An analysis of Leadership

1. Leadership
LEADERSHIP - The What, Why, When &Where, How & Who.
Introduction
Leadership: the current business and project management fad? a buzz word to be used
when in doubt as to what is required when things are going wrong? an attempt to provide
a snake-oil solution to a failing venture? Leadership, if one thinks about it, is
recognisable in all walks of life be it industrial or business organisations, the sciences,
arts, educational establishments, sports, politics, armed forces, or public service agencies;
even terrorist or criminal organisations have leadership and their leaders can be among
the best known people in the world! Even in animal groups there is a leader be it the
‘alpha male’ or ‘alpha female’ or ‘matriarch’ in elephant groups or a ‘silverback’ in a
group of gorillas. From observations of the animal kingdom we can readily appreciate
that leadership is not necessarily confined to the male gender. In fact studies show that
woman, on average, make better leaders than men (Parry, 1996).
In almost any group of individuals there will be one who will be either recognised, held-
out or respected as ‘the leader’ by persons within and without the group. The position
may be temporary or permanent depending on the situation but the incumbent at that time
or over the period will be recognised as ‘leader’ and will exercise leadership. Leaders are
not necessarily at the top of an organisational hierarchy and may be found at all levels
from CEO to Project Manager to Team Leader, a Team Co-ordinator, an engineer in
charge of a group of graduates or a ganger and section of labourers.
There have been many studies on leadership. Lambert (2003, p82) reports that there have
been over 10,000 such studies since the end of the Second World War. The purpose of
such studies is typically to ascertain, identify, define and establish how leadership is
carried out and by whom in order to develop a theory. Four types of theory have been
developed over the years (Doyle & Smith, 2001) based on individual traits of leaders;
individual behaviour in respect of leadership; contingency or situational models; and
transformational leadership with respect to changing situations. Notwithstanding the
development of theories Winston Churchill suggested that there is no reliable theory of
leadership and that leadership is “what leaders do” (Lambert, 2003, p83).
The aim of this article is to describe leadership and the principles behind effective
leadership. The reasons for leadership will also be described and how leadership differs
from management. It is hoped that the reader will be encouraged to give some thought
and reflection on ‘leadership’ and be provided with a framework with which to judge and
evaluate the leadership ability and style of both others and themselves. By learning some
of the theory related to leadership individuals may also be able to develop their own ideas
about leadership and, in turn, teach themselves how to be leaders. Being a leader is
personal; it is about oneself and the personification of oneself in the eyes of others.
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2. Leadership
‘What’ is Leadership?
According to the English Gem Dictionary (1963) leadership is an ability to influence,
guide, persuade and direct people to follow a certain course of action. Included in the art
of leadership is also an ability to inspire and sometimes enforce the personal will of the
leader. Parry (1996, p14) identifies three components of leadership, namely:
1. some identifiable goal or vision that people can desire
2. willingness on the part of followers to follow the leader on a course of action
3. belief by the followers that the course of action is socially responsible and
mutually beneficial.
Leadership requires the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals and
visions. In respect of visions, Lee Kuan Yew said that leadership is "the ability to see the
future a little clearer than the others". In addition to having ‘a vision’, the ability to
‘influence’ is fundamental to effective leadership. However influence may be imposed in
different ways. Napoleon said that there are two levers for moving men; interest and
fear. If fear is used to move people then we are not dealing with leadership but
‘drivership’. The ‘driving’ of a goal often uses coercive or manipulative techniques that
include bullying, and fear of losing one’s job. However, when a greater fear or threat
than the ‘driver’ presents itself then the method of moving people will fail. Some
organisations have a system for the reporting of such practice and in many countries it
can be illegal but, in any right society, such practice is immoral.
Now that we have defined what leadership is and what it is not, military leaders have had
specific definitions for leadership that include the following:
• “the will to dominate, together with the character which inspires confidence”
(Field Marshall Montgomery).
• “getting somebody else to do something that you want done because he wants to
do it” (General Eisenhower).
• “establish[ing]…the ethical environment in which the entire operation is going to
be accomplished”. (General Norman Schworzkop, 1991)
The above ‘military’ definitions although geared towards leading soldiers also imbibe the
concepts of influencing, inspiring, willingness and ethical acceptability.
Peter Drucker, the management guru, said “Management is about doing things right;
Leadership is doing the right things”. Management was defined in 1916 by Henri Fayol
as planning, organising, co-coordinating and controlling (Mintzberg, 1975) in order to
achieve some particular aim and the oft quoted words when asked what is management.
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3. Leadership
In the British Army management has been defined as planning, organising, morale and
control thereby recognising that people play an important part in the management process
and highlights the need for leadership ability when managing.
Leadership is not management but in order to lead a certain amount of management skill
is required. Parry (1996, p8) states that ‘you can be a good manager without being a
good leader; but you can’t be a good leader without being a good manager’. The
differences between leadership and management have been described by several authors
(Parry (1996), Lambert (2003), Future Visions (2004)) and are summarised in Table 1.
Management Leadership
Coping with complexity through systems,
controls & procedures to manage and maintain
the status quo.
Coping with and promoting change through
innovating and initiating by being creative, and
adaptive in order to develop people.
Planning and budgeting Setting direction
Organising and staffing through control. Aligning people though delegation
Controlling and problem solving Motivating and inspiring people through trust.
Efficient action. Capable & competent. Meaningful and effective action. Gets things done.
Concerned with administration Concerned with innovation
Concerned with how and when Concerned with what and why.
Imitates Initiates
Table 1 – Differences between Management and Leadership
Optimum organisational performance may be achieved through a combination of good
management and good leadership. There is a management-leadership horseshoe
continuum with poor management at one end and poor leadership at the other (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Leadership - management horseshoe continuum.
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Good
Management
Average
Management
Poor
Management
Poor
Leadership
Average
Leadership
Good Leadership
Sustained success, order, planned &
managed change
Failure, lack of control, confusion,
anarchy, no change management,
apathy.
Occasional success,
reactionary change.

4. Leadership
Good management is difficult to practice when there is poor leadership. Good
management will eventually deteriorate into a strict hierarchy with extreme bureaucracy
that stultifies progress, development and production. Towards the middle of the
continuum is the balance between good leadership and good management and this
exemplifies the requirement for good leaders to have management skills and good
managers to have some leadership skills. A matrix demonstrating the need for a shared
skill base is shown in Table 2 (after Parry, 1996, p9):
M
A
N
A
G
E
R
G
O
O
D
Sustained, but only
moderate success.
Sustained and high success.
P
O
O
R
Failure, stultification,
bureaucracy,
Short-term appearance of success
but long term failure.
POOR GOOD
LEADER
Table 2 Matrix of Poor-Good Leader-Manager Interactions
Why is leadership required?
“Ten good soldiers wisely lead…Will beat 100 without a head”
(d’Arcy Thompson (1829 to 1902), Paraphrase of Euripides)
The above quote implies that with a leader everything is efficient and to an extent this is
true. However leadership is not necessarily about efficiency but carrying things out
wisely so that the ‘right’ thing is done. Given the situation of a capable leader and good
leadership a few individuals can be encouraged and inspired to achieve far greater and
more relevant goals than a larger number of individuals who have not been inspired.
There is of course a good leadership and bad leadership. Good leaders try to do the right
thing and attempt to ensure that their followers keep in line with the social responsibility
and the common belief of their organisation. However, ‘good leaders’ can lead in the
wrong direction through their powers of inspiration and persuasion. Sometimes followers
may be tempted to carry out underhand or dubious practices in order to achieve a leader’s
desires through a misplaced confidence or trust in that leader. Hence a ‘good leader’ can
actually be bad for an organisation by taking it in the wrong direction and, or,
encouraging corrupt practices, albeit unknowingly.
The twentieth century had many great leaders and these included Hitler and Stalin. As
leaders their abilities rank very highly but their aims were less than moral. The methods
adopted by their followers in achieving the aims were immoral, unethical and criminal.
