
sexual abuse. Womenactivists have been critical ofthis because of its provisionthat calls forpunishingthe womenwho seek the
procedure. Thesewomen may be under pressure to bear a malechild. A 1976amendment to childmarriage restraint act raise the
minimum legal age for marriage from 15to 18for youngwomen andfrom18 to21 for youngmen. However,in many rural
communities, illegal childmarriage age still common. Insomerural areas,nearly half the girls between 10to14years are married.
Because there is pressure on womentoprove fertility conceivingas soonas possible after marriage, adolescent marriage is
synonymous with adolescent childbearing; roughly 10-15percent of all birthtakes place towomenin theirteens.
4.9 GOVERNMENTENACTMENTS
The National Commission for Womenhas in the last fewyears introducedseveral newbills in the parliament fromtime to
time towards eradicationof manysocial evils.Some of the significant enactments are mentionedhere.TheHinduWidowRe-Marriage
Act of 1856In thetraditions at Hindusociety there was a ban on widowremarriage ─ it was one of the most important evils from
which women in the traditional Hindusociety suffereda lot.This act allowedwidowto remarry andsection 5 ofthis Act ensuredher
to enjoy all the rights,which a marriedwomandid. The ChildMarriage Restraint Act of 1929 The practiceof childmarriage was
another social evil from whichwomenin traditional Hindusocietysuffereda lot. Age at marriage forgirls was 9 or 10 andafter

7. passingthis act the minimum marriageable age of women was fixedto15 years. Later this age was increasedup to 18years. The
HinduWomen’s Right toProperty Act of1937In the traditional societywomenhadnopropertyrights. Inthe eyes oflawshe was a
minor or ward. This act recognizeda widowof a deceasedperson as a survivingpersonalitywith the sameright as his in thejoint
property. Thus, through this Act women in theHindusociety receivedthe propertyright to a limitedextent.The HinduMarriage Act
of 1955 This Act has recognizedthe equal rights of menandwomenin the matters of marriage anddivorce. Under the provision of
this Act eitherthe manor womancanpresent a petitionin a court of lawfor divorce, wife has got equal right todivorce husband. The
HinduSuccession Act of 1956This Act recognizedan equal right forwomenin the matter ofinheritanceof property.She can inherit
the propertyofher fatheralongwith her brothers. She can also sell or mortgage the inheritedpropertyor use it forherself. Forthe first
time absolute ownershipwas conferredtoa woman through this Act.The suppression ofImmoral Traffic in WomenandGirls Act of
1956-57 This Act aims todeal with the problemof prostitution andto promote the welfare of fallen women.Main objectives of this
Act are to reduce the scope ofprostitutionandtoreformprostitutionunder this Act. Everystate is expectedtoset up protective home
andto appoint womenpolice andwomensocial workers. In protective homes these fallenwomenwill be given trainingin tailoring,
toy andbasket makingandother crafts so that theymayearnfortheir maintenance in proper way. The DowryProhibitionAct 1961
The main objectiveof this Act is to abolishgivingandtakingdowry at the timeof marriage. Theterm dowry refers to a valuable
propertyor thing, which is determinedby the parties toa marriage fora marriage. Thepractice ofdowry hadproducedverybad
effects. Dowrysystem,dowry cases havenot beenreduced. Still this Act makes someeffort in bringingsocial change. The above
mentionedare theimportant legislations, whichbrought an upwardtrendin the status of womenin India.
4.10 CONCLUSION
Thanks tothe international agencies such as UN, womenempowerment is the key sloganof the90s andof thenew
millennium. Empowerment of womenmeans….  Acquiringknowledge andunderstandofgender relations andtheways in which
these relations maybe changed.  Developinga sense of self-worth, a belief in one‟s abilitytosecure desiredchanges andthe right to
control one‟s life.  Gainingtheabilitytogenerate choices andexercisebargainingpower.  Developingtheabilitytoorganize and
influence thedirectionof social change, to create a more just social andeconomic order, nationallyandinternationally.The concept of
empowerment of women means psychological sense of personal control in thepersons, domestic, social andpolitical realms. It is a
process by which one is authorizedto think, act andcontrol resources in an autonomous way. The most critical component of
women‟s empowerment is foundto be education.It leads to improvedeconomic growth,lowfertility rate, health andsanitationandan
awareness of factors that disempoweredwomen.Workparticipationrate andpolitical participationalso grows in women‟s education.
The expansion ofthe market economyandindustrializationandglobalizationbrought increasedinequalities, resultingin lose of
livelihoods, erosionof natural resources andwith it decreasedwomen‟s access towater,fuel, fodder andtraditional survival resources.
It also brought newforms of exploitation-displacement, tourism, sex trade andretrenchment to mentiona few. Women arebeing
pushedinto less productivesectors.Increasedpressure on rural resources acceleratedmigrationtourban areas in search oflivelihood.
People frombackwardregions,tribal communities, disadvantagedcastes andthe displacedcommunities were beingpushedagainst
the wall. Womenin such countries shoulderedthebrunt andthis phenomenon was labelled„feminization ofpoverty. Women‟s health
is an important component of women‟s empowerment.Howeverthe accumulatedresearch evidences showthat the achievement levels
in providingbetterhealthcare andsafe motherhoodfor women, especiallyforrural women, arenot at expectedlevels. InIndia, the
highest number of deaths in theage group of 16to25 is recordedamongwomen. Anaemia is one ofthe most commonly found
deficiency amongthe womenandit is also mentionedby several studies that theyare often not toohealthywhen theybear the first
childandnone of themare physically ready tobear a secondchild. A pathetic realityis that nearly88percent of the pregnant women
(1985-95) reportedtobe anaemic.WorldHealth Organizationfigures also showthat the lifetime riskof dyingfrompregnancyor
child-birth-relatedcauses is one in twenty in some developingcountries,comparedtoone in tenthousandin some industrialized
countries. About one in fiveof these deaths stemfrom unsafeabortions.Workparticipationempowers women.However the condition
of women in India is more miserable thanthe rest ofthe worldin almost everyfieldof social life. They arepaidhalf ofthree-quarters
of the moneywhile their malecounterparts earn for the same job. India is predominantlyagricultural country.Women do more than
half of the totalagricultural work. But their work is not valued. On an average a womanworks 15to16 hours a day unpaidat home
andunderpaidoutside. Amongstrategies for women empowerment, Government policies such as 73 and74thamendment of Indian
Constitution,Reservationpolicies, concessions, sociallegislation andenactment of certainacts were foundbe very important.
However, theeffect of such strategies failedtoreachthe target due to various bureaucratic andsystemic failures. Inthis regard, the
SHG approachtowards women empowerment is foundto be highlypromisingandeffective. In thenext chapter, we shall discuss in
detail howSHGs mediate economic empowerment of women. ●