Content- Introduction to surveying and leveling
Object and Uses of Surveying, Fundamental Principles of Surveying, Introduction to conventional methods and equipment used for surveying and Leveling
Introduction to modern equipment’s used in surveying- EDM, Total Station, GIS,GPS, Remote sensing, planimeter.
Introduction to Topo sheets and use of maps.
2. ⦁Introduction to surveying and leveling
⦁Object and Uses of Surveying, Fundamental Principles of Surveying
⦁Introduction to conventional methods and equipment used for
surveying and Leveling
⦁Introduction to modern equipment’s used in surveying- EDM, Total
Station, GIS,GPS, Remote sensing, planimeter.
⦁Introduction to Topo sheets and use of maps.
Contents To be Discussed
3. ⦁ Surveying has occurred since humans built the first large
structures. The almost perfect squareness and north-south
orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, affirm the Egyptians'
command of surveying.
⦁ The prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by
prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry.
⦁ The Egyptians first used it to accurately divide land into plots for
the purpose of taxation. Greeks developed the science of
geometry and were using it for precise land division.
History of Survey
4. It is defined as the process of measuring horizontal
distances, vertical distances and included angles to
determine the location of points on, above or below
the earth surfaces.
The term surveying is the representation of surface
features in a horizontal plane.
The process of determining the relative heights in
the vertical plane is referred as leveling.
Surveying & Leveling
5. Object and Uses of Surveying
(i) Plans prepared to record property lines of private,
public and government lands help in avoiding
unnecessary controversies.
(ii) Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries,
states, districts etc., avoid disputes.
(iii) Locality plans help in identifying location of houses
and offices in the area.
(iv) Road maps help travellers and tourist.
(v) Topographic maps showing natural features like
rivers, streams, hills, forests help in planning irrigation
projects and flood control measures.
6. (vi) For planning and estimating project works like roads, bridges,
railways, airports, water supply and waste water disposal surveying
is required.
(vii) Marine and hydrographic survey helps in planning navigation
routes and harbours.
(viii) Military survey is required for strategic planning.
(ix) Mine surveys are required for exploring mineral wealth.
(x) Geological surveys are necessary for determining different strata in
the earth crust so that proper location is found for reservoirs.
(xi) Archeological surveys are useful for unearthing relics of antiquity.
(xii) Astronomical survey helps in the study of movements of planets
and for calculating local and standard times
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7. Fundamental
Principles of
Surveying
To get accurate results in surveying one should follow the
following fundamental principles
(i) Work from whole to part
(ii) Take extra care in fixing new control points
8. Division of Surveying
Plane surveying-
The surveying where the effect of curvature of earth
is neglected and earth’s surface is treated as plane,
is called plane surveying.The Earth surface is
assumed to be plane i.e. Two Dimensional
Suitable for small area surveying (less than 260 km2)
Geodetic surveying-
The surveying where the effect of curvature is
taken into account is called geodetic surveying.The
Earth surface is assumed to be spherical i.e. Three
Dimensional
Suitable for large area surveying(more than 260
km2)
10. Classification of Surveying
(i) Nature of the survey field
(ii) Object of survey
(iii) Instruments used
(iv) The methods employed.
11. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
On this basis survey may be classified as land survey, marine or hydraulic
survey and astronomical survey.
Land Survey. It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type
of survey may be further classified as given below:
(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers,
lakes, forests and hills as well as man made features like roads, railways,
towns, villages and canals.
(b) Cadestral Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities,
villages, talukas, districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties
of individuals also come under this category.
12. (c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the
construction of streets, water supply and sewage lines fall
under this category.
Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Survey conducted to find
depth of water at various points in bodies of water like sea,
river and lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of water
at specified points is known as sounding.
(d) Astronomical Survey. Observations made to heavenly bodies
like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute positions of points on the
earth and for the purpose of calculating local time is known as
astronomical survey.
13. Classification Based on Object of Survey Field
On the basis of object of survey the classification can be as
engineering survey, military survey, mines survey, geological
survey and archeological survey.
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to
collect data for designing civil engineering projects like roads,
railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals. These
surveys are further sub-divided into:
Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and
estimation of the scheme.
Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate
the cost of the project, and Location Survey to set the work on
the ground.
14. (b) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of
strategic importance.
(c) Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.
(d) Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in
the earth’s crust.
(e) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of
antiquity.
15. Classification Based on Instruments Used
(i) Chain survey
(ii) Compass survey
(iii) Plane table survey
(iv) Theodolite survey
(v) Tacheometric survey
(vi) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total
station
(vii) Photographic and Aerial survey
16. Classification Based on Methods Employed
(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established
through a network of triangles.
(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points
consists of a series of connected points established through
linear and angular measurements. If the last line meets the
starting point it is called as closed traverse. If it does not meet,
it is known as open traverse
17. Plans & Maps
As stated in the definition of surveying the objective of measurements is to
show relative positions of various objects on paper. Such representations
on paper is called plan or map.
A plan may be defined as the graphical representation of the features on,
near or below the surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane to
a suitable scale.