More recently (2004) the actions of the ‘the forces of the willing’ in detention centers in
Iraq have been identified by some as the result of a failing in the leadership of the US led
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5. Leadership
armed forces and ‘weak’ leadership at some levels. Weak leadership is bad leadership
and the highest level, the ‘leader’, is responsible for any failings due to misplaced trust in
individuals. The ‘leader’ is also responsible for such failings and should be accountable
for the breakdown in the mechanisms through which leadership is promoted, instilled and
maintained.
Good leadership is needed in order to achieve the objectives of an organisation and
ensure that actions are carried out in a moral, ethical, professional and legal way at all
levels. Trust in subordinates is an essential part of leadership but ‘blind trust’ creates a
false sense of security and eventually leads to the breakdown of an organisation. In a
similar way ‘good news reporting’ that creates a sense of well being for a leader can also
result in organisational breakdown and failure. Leaders must be aware of the problems
that can result from followers who follow blindly or those who hope for promotion by
giving good news. A leader’s ego may be temporarily satisfied that all (appears) to be
well and staff are apparently loyal but the longer-term goals may well be compromised.
If shortfalls in performance or deficiencies are not reported in an organisation as a result
of fear of repercussions then the effectiveness of the leadership must be questioned and
changed.
If good leadership declines as the influence of a leader or acceptance of a leadership
figure wanes, which it can, the environment becomes unstable. Such instability results a
lack of direction, confusion and, if the leadership is not changed the prevailing leadership
becomes poor and followers may show contempt for the leader. Poor leadership can be
characterised by despotism reflected in tyranny and oppression, which eventually leads to
anarchy and revolution. Poor leadership can also lead to apathy and disgruntlement,
which can also result in uprisings and a requirement for change.
There are many examples of such situations throughout history as leaders of countries or
empires have come to power, abused the power under the guise of leader and been
overthrown, deposed, executed or driven to suicide. Similar but not so dramatic events
have and do occur in some business and organisations to their detriment.
When & where is leadership needed?
Leadership is not something that is turned on and off like a tap or used as a commodity
such a petrol in a car. Leadership is needed all the time and in many different
circumstances but the extent to which it is perceptible or felt varies. Effective leadership
provides continuity and momentum and the ability to cope with change in the external
environment through internal flexibility (Gerard, 1997).
Good leadership may not always be recognised all of the time, particularly if all is well.
However in situations that are undesirable or uncomfortable, people or organisations will
feel the need for ‘strong leadership’. In such situations ‘leadership’ is necessary to
ensure that personnel respond in the best manner to restore order and achieve established
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6. Leadership
requirements. ‘Strong’ leadership is not a leadership style and people requiring or
demanding such a leadership style may really mean pragmatic, transformational, or even
charismatic leadership. The required style of leadership is often dependent on the type of
situation, when such situations occur, the personnel involved and available, and the
individual leader.
Situations that require the direct presence or influence of a leader are those where
followers, or observers demand that there is ‘hands-on’ leadership from that leader. In
such circumstances the leader must be able to react innovatively, know what is required
and influence the actions, beliefs and feelings of others (Doyle & Smith, 2001).
Particular examples of when hands-on leadership is required are when a plan has drifted
from its intended course and some change (popular or unpopular) is required; during
times of crisis to support, direct and take command if necessary; during managed
organisational changes to ensure that the desired results are achieved; and during success
to build team spirit.
Kotter (1990) suggested that leadership is all about coping with change. Heraclitus of
Ephesus (544 to 483 BC) the Greek philosopher said, "The only thing constant is change
itself" and no matter how one looks at a situation or an environment it is always changing
as people change, mature, and react to real or imaginary threats or opportunities. Denise
McCluggage, the lady racing car driver and writer, said that:
“Change is the only constant
Hanging on is the only sin”
and this simple quote suggests that if something changes, the status quo should also
change. It is important to realise that while some change is good, some change can be
bad as it results in inefficiency, demoralisation and confusion and as observed almost
2000 years ago by Caius Petronius a General and Senator of Rome in AD 66:
“We trained hard but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form into teams we
would be re organised. I was to learn later in life that we tend to meet any new situation
by re-organising – and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress
while producing confusion, inefficiency and demoralisation”.
While change is recognised as inevitable some change is planned while other change
must be reactionary in order to overcome an unexpected crisis. It is said that managers
do not like surprise and herein lies one of the major differences between management and
leadership. While a leader inevitably requires some management skills, a manager does
not necessarily require the skills of a leader. During the evolution of an organisation,
even a temporary organisation such as a project team, there can be many crises.
According to Greiner’s Growth Model (ten Have et al, 2003, p 94) the first phase of crisis
in an organisation is a ‘leadership crisis’ (Figure 2).
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7. Leadership
Large Red Tape
OrganisationalSize
Episodes of
Revolution (Crises)
Control Collaboration
Autonomy Co-
ordination
Leadership Delegation
Small
Creativity
Direction Stages of Evolution
(Growth)
Young Age of Organisation Mature
Figure 2 Greiner’s Growth Model
In order to overcome such a crisis the organisation requires direction and at such a time a
leader is required. As an organisation grows in size and ages the recognised crises of
‘autonomy’, ‘control’, and ‘red tape’ eventually occur. In order to successfully overcome
such crises, change is required and at such times good leadership is needed. It may be
that as a result of such ‘evolutions’ new leaders may come and older ones may go.
Leadership should be evident at all the times, not just in time of crisis, even if the leader
or representatives of the leader are not present. Personnel, and the way they carry out
their work or lives reflect the standards and beliefs of a leader and the organisation that
he or she represents. If a leader is wholly effective there should be no compromise, no
lowering of standards, and no unethical behaviour. Underhand dealings, breaking with
‘rules’ or tradition and lowering of standards outside of the belief code are signs that the
leadership has failed or is in the process of failing.
How is leadership achieved?
Some people are born leaders and have all the necessary skills and attributes required to
be a leader and attract certain followers. However others may be elected into the position
based on popularity or political efficacy, some may have the opportunity to be trained to
develop their leadership skills, others may learn through experience while still others may
have a special skill or ability that inspires others. In order to be an effective leader there
are some fundamental abilities that must prevail, certain factors that must be understood
and developed, and certain qualities that must be possessed to a greater or lesser extent.
In addition to the above there is also the application of leadership and how leaders can
influence others.
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?

8. Leadership
Leadership Abilities
Leaders may have many abilities but leaders must have the ability to command, organise,
and manage people. Commanding is the means whereby control and direction are given
in order that a response to one’s leadership may be met. Organising is required so that
tasks may be defined, planned and executed while management involves fulfilling task
and individual needs.
Command
The ability to command is essential to being a leader. Commanding is about
communication, knowledge, caring about people and wanting to lead. In order for a
leader to influence others communication is vital.
Communication is necessary for influencing people and this must be carried out
effectively be it through verbal or written means. Communication involves transmitting
and receiving signals and, while most communication is regarded as being sent and
received in written and verbal form there is also sight. It should also be remembered that
communication is a two-way process and responses may be required and are to be
expected. Communication should result in a mutual understanding but all too often we
think or presume that we have communicated an idea. Robert McCloskey (1915 to 2003)
an author and illustrator of children’s books summed up some of the problems with
verbal communication when he said:
“I know you believe you understand what you think I said, but I am not
sure you realise that what you heard is not what I meant”
exemplifying that what is thought to be transmitted may not necessarily be received
correctly and even if it is received it may not be interpreted in the manner in which it was
intended.
The spoken word is easy to transmit but the environment in which speaking occurs may
not be conducive to listening. It is important to ensure that people can hear and are not
distracted such as in an open plan office, noisy meeting room or busy work place. Verbal
messages should be conveyed in a confident manner and in clear and understandable
terms. Verbal communication is not only necessary at meetings and presentations but
also in informal conversations and exchanging pleasantries. Written communication
should also be written in a confident manner and the text should be clear, concise and
unambiguous.
Communication also involves watching body language and listening to people or
listening to the silence of people. It is said that we have two ears, two eyes and one
mouth and they should be used in those proportions, so listen twice as much as you talk.
Listening is an art and it is only by listening that the aspirations, concerns, and fears of
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9. Leadership
followers will be learned. Often it is what is not said that conveys a real message,
particularly if a situation is ‘uncomfortable’ and it is only by listening carefully that the
hidden message might be received. The body language of people will also give away
their real feelings. A skilled leader will be mindful of how people react and behave when
they are working, in social situations, and in their conversations with peers, subordinates
and superiors.
In order to command effectively leaders must know what they are talking about. To this
end knowing what one wants must be communicated. ‘Talking the talk’ is essential for a
leader but if in doubt about what to say; get somebody else to say it - a leader should not
be expected to know everything and effective delegation is an essential part of
leadership!
Delegation is not instructing another as to how to carry out a task – it is giving the
responsibility of carrying out the task to another. Delegation is not ‘passing the buck’
when a leader is in doubt as to what to do or appointing a ‘fall-guy designate’. In order to
delegate effectively a leader must consider the following points with respect to the
appointed delegate:
• What is to be delegated and is it a definite task
• What is the complete task including boundaries/interfaces
• Who is the task delegated to and do they have the knowledge, ability, willingness
and authority
• What is the requirement/aim/deliverable
• What information is available or who should be contacted
• When is the task to be completed by
• What reporting is required
• Delegate! and give free, but controlled, reign
• Accept a completed task only so that individuals may learn, even if it requires
support.
Of course, the above is a guide and dependent on the knowledge of the leader and the
delegate. Remember a leader should not teach their grandmother to suck eggs. Perhaps
one of the most important aspects of delegation is ‘who’ and the following poem makes
the ‘who’ evidently clear:
This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, & Nobody
There was an important job to be done & Everybody was sure that Somebody would do
it.
Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry with that because it
was Everybody’s job.
Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realised that Everybody wouldn’t do
it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could
have done.
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10. Leadership
The five other questions of ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘how’ and ‘where’ are also useful
questions to bear in mind when one delegates a task.
Delegation is not just offloading unwanted tasks onto others and as such a leader should
also consider that they must contribute to any delegated task by offering and ensuring that
• Communication of the complete task requirements is effective
• Constraints are identified
• Communication on task progress is a two-way process
• Coaching and advice may be required
• Credit should be given
• Critique is required in the form of praise or constructive criticism
Delegation should not be confined to those tasks that a leader does not want to do nor
should they be confined to tasks that are ‘too important’ and the leader may consider that
positional power is lost; ‘too urgent’ and the leader will not coach others; ‘too popular’
and a ‘hobby’ of the leader; or ‘insufficient skills or ability’ so followers are not trained.
Fear of delegation often equates to a fear of losing authority. However not everything
should be delegated and aspects of a leaders responsibility with respect to the successful
completion of a task should not be delegated. Delegation is a balance between allowing
others to carry out their work and controlling the outcome of that work.
If a leader struggles when describing what has to be done it will become readily apparent
at some stage that the message is (or was) rubbish. It is necessary to engage the brain
before speaking as summed up in the 18th
century English proverb, “to talk without
thinking is to shoot without aiming”. A Tuscan proverb may be used to remind any
would-be leader about thinking and communication:
Pensa molto Think much
Paval poco Speak little
E scrivo meno & write even less
In addition to knowing what to say, a leader must also know when to say it. The timing
of effective communication is also important; a badly timed briefing or a long rambling
monologue can be extremely effective in switching people off. ‘Walking the walk’ is
also essential, and while it is unlikely that leaders will be expected to carry out work
outside their areas of competence they must be willing to be involved in direct work and
‘muck-in’. A leader must also know when to take a step back and allow others to get on
with the work at hand. The leader is a member of the team and as such the team will
expect the leader to contribute or there may well be a loss of respect.
Caring about people is an important factor in commanding them. Caring about people’s
performance is important to achieving goals but by caring about the individual and
ensuring that personal needs are met and managed can, and does, develop the individuals
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11. Leadership
in a team. ‘Caring’ is not about necessarily about being friendly. It is important that that
fine line between care and familiarity is not crossed because familiarity can breed
contempt and too much familiarity can result in failure.
Leaders must want to command. At first this may seem obvious but all too often the
attractions of a management position appeal to individuals and, when they are expected to
‘lead’ by the superiors, peers and subordinates, it becomes readily apparent that the
burden of command weighs heavy on the unwilling. When there are particularly
unpleasant or unpopular tasks than an unwilling commander will not be able to command
effectively and may fail. In such circumstances ‘walking the talk’, ‘leadership by
example’, or ‘leading from the front’ will be a pre-requisite for a successful outcome. By
wanting to command a leader’s personal drive, enthusiasm and motivation will encourage
the team to perform and follow.
Organising
Organising comprises several factors that include, arranging what needs to be done, when
it needs to be done and making sure that it is executed. In order to organise effectively a
leader must be able to carry out the six essential tasks of Planning, Briefing, Controlling,
Supporting, Informing, and Evaluating, which are defined in Table 3.
Planning Obtaining available information.
Defining the team’s task and scope of work.
Making a workable plan.
Briefing Explaining the aim of the task and the plan.
Giving the reason why a task must be done, particularly if unpleasant.
Allocating task to groups.
Setting or confirming work standards and priorities.
Controlling Maintaining work standards.
Influencing tempo.
Ensuring that all action contributes to the aim.
Receiving and acting on reports
Supporting Encouraging the team and individuals.
Disciplining the team or individuals.
Creating team spirit.
Informing Keeping the team in the picture through regular meetings, formal and
informal gatherings.
Evaluating Providing feedback on the team’s performance on completion of a task or
part of a task to produce a corporate sense of achievement and to provide
lessons learned and how performance may be enhanced.
Table 3 The Six Elements of Commanding
The skills are related to management skills but a good leader must also be able to
manage, to an extent, and ensure that others are managing the work efficiently. Perhaps
the most important element or organising that a leader should possess is the knowing of
‘what needs to be done’ and ‘when it needs to be done’ and having the perseverance,
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12. Leadership
stamina and energy in ‘ensuring that it is done’. The skills of detailed planning and
execution of what has to be done are, perhaps less important and fall into the category of
‘management’. However that is not to say that a leader can decide on what must be done,
delegate responsibility for its execution and then walk away to return, at some point in
the future to find that all is not well, and then complain! The leader must be present and
contribute to ensuring that things start off, continue and are completed with the end in
mind and that all efforts contribute to the goal.
The required organising ability also reflects the Demming Cycle of Plan, Do, Check,
Action but includes the more ‘human’ elements of briefing, supporting and informing.
The ‘organisational’ cycle’ and ‘Demming Cycle are shown in Figure 3
Figure 3 The Demming “PDCA” Cycle and ‘Organisational’ Cycle
Management
Management in a leadership context is about the needs of people; not just individuals but
individuals within teams and way that a team, or even a group of teams reacts to its
objectives. The needs can be considered in terms of the task need, team maintenance
need and individual needs as described below:
• Task Need – in order for a team to be effective it must share a common goal.
How often have managers stated “but we are a team” in order to appeal to the
individuals to share the common goal and work together. Such ‘encouragement’
rarely works in anything but the short term and team members must have a sense
of purpose that will satisfy the task need and also fulfill an important part of the
team maintenance need.
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Evaluate
Plan
Inform
Support
Control
BriefPlan
Do
Check
Action

13. Leadership
• Team maintenance need – the team is an essential component in completing any
task or achieving an objective. Teams must be cohesive and any split can result in
failure as goes the maxim, ‘united we stand, divided we fall’. Mutual respect
among team members, a sense of purpose, and pride in the team and its members
are pre-requisites for ensuring that the team is held together which satisfies the
team maintenance need. If a team is united then difficult, almost insurmountable
tasks and deadlines can be met.
• Individual Needs – Individual needs must be satisfied or there will be a lowering
of individual morale with a subsequent lowering of both team and task
performance. Individuals have a variety of needs as described under the oft-
quoted Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. However as Herzberg theorised in the
1950’s salary, work conditions and social expectations can also demotivate so, by
creating ‘fair levels’ there is no further motivation and the basic needs are
‘hygiene factors’ (Blair, 1993). ‘Hygiene’ is based on the analogy that if a
washroom is kept clean, nobody cares if they are scrubbed harder. Hence real
motivators are based on factors related to self-esteem and self-realisation as
shown in Figure 4 rather than the hygiene factors related to physiological well-
being.
The various areas of need do not exist in isolation and are intimately linked. If, for
example, individual needs are not met for even just a few individuals their morale will
deteriorate which may well affect the cohesiveness of the team. The loss of cohesiveness
is a failure to meet the team maintenance need and as such the task need may also fail.
The interaction between the various need is shown in Figure 5.
Individual Needs
Task Need Team Maintenance
Needs
Figure 5 Interaction of Individual, Task and Team Maintenance Needs
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14. Leadership
Figure 4 Maslow’s Modified Hierarchy of Needs (from Wideman, 2002)
Leadership Factors
In addition to ‘leadership abilities’ there are a number of factors that are important in
creating an environment in which there can be sustained effective leadership. The factors
affect leadership and the ability of individuals to be effective leaders and are related to
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How a Workplace Can Meet Needs
• Involvement in Planning Work
• Opportunity for Growth & Development
• Creative Work
• Freedom to make decisions
• Status Symbols
• Recognition awards
• Challenging work
• Opportunity for advance
• Sharing decision making
• Opportunity to interact/network
• Team-based work
• Friendly co-workers
 Fringe Benefits
 Job Security
 Sound work policy/practice
 Proper supervision
 Safe working conditions

 Adequate compensation
 Rest periods
 Labour saving devices
 Efficient work methods
Social/Affiliative Needs
Companionship
Acceptance
Love & Affection
Group Membership
Safety/Security Needs
Security for Self & Possessions
Avoidance of Risks
Avoidance of Harm
Avoidance of Pain
Physiological Needs
Food
Clothing
Shelter
Comfort
Self-preservation
Self –Actualisation
Needs
Reaching potential your
independence
Creativity
Self-expression
Self Esteem NeedsResponsibility, Self Respect, Recognitions,
Sense of Accomplishment
Sense of Competence & Equity
Self-actualisation is not an
endpoint but a self-renewing
need or drive.

15. Leadership
dealing with people and what they expect from a leader. The factors are discipline,
loyalty, man-management, and morale. Although morale is considered lastly morale is
possibly the greatest factor affecting the implementation of good leadership. A
framework showing how the factors affecting leadership may be linked to leadership
ability is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Framework showing the link between Leadership Abilities and
Factors Affecting Leadership
Discipline
Discipline may be defined as ‘training that produces orderliness, obedience and self
control’ (Collin’s English Gem Dictionary, 1972). Discipline is often considered to be a
‘dirty’ word and conjures up a perception of ‘yes sir, no sir, whatever you say sir’. It is
often perceived that if there is discipline there is an absence of freedom. The analogy of
driving a car can be used to explain the incorrect perception that discipline takes away
freedom:
Driving one’s car is freedom;
Driving on the correct side of the road and obeying traffic signs is discipline.
Page 15 of 34
MANAGE
Tasks
Teams
Individuals
ORGANISE
Plan, Brief,
Control, Support,
Inform, Evaluate
LOYALT
Y
MAN
MANAG-
EMENT
DISCIPLIN
E
MORALE
COMMAND
Communicate,
Know, Caring,
Wanting

16. Leadership
All people have discipline to an extent and such discipline is reflected in doing a job well,
turning up to work on time, dressing well (in whatever fashion style one chooses), or
studying to pass an examination. When dealing with technical and professional staff
there is some discipline due to the training that they have received during education and
work experience. Some nationalities can also be more ‘disciplined’ than others as a
result of upbringing and culture but there will be discipline to a greater or lesser extent.
However, the discipline that individuals have and the attitude of individuals towards
discipline may not be in line with the discipline required for a particular job or task.
Hence the discipline of a group may require some reorientation through training,
coaching or mentoring and this is the role of a leader.
Discipline can also associated with ‘fear’ and the idea that discipline subjugates people.
Instilling physical or mental fear in another person through bullying or threats is morally
wrong. However an element fear such as personal failure, fear of a reprimand for not
carrying out a job properly or being late is not a bad thing. Such fear should not be an
overwhelming force because failures do occur and it is well known that ‘to err is to be
human’. Disciplinary action in the form of a short, and possibly sharp, verbal reprimand
(‘a shouting’, ‘a rocket’ or ‘a blast’) may be imposed on ‘deserving’ individuals but such
‘disciplinary action’ should not be given on the basis of animosity. The purpose of such
disciplinary action should not be used to belittle individuals but to promote, maintain and
improve standards. It is not always possible to like everybody but showing respect and
courtesy at all times must be attempted, that is not to say that voices will not be raised,
but insulting individuals will inevitably result in animosity and increase any levels of
conflict.
Discipline has been defined in the British Army as “the ingrained habit of cheerful and
unhesitating obedience”. The word ‘cheerful’ is used which may seem contradictory to
most views on discipline but ‘cheerfulness’ is an important aspect of a disciplined team.
That is not to say that by being cheerful there is constant joviality and humour, but there
is enjoyment in carrying out ones duties and tasks and individuals can ‘have fun’ at work.
Discipline is also associated with the ‘conquest of fear’. Fear is a difficult emotion to
define and is dependant on individuals and circumstances. Fear is also overcome through
courage and such courage may be physical or moral (Khera, 1999). Physical courage
may evident when working in a dangerous place and training can develop such courage.
However moral courage or courage in one’s convictions is more difficult to develop and
is an inner strength related to carrying out ones duty or job. If something is wrong or not
being carried out correctly then individuals with ‘moral courage’ will challenge the
situation and overcome their fear of causing ‘a scene’ or ‘embarrassing somebody’ or
‘being reported by the perpetrator’ or creating an increased workload for themselves in
rectifying the wrong. Moral courage is also about keeping one’s self in check and
admitting errors or mistakes so that they may be corrected. When there is a pervasive
discipline throughout a group then a common sense of duty and mutual support can be
nurtured and the qualities of the leader in maintaining such discipline is paramount.
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17. Leadership
Discipline may be promoted through example from the leader and an attitude of ‘don’t do
as I do, do as I say’ will do little to instill discipline and can lead to contempt from
subordinate staff. Other ways of instilling discipline is through explanation as to why
some tasks may be done, particularly ‘unpopular’ tasks, and by auditing work to promote
awareness of shortfalls in performance and also to give credit where credit is due. When
discipline needs to be enforced it must be enforced and not be overlooked or ignored.
When enforcing discipline individuals must be treated in a firm, fair, and friendly
manner, as opposed to hateful or harsh manner. In all dealings regarding discipline there
must always be fairness, consistency, respect and no favouritism.
A true test of discipline is if a group of individuals respond to the will and direction of a
leader whether he is present or not. When such an acid teat is carried out a leader can be
truly confident that there is discipline and such discipline demonstrates that there is belief
in the goals and objectives set.
Loyalty
Loyalty is having an allegiance to, or faith in a person or group of persons, an ideal, a
duty, or a cause. Loyalty can be expressed in both thought and deed and is a necessary
part of a person’s existence as it brings meaning, direction and purpose to life.
Loyalty to a cause, or to one’s profession or to just making money for personnel gain
may the driving force for an individual. However loyalty to a leader’s ‘cause’ or to the
leader in particular is an important factor for a leader to promote. Such loyalty may be
bought from ‘followers’ through the giving of preferential treatment, perks and bonuses
but such loyalty will be misplaced. Loyalty as a result of respect is a better foundation
than inducements.
Loyalty on the part of the leader is also important. A leader must be loyal to his
subordinates and have faith in them. If such faith is absent than the leader must change
the status quo and provide the training or equipment so that such faith can be instilled. In
addition leaders must be loyal to their peers. However there can be, and will be conflicts
in loyalties between individuals or groups of individuals and such conflicts must be
resolved if and when they occur so that an embittered situation does not occur. It is a
leaders function to ensure that conflicting loyalties are exposed and resolved. Good
leaders should also accept responsibility for errors on their part and not blame
subordinates or hide behind their superiors or peers. Errors in personal judgement may
be difficult admit but it is only one’s ego that is in the way, if a leader is ‘true and honest’
then admitting mistakes shows genuineness and is proof of integrity. However too many
mistakes will undermine a leader’s credibility and if a leader is in such a position they
should reflect on their judgment and intellect.
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18. Leadership
Belief and trust in subordinates, superiors and peers is a prerequisite for loyalty, and once
there is loyalty an organisation can be very effective. Hence we can say that loyalty
should work upwards, downwards and sideways in an organisation. A leader must
promote and encourage loyalty through positive action and not just through glib or
eloquent diction and unfulfilled promises or actions; remember ‘an empty vessel makes
most sound’.
Leaders must also have faith in themselves and be true to themselves or leaders cannot be
true to their followers. If there is a lack of truth then loyalty will be lost and failure will
almost certainly ensue. As Shakespeare wrote in Hamlet:
This above all: to thine ownself be true,
And it must follow, as the night the day,
Thou canst not then be false to any man.
Man-Management
Man-management is not ‘management’ in the sense of planning, organising, co-
ordinating and controlling but it is the art of handling people and caring for them. This is
not to imply that an individual’s personal life should be probed into or leaders should
mollycoddle their subordinates but people should be understood. The needs of
individuals together with their strengths and weaknesses and what inspires and interests
them should be identified. All individuals differ due to their upbringing, history with
respect to previous jobs, education and their temperament plus their life outside of work.
It is important to know people and finding out about individuals is a difficult task. Some
will volunteer information readily while others will be more reserved and it will take time
to get to know but that is not to say that a relationship based on familiarity should be
developed.
Managing individuals can be achieved by blending their strengths and weaknesses in
order to make a well balanced team (at whatever level in an organisation) and fit people
into a position where they may be employed to best advantage. It is important to make
the best of people because, for a leader, people are the tools and ‘a bad workman blames
his tools’.
Knowledge and understanding of individual may be obtained in a work environment but
‘informal’ venues are also possible points of contact. Formal interviews at appraisal or
performance reviews or casual meetings at work are also important ways of getting to
know people, and allow them to get to know you.
In order to establish a good relationship a leader must bear certain things in mind:
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19. Leadership
• there should be mutual confidence and respect with one’s subordinates
• leadership is not a popularity contest
• leaders should be efficient
• failures, as well as successes should be shared
• leaders are part of a team and should use ‘we’ rather than ‘I’ – there is no ‘i’ in
team
• there should be a sincere interest in the well-being of individuals and teams
• explaining the reasons as to ‘why’ tasks must be done is not weakness
• contribute to the work effort rather than take a back seat
• criticise people but also defend them against criticism
• lead by example and set the standard
• give credit where credit is due but do not praise too readily
• having a sense of humour helps
• pay attention to leave, overtime, pay, bonuses and training
• be natural
• be accessible and have a real ‘open-door policy’.
The above list is not exhaustive and man-management is very much a personal skill.
Notwithstanding an individual’s man-management style, it is better to be strict and
straight, and demand high standards from the outset. If attempts are made to achieve
‘popularity’ at the expense of reduced standards then it will become quickly apparent that
one’s leadership is lacking.
There is also a requirement for ‘straightness’. It is believed that, in line with a quote
attributed to President Abraham Lincoln in 1858 (but it may have been the circus and
freak-show owner PT Barnum):
“You may fool some of the people all of the time; you can even fool some of
the people all of the time; but you can’t fool all of the people all of the time.”
By attempting to ‘fool’ people, even if it is possible, a leader will contribute to their
downfall and an undermining of any leadership they inspire. By being straightforward
one’s integrity can remain intact and trust becomes the order of the day.
Morale
Perhaps the greatest factor that contributes to good and effective leadership is morale
according to Field Marshall Slim in his memoir ‘Defeat into Victory’. Morale is the
spirit of fortitude and endurance and, while this definition implies physical hardship,
morale is a state of mind. Such a state of mind is an intangible force that can drive
individuals and groups to achieve goals that would, without morale, otherwise would not
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20. Leadership
be achieved. Napoleon considered morale to be one of the most important factors in
human conflict and said that:
“Morale is to the physical as three is to one”
Morale is achieved by meeting material, intellectual and spiritual needs through
motivation. Motivation involves many aspects which include communicating task or
work requirements, giving feedback, providing an appropriate environment and
resources, ensuring tasks are challenging but not overwhelming, being solution-driven
rather than problem-orientated, and delegating effectively.
Motivation may be achieved in the short term by satisfying the physiological,
environmental and social requirements of the ‘material needs’. By providing a fair
salary, the right equipment, and a suitable work place such material needs can be readily
satisfied, easily seen and contribute to preserving and promoting loyalty. In addition
material needs can be ‘fixed’ quickly but they are not central to morale. In order to
maintain morale the deeper and more complex intellectual and spiritual needs must be
satisfied.
Intellectual needs may be met by ensuring that individuals believe that they can perform
their work and the organisational objectives are achievable. The organisation must also
be seen to be achieving its objectives, or at least be striving to achieve them.
Communication through briefings, talks, and informal discussions helps with satisfying
such intellectual needs. Satisfaction of intellectual needs is also met through providing
challenging work, being recognised, receiving awards and promotions, and being
involved in the decision making process. These motivators also contribute to loyalty,
man-management, and discipline through training and coaching.
If intellectual needs are not met that an attitude of complacency, ‘couldn’t care less’, and
‘it’s not my job’ may well ensue. Restoring a loss of morale through failure to meet
intellectual needs is difficult but not impossible. In many circumstances some form of
planned organisational change with a positive move to changing organisational culture
may well be a way to improve morale and, during such change good and effective
leadership as required. As Kotter (2003) describes a leader is probably required more
during times of change to ensure that change occurs and is completed, as if change ever
is. The role of a leader during change is to ensure that change happens, success is not
pronounced too early and change is established as shown in Table 4.
The satisfying of spiritual needs is more difficult. A sense of purpose or goal is
fundamental to such needs and the method by which the goal is to be achieved, perhaps
through professionalism and high standards, must be active. It is important that the
achievement of the goal is realistic and that individuals feel that they are directly
contributing towards its attainment. In the event that such spiritual needs are not met or
are undermined through a combination of compromise or defeatism on the part of the
leader then the damage to morale may be irreparable. That is not to say that ‘defeat’ will
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21. Leadership
destroy morale but ‘defeatism’ will and, in such circumstances restoring morale will be
difficult at best.
Change Requirement Reasons for Unsuccessful Change Role of Leader
Urgency Complacency Maintain tempo.
Guiding coalition Insufficient power to coalition Support the coalition
Vision & strategy Underestimating power of vision Visions can be bold but should be
realistic & achievable.
Communication of vision Not communicating the vision Promote the vision at all times
Empowerment Allowing obstacles to get in the
way
Delegate effectively and assist in
overcoming obstacles
Short term wins Failing to create short term wins Plan change and announce wins to
build confidence & moral.
Consolidate gains Declaring ‘victory’ too soon Ensure the aim of ‘change’ is
achieved.
Anchor new approaches Not incorporating changes firmly Build upon successes and ensure
(good) change is built upon.
Table 4 Change Requirements, Reasons for Failure & Leadership Input
Leadership Qualities
Leadership is about personality rather than physical fitness or stature. Studies of leaders
and their qualities, or traits, were aimed at identifying those traits that set leaders apart
from their followers. Some studies have shown that some leaders have characteristics
that differentiate them from their followers while others have found that there is no
difference with respect to identified traits between leaders or followers (Doyle & Smith,
2001). Notwithstanding that traits are not indicative of leadership ability there are several
traits that are often associated with leadership (Table 5).
People who have leadership qualities may be summed up as those people who are willing
to tell other people what to do but have the respect of other people as well, or gain that
respect. The actual qualities that allow people to lead are various and diverse but,
perhaps the most important qualities of leadership are courage in convictions, will power,
initiative, knowledge and integrity. It is also important for a leader to be fit, energetic,
decisive, courteous, loyal, unselfish and responsible with a sense of humour and energy.
Leadership is a personal issue and emotions play an important in a person’s behaviour.
Various studies on emotion have been carried out and Caruso & Salovey (2004) conclude
that emotions matter all the time and that by identifying, using, understanding, and
managing emotions a leader may be more effective. In determining how the leader
emotions are influencing a situation or an individual a leaders may not determine the
emotions in play but will use their intuition and act accordingly. The operative word is
‘act’ and herein lies another difference between leadership and management as summed
up by the neurologist who studies the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, Donald Calne:
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22. Leadership
“The essential difference between emotion and reason is that emotion leads to
action while reason leads to conclusions”
Ability to make a decision Energy Need for achievement
Adaptability/flexibility Enthusiasm Pride in command
Assertiveness Example Responsibility
Capacity to motivate people Fairness Self-confidence
Cheerfulness Faith Sense of duty
Common sense Fitness Sense of humour
Confidence Humanity Skill in dealing with people
Courage and resolution Initiative Stability
Courtesy Innovative Stamina
Decisiveness Integrity Tact
Dependability Intellectual ability Task competence
Determination Intelligence Trustworthiness
Eagerness to accept
responsibility Justice Understanding of followers
Efficiency Knowledge of job Unselfishness
Endurance Loyalty Willpower
Table 5 Leadership Qualities or Traits
While it is common for many people to attempt to suppress emotions in a working
environment and appear ‘cool’, emotions are an important aspect of life. The ‘flight or
fight’ survival mechanism is a well known example of how people react to situations
based on emotion; the particular emotion being ‘fear’. There are several emotions and
each prepares us for a way in which to react but the control of emotion allows us to
behave in a certain manner. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, defined the 14 basic
emotions as anger, mildness, love, enmity (hatred), fear, confidence, shame,
shamelessness, benevolence (kindness), pity, indignation, envy, emulation and contempt
(Hauserg, 2004). However Caruso & Salovey (2004) describe eight emotions in terms of
natural behaviour and these, together with the effects of suppressing such emotions are
described briefly below:
Emotion Behaviour Suppression
Fear Act now to avoid negative consequences. Panic
Anger Fight against wrong or injustice. Rage
Sadness Asking for support or assistance. Depression
Disgust Show unacceptance. Anger & rage
Interest Excite others to support and learn. Lethargy, boredom
Surprise Turn attention to something important/unexpected. Lethargy, boredom
Acceptance Acceptance of a person individually/collectively. Shunning, ostracizing.
Joy Repeating an experience. Introvert behaviour.
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23. Leadership
Emotions, as with leadership are personal and an understanding of one’s own emotions
and reactions is as important as understanding and reacting to the emotions of others.
Leadership Application & Implementation
Leadership is ‘applied and implemented’ through the behaviour of a leader. Leaders have
particular traits or qualities that may be appropriate at the time or over the period that
leadership is required and some qualities may be more, or less, important or relevant at
that time. However, the way in which a leader behaves in terms of style and attitude can
be dependent on the individual leader or be contingent the situation, if a leader is to
effective at all times! The situation, which may include the working environment and
culture, may demand that a certain leadership style is adopted and a leader must adopt an
appropriate, albeit unfamiliar style or behaviour. Conversely it can be argued that a
leader can create a situation to suit their personal style but such an approach can lead to
splendid isolationism.
There are several leadership styles, attitudes and behaviours together with several
different contingency models and some theories regarding ‘transformational leadership’.
The various leadership styles and attitudes will be described as will some well established
contingency theories. A situational model will be described that demonstrates how a
leaders style may be changed to suite the situation and the personnel involved.
Leadership Behaviour & Style
A leaders style is also dependent on their individual behaviour. In terms of behaviour
leaders may be task orientated and are concerned with specific identifiable objectives and
productivity; or people orientated where they are concerned with needs and interests of
‘their people’. Leaders who are task orientated tend to be directive where there is a
tendency to take all decisions and they are followers of Macgregor’s ‘Theory X’ (people
are lazy and require supervision). People orientated leaders tend to be supportive; or
participative and tend to involve others in decision making and are followers of
Macgregor’s ‘Theory Y’ (people are willing and do not need constant supervision). The
Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid (Figure 7) shows the range of different styles based on
task and people orientated leaders together with the ‘approach’ that such leaders take
(Table 6).
Other terminology is used for different styles of leadership and commonly used
terminology is shown in Table 7 under the broad headings of autocratic, democratic and
laissez-faire.
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24. Leadership
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 7 Blake & Mourton Managerial Grid
Management Style Definition
Impoverished (1,1) Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done as
appropriate to sustain organisation membership.
Authority Obedience (1,9) Efficiency in operations from arranging conditions of work in
such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.
Organisation Man (5,5) Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing
the necessity to get work with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Country Club (9,1) Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying
relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation
atmosphere and work tempo.
Team (9,9) Work accomplished is from committed people; interdependence
through a ‘common stake’ in organisation leads to relationships of
trust and respect.
Table 6 Blake & Mourton management styles (after Wideman, 2002)
While certain individual leaders may be task-orientated or people-orientated studies have
shown that the style of a leader may not always be applicable all of the time (Doyle &
Smith, 2001). A leader’s way of doing things may not necessarily be appropriate for any
situation that may result in failure or a shortfall in achieving the expectations of their
followers. In such circumstances the leadership capability may fall into question. Rather
than the leader ‘failing’ it is more likely that the outcome was dependent on a
combination of the leader, the followers, and the situation –‘horses for courses’.
The ‘leader’ may not always be in a position to lead and a subordinate may well have to
take on a leadership role. In such circumstances there would be a ‘situational leader’ who
would have the greatest insight into the current situation or issue, ‘the man on the
ground’, and a ‘positional leader’ who would have the highest rank. In such
circumstances the success of the group, the morale of the group, and the morale and
motivation of the ‘situational leader’ may well depend on whether or not the positional
leader uses his rank to suppress the situational leader and take charge (Fox, 2004).
Page 24 of 34
Low
High
Concernforpeople
Low Concern for Production High
1,9 Country Club
Management
5.5 Organisation
Man-Management
9,9 Team
Management
1,1 Impoverished
Management
9,1 Authority-
Obedience

25. Leadership
The situational leader has the greatest insight into the prevailing situation or issue at hand
while the positional leader is the person with the highest rank. The style of each leader
may well be quite different and will depend on the individuals but the important issue is
that there can be more than one leader at any one time and circumstance; the ‘man of the
moment’ and the ‘commander’ who should direct the situational leader and, possibly,
adopt a coaching style. The idea of situation, leader, follower and situational leader is
shown Figure 8.
(Dictator)
AUTOCRATIC
Coercive Demands immediate compliance. Can be
associated with an obstinate, dictatorial
approach and poor leadership.
Authoritative/ Directive Mobilises people towards a vision.
Specific advice is given and ground rules
are established
LAISSEZ FAIRE
Coaching Develops people for the future
Supportive/ Affiliative Creates emotional bonds and harmony,
sensitive to needs of the group
DEMOCRATIC
(Vacillator)
Pacesetting/ Achievement-
oriented
Expects excellence and self-direction.
Challenging goals are set and high
performance is encouraged while
showing confidence in the groups' ability
Democratic/ Participative Builds consensus through participation,
consultative decision making. Can also
be associated with uncertainty on the part
of the leader, procrastination and
vacillation.
Table 7 Leadership Styles
Situation
Followers Leader
Figure 8 Interaction of Situation, Leader and Followers
Situational Leadership
There have been a number of situational leadership models that have been developed
from the many leadership studies that have been carried out and a brief description of
some of them are given below. The models that will be described are as follows:
• Fiedler’s Contingency Model
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Situational Leader

26. Leadership
• Hersey-Blanchard Situational Model
• Path –Goal Theory (Evans and House)
• Vroom-Yetton Leadership Model
The models are not applicable in all situations or at all times but each has its uses as
described in the Table 8.
Table 8 Summary of Situational Leadership Models
Fiedler’s
Contingency
Model
Group performance depends on ‘leadership style’ in terms of task motivation and
relationship motivation; and ‘situational favourableness’, determined by
• leader-member relations (degree of leader acceptance and support);
• task structure (the extent to which the task is structured and defined, with
clear goals and procedures); and
• position power (the ability of a leader to control subordinates through
reward and punishment).
High levels of these three factors give the most favourable situation, low levels,
and the least favourable. Relationship-motivated leaders are most effective in
moderately favourable situations. Task-motivated leaders are most effective at
either end of the scale.
Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situation to
achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership style.
Hersey-
Blanchard
Situational
Model
Leadership style should be matched to the maturity of the subordinates. Maturity
is based on psychological maturity (self-confidence and ability and readiness to
accept responsibility for a task); and ‘job maturity (relevant skills and technical
knowledge)
As subordinate maturity increases, leadership should be more relationship-
motivated than task-motivated. For four degrees of subordinate maturity, from
highly mature to highly immature, leadership can consist of:
• Delegating to subordinates.
• Participating with subordinates.
• Selling ideas to subordinates.
Telling subordinates what to do
Path –Goal
Theory (Evans
and House)
A leader can affect the performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group by
offering rewards for the achievement of performance goals; clarifying paths
towards these goals; and removing performance obstacles.
A person may do these by adopting a certain leadership style, according to the
situation:
• Directive leadership - Specific advice is given to the group and ground
rules are established.
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27. Leadership
• Supportive leadership - Good relations exist with the group and
sensitivity to subordinates' needs is shown.
• Participative leadership - Decision making is based on group
consultation and information is shared with the group.
• Achievement-oriented leadership - Challenging goals are set and high
performance is encouraged while showing confidence in the groups'
ability.
Supportive behaviour increases group satisfaction, particularly in stressful
situations, while directive behaviour is suited to ambiguous situations. It is also
suggested that leaders who have influence upon their superiors can increase
group satisfaction and performance.
Vroom-Yetton
Leadership
Model
This model suggests the selection of a leadership style for making a decision.
There are five decision making styles:
• Autocratic 1 - Problem is solved using information already available.
• Autocratic 2 - Additional information is obtained from group before
leader makes decision.
• Consultative 1 - Leader discusses problem with subordinates
individually, before making a decision.
• Consultative 2 - Problem is discussed with the group before deciding.
• Group 2 - Group decides upon problem, with leader simply acting as
chair.
The style is chosen by the consideration of seven questions, which form a
decision tree.
There is no right or wrong model and, in keeping with the personal nature of leadership,
the preferred model is up to the individual. The way in which leadership is applied
depends on the behaviour, style and qualities of the leader, the followers, and the
situation and all factors must be considered if the desired outcome is to be achieved.
If the premise is accepted that leadership is a function of the situation, the leader, and
followers then a useful model to follow is the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Model
(Kerzner, 1998). This model emphasises that a leaders ‘style’ should be based on the
task and the followers. The model is shown in Figure 9 and indicates the guidance or
direction that is required for correct task behaviour and the appropriate communication
needed, the relationship behaviour, together with an indication of subordinate ability and
willingness. The model is useful for demonstrating how leadership changes as all
individuals mature. It should be recognised that a leader’s style may need to change with
different groups as result of different levels of maturity and ability.
During the development of teams there is an inevitable learning or experience curve and
leadership style will change as the curve develops. Indeed if style does not change then
the team may well not develop. Learning through mistakes, as long as such mistakes are
not disasters, is healthy and even if there are disasters it can help to gel the team to avoid
reoccurrences. Unplanned events, which may be undesirable, can give the opportunity to
test the resolve of individuals and see how they perform in crises.
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28. Leadership
Figure 9 Hersey-Blanchard Situational Model of Leadership (after Kerzner, 1998).
A leader must be mindful that there are different stages in the evolution of an
organisation or a project there will be a need for different skill bases and the ‘situation’
can be in a constant state of flux. Hence the requirement for a leader to be adaptable,
have stamina plus an understanding of people and their needs is important. There is a
saying that “it takes a good man to start a job, anybody can run a well set up job, and a
better man to finish it” and this implies that a leader must show different skills and
abilities with time. For example during the typical life cycle of a project a leader will
require different approaches as shown in Figure 10.
Page 28 of 34
RelationshipBehaviour
Low
(Willing)
High
(Unwilling)
Low Task Behaviour (Leader guidance) High
(Followers Able) (Followers Unable)
DELEGATING
PARTICIPATING SELLING
TELLING
Share ideas,
facilitate decisions
Followers make
decisions.
“Theory ‘Y’ behaviour”.
Explain decisions &
provide opportunity
for clarification.

29. Leadership
Figure 10 A Typical Project Life Cycle and Leadership Considerations
Levels of Leadership
Leadership is dependent on a number of factors that include the individual leader, the
nature of the followers and subordinates and the situation. It may not require a ‘great
leader’ to handle the everyday situations that an organisation faces but leadership may
well be needed to achieve a satisfactory outcome. Lambert (2003) describes two types of
leader who can deal with different problems and situations in a different style, namely
‘charismatic’ and ‘pragmatic’ and these are described in Table 9.
Transactional leadership has been associated with military leadership but successful
militaries have long known that it is an ineffective style as it encourages compliance only
and can easily result in bullying, domineering and in extremes an element of the sadistic.
It works when the organisational problems are simple, clear and technical in nature, and
can be solved by the leader. Transactional leadership may not be the most effective type
of leadership but, as a style, it can have its usefulness at all levels if used appropriately.
Page 29 of 34
Time
EXECUTION /
IMPLEMENTATION
Scope defined but
situations change.
Project delays, conflicts,
disputes will require
evaluation and resolution.
Changing staff and
disciplines with time.
Leadership contingent on
time, situation, personnel,
FEASIBILITY/
DEFINITION
Expert or specialist
input.
Many disciplines.
Scope not fixed.
Democratic style,
delegation required.
PLANNING &
DESIGN
Many disciplines.
Project scope
established.
Production of
deliverables.
Situation is subject
to change.
COMPLETION
START-UP
Handing over, close
out requires different
skills again.
Situation may be
complicated by third
parties and external
involvement.
Leader needs to
‘influence’ others
with no positional
power.
PercentageofProject

30. Leadership
Charismatic Leader Pragmatic Leader
Thinks quickly in a crisis. Adept in assessing rapidly changing
situations
Thinks effectively in changing
environments.
Assesses team members quickly.
Takes effective action in complex
situations.
Confines decisions to able persons.
Inspires followers to overachieve. Uses evolution not revolution.
Real satisfaction in imposing goals. Uses action and results, not personality and
belief.
Instills a belief that people will win. Develops leadership skills assiduously.
‘Walks the talk’ of success. Directs and moulds behaviour.
Ignores trivia, focuses on goals. Sensitive and effective with group
dynamics.
Identifies important issues in complex
situations.
Focuses on long term goals and today’s
needs.
Uses strengths rather than mitigates
weaknesses.
Considers leadership a skill not a gift.
Promotes life long learning.
Uses knowledge and skills related to
achieving mission, goals and values.
Anticipates future requirements.
Sees issues from ‘oppositions’ view.
Creates stories about themselves
Needs pragmatic skills Needs judgement
Table 9 Characteristics of Charismatic and Pragmatic Leaders
In real terms there is a continuum between the two types or limits of leadership and
several different leadership levels may be identified. Four levels of leadership may be
recognised (Strategosinc, 2003) as ‘transactional’, ‘relational’, ‘transformational’, and
‘charismatic-transformational’. The levels are such that the appropriate leader may
practise at that level, achieve the goals and also have the opportunity to develop their
leadership skills. The competencies and activities that each level is characterised by
together with personal characteristics likely to be exhibited by leaders are shown in Table
10.
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31. Leadership
Level Activities & Competencies Personal Characteristics
IV Charismatic-
Transformational • Personal Charisma
• Challenge The Status Quo
• Create A Compelling Vision
• Establish Shared Values
• Enable Others To Act
• Model The Way
• Encourage The Heart
All of Level III +
• Self-Confident
• Knows Him/Herself
• Eloquent
• Free of Internal Conflict
• Expressive Emotionally
III Transformational All of Level II +
• Frames Holistic Issues
• Sets New Goals & Direction
• Creates Meaning
• Manages Creative Conflict
• Promotes Organisational
Learning
• Creates A Context for Dialogue
• Manages Paradigms
• Creates Commitment Through
Shared Values
• Assertive
• Seizes Opportunities
• Tolerates Risk
• Uses Systems Thinking
II Relational • · Creates Commitment Through
Participation
• · Motivates Intrinsically
• · Promotes Teamwork
• · Manages Politics
• · Works Within Existing System
• Participative &
Consultative
• Personable
I Transactional • · Accepts Organisational Goals
• · Uses Extrinsic Motivators
• · Works Within Existing System
• · Directive
• · Dominating
• · Action-Oriented
Table 10 Levels of Leadership, Activities & Competencies, Personal Characteristics
Relationship leadership creates an environment of participation and the key elements of
this level of leadership are teams and teamwork. The leader, as a team member usually
will need to have individuals who can act as the ‘thinker’, ‘sensor’, ‘feeler’ and ‘initiator’
for identifying and solving problems. In this manner difficult, unclear and non-technical
problems can be solved and, by involving the group, a sense of ownership of the problem
and solution may be developed which can promote morale, loyalty and trust.
Transformational leadership is at the leadership level where a leader can change an
organisation based on their personal qualities of vision, inspiration of others and daring.
Transformational leaders are characterised by being bold and visionary with lofty goals
and high ideals that are also assertive risk-takers and seize opportunities.
Transformational leaders create shared values and can normally do so because they are
perceived as being of people of high integrity who understand the complex interactions
between people, technology and culture. Organisational problems are solved by all
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32. Leadership
stakeholders and can require a re-thinking of the organisation's structure, values and
culture.
Transformational leaders can be charismatic where ‘charisma’, from the Greek word for
gift, is “a spiritual power or personal quality that gives an individual influence or
authority over large numbers of people”. Charisma does not necessarily mean that a
leader has knowledge or wisdom but ‘charismatic leaders’ are free from internal conflict
and have high confidence in their own ability and the ‘pure charismatic’ leader is not
concerned with development of others (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). Their disciples also
have high, sometimes misplaced, confidence in their leader and fanaticism can result.
Although charismatic-transformational leadership is perceived as being at high level of
leadership it can have its downside as outlined by Bass (1996). The downside includes
amoral puffery; lacks the checks and balances to avoid dictatorship; is antithetical to
organisational development involving shared leadership, equality, consensus and
participative decision-making; encourages followers to go beyond their own self-interests
for the good of the organisation and followers irrationally pursue evil ends contrary to the
followers' best interests; and manipulates followers so that they lose more than they gain.
The pure Charismatic Leader can, and sometimes does lead their organisations in the
wrong direction through misplaced self-confidence and ideals, which, unfortunately are
followed blindly. Charismatic Leaders do not necessarily influence everyone in an
organisation and, in the eyes of some, charisma can be read as arrogance. In addition
Charismatic Leaders can have difficulties within the middle-management ranks of stable
organisations as they can be viewed as threatening and dangerous. Hence, individuals
with charismatic qualities should be sensitive to the sensibilities of their peers and
superiors.
‘Who’ can be a leader?
Leadership is a talent or skill and some people may be born with more of an aptitude for
leadership than others. However, as with any skill it can be learned and developed. The
abilities of commanding, organising and managing can be learned and practiced while the
factors of loyalty, man-management, discipline and morale can be promoted once they
are understood and accepted as important to leading.
The so-called ‘leadership qualities’ may or may not indicate leadership ability or
potential but they are guides as to the types of qualities that should be looked for in
selecting a leader or developed if one aspires to being a leader. Most people posses such
qualities but either do not use them or do not wish to use them.
But who can be a leader? The answer is ‘anyone’, as long as they are willing.
Individuals who are prepared to take the lead or take a risk, or speak up and promote their
own point of view are exhibiting ‘leadership’. It often happens that some individuals are
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33. Leadership
able to think and act creatively in non-routine situations and will be leaders for a fleeting
moment, although such fleeting moments may be the precursor for greater things. Others
may not be so ‘quick’ but will be able to influence the actions, beliefs and feelings of
others over a longer period.
Leadership can often be associated with an individual’s ‘power’ and Handy (1993)
recognises five types of power:
• Positional - or legitimate power, by virtue of the role or appointment of the
person within the organisation.
• Expert - as a consequence of acknowledged expertise.
• Personal - or referent power, due to personality, charisma or admiration.
• Resource - or reward power, through the ability to give promotions benefits
bonuses or salary increases.
• Physical - or coercive power, dependent on fear.
Individual power is not to be confused with leadership as some individuals use their
‘power’ in order to effect a loyalty, albeit false, to ‘drive’ people into doing things rather
than leading them. In such instances some of the leadership traits of honesty and
integrity could well be questionable.
On a spiritual note a leader, as with all other people develops. It is said that an individual
develops from their first breath through the growth of their body, mind, intellect and
memory (knowledge) and that all these contribute to the ego and ultimately the ‘being’ of
the individual. ‘Ego’, the ‘I am’ which is essential to one’s being can develop in a
healthy manner whereby it is well balanced and honest or it can become biased and self-
satisficing (near enough is good enough) which leads to self gratification rather than
spiritual development. Perhaps this is the difference between the ‘good’ leaders do the
right thing and ‘bad’ leaders who lead in the wrong (morally or ethically) direction
through manipulation for their personal gain and to the detriment of the group.
Leaders must be competent people in that they are adequate, sufficiently qualified, and
efficient at being able to carry out there role. That is not to say that a leader must be
competent in all matters and as such they may be ‘not competent’ however
‘incompetence’ produces poor leadership. People who become leaders must also be’
able’. Many people may have the ‘capability’ to lead with the correct aptitude but ability
is the art of turning capability into action and having the willingness to lead and be able
to perform – it can be a major difference.
No matter who becomes a leader it is a personal choice. A leader must WANT to lead
and, ideally want to lead for the right reasons.
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34. Leadership
Conclusions
Leadership is an ability to influence, guide, persuade and direct people to follow a certain
course of action. There are three components of leadership, an identifiable goal or vision,
a willingness to follow the leader and belief that the course of action is socially
responsible and mutually beneficial. In almost any group of individuals there will be one
who will be either recognised, held-out or respected as ‘the leader’ by persons within and
without the group.
Leadership is not management but in order to lead a certain amount of management skill
is required. A good manager is not necessarily a good leader but a good leader should be
a good manager and optimum organisational performance may be achieved through a
combination of good management and good leadership. Good leadership does not
involve the use of coercive or manipulative techniques but should be based on the
concepts of influencing, inspiring, willingness and ethical acceptability.
Good leadership is needed in order to achieve the objectives of an organisation and
ensure that actions are carried out in a moral, ethical, professional and legal way at all
levels. Effective leadership provides continuity and momentum and the ability to cope
with change in the external environment through internal flexibility.
Leadership is needed all the time and in many different circumstances but the extent to
which it is perceptible or felt varies. Leadership is needed during times of crisis, during
organisational changes, and during success to build team spirit.
Some people are more presupposed to being leaders than others. However leadership is a
talent or skill it can be learned and developed. The abilities of commanding, organising
and managing can be learned and practiced while the factors of loyalty, man-
management, discipline and morale can be promoted once they are understood and
accepted as important to leading. Individuals who are predisposed to taking a risk,
speaking up and promote their own point of view are exhibiting ‘leadership’ and by
taking such ‘action’ are demonstrating a fundamental requirement for leadership, which
is wanting to lead.
People who become leaders must be both capable and able. Leadership is about a
willingness to lead and caring about those people who are willing to follow. Leadership
is personal; it is about oneself, one’s abilities and the personification of oneself in the
eyes of others.
References
WIP
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