18. Why do we need Instruments In Surveying ?
The main key points for which we use instruments in survey are:
For Finding Distances
For Finding Angles
For Knowing Elevations
To Find Unknown Coordinates
For Finding Inaccessible Heights
For Setting out of Curves
Making Contour Maps
Marking National Boundaries
Area and Volume Computation
20. Chaining-
Measuring the horizontal distances on ground with help of chain or tape
Ranging-
Method of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line
between two fixed point or two survey stations is called as ranging.
Offsetting-
A distance measured from a main survey line on its right or left side.
21. Chain
A surveying chain is a device used to measure
distance between two points on the ground.
Metric chains are available in lengths of 5 m,
10m, 20m and 30 m.
20m – 30 m chain is normally used for the field of
surveying.
22. As the chain had several limitations. To overcome these
difficulties, measuring tape was developed.
Measuring tape is a flexible ruler used to measure
distances.
It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass, or
metal strip with linear-measurement markings.
Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials. For
engineering work the lengths are generally 10m, 30m,
50m and 100m.
Measuring Tape
24. Pegs
Wooden pegs of 15cm length and 2.5-3 cm square
n section are used to establish the station points or
the end points of li e on the ground.
They are tapered one end and are driven into the ground.
25. Ranging rod
A ranging rod is a surveying instrument used for marking the position of stations, and
for sightings of those stations, as well as for ranging straight lines
27. Prismatic Compass
It is a navigation and surveying instrument
which is extensively used to find out
the bearing of the traversing and included
angles between them.
The compass calculates bearings of lines with
respect to magnetic needle. The included angles
can then be calculated using suitable formulas in
case of clockwise and anti-clockwise traverse
respectively
28. Plane table
A plane table is a device used in surveying
and related to provide a solid and level
surface on which to make field drawings,
charts and maps.
The principle of plane tabling is
parallelism, means “All the rays drawn
through various details should pass
through the survey station”.
Plane table surveying is a graphical
method of survey in which
the field observations and plotting are
done simultaneously.
29. Dumpy level
The dumpy level is an optical surveying
Leveling instrument consisting a
telescope tube firmly secured in two
collars fixed by adjusting screws to the
stage by the vertical spindle. The
telescope of dumpy level can rotate only
in a horizontal plane.
A dumpy level is also called a builder's le
vel, surveyors level, Dumpy level.
30. leveling staff
A graduated wooden or aluminum rod, used
with a levelling instrument to determine the
difference in height between points or
heights of points above a vertical datum. It
cannot be used without
a leveling instrument.
32. How to measure the area by a
Planimeter
To compute the area of given plan of any shape, the
first step anchor point is to be fixed at one point.
If the given plan area is small, then anchor point is
placed outside the plan.
Similarly, if the given plan area is large then it is
placed inside the plan.
Area = M (FR – IR + 10N + C)
33. ● A level an optical instrument used to establish or verify
points in the same horizontal plane in a process
known as leveling.
● It is used in conjunction with a leveling staff to
establish the relative heights levels of objects or
marks.
● It is widely used in surveying and construction to
measure height differences and to transfer, measure,
and set heights of known objects or marks.
● The complete unit is normally mounted on a tripod,
and the telescope can freely rotate 360° in a horizontal
plane.
● It is also known as a Surveyors level, Builders level,
Dumpy level.
Auto Level
34. ● To measure height differences
● Used in a Road Profile For excavation of canals, roads,
pipelines, railroads etc
● Setting height of known objects
● Finding height and horizontal angle between
different objects
● Helps in making contour maps, contour lines etc.
Applications of Auto level
35. Theodolite
It is an instrument for measuring angles in the
horizontal and vertical planes.
Initially the theodolite had a number of limitations
and could not measure angle with great accuracy
and precision. With the advancement in the field of
technology, scientists made a number of
modifications in older theodolites for measuring
angles with great accuracy and precision.
Modern theodolites are designed in such a way to
perform all the necessary angular and distance
calculations and to read the measurement up to
seconds of levels.
36. Applications of Theodolite
Measuring horizontal and Vertical angles
Locating points on a line
Difference of level
Setting out of Curves
Measurement of Bearings
Setting out of Grades(Slopes)
37.
38.
39. ● EDM stands for Electronic Distance Measurement.
● EDM is a surveying instrument used for measuring
distance electronically between two points through
electromagnetic waves.
● The distance measured by EDM is more precise than
measured with chain or tape.
● The wave emitted from the EDM reaches the reflector
and return back to the EDM. Then the distance is
measured with the help of time taken for the above
process – time taken by the wave for the emission and
return.
● The following equation is used to measure the
distance.
Distance = Velocity X time
Electronic Distance Measurement
40. Based on the wave used
• Microwave Instrument
• Infra Red Equipment
• Light Wave Equipment
Types of EDM
Based on the range of measurement
• Short-<5kms
• Medium
• long range-above 25kms
41. ● The surveying equipment functions with the help of micro waves come under this
category.
● Normally these used to measure long distances within 100km with their frequency
range.
● The very first instrument was discovered in South Africa by Col. Harry and developed
by Dr. T. L. Wadley in 1950’s and the equipment named as Tellurometer.
● Tellurometer uses the above mentioned technique, the phase comparison of wave
to determine the distance. In this method two equipment and two operators
needed to carry out the procedure. Micro wave signals are radiated from primary
source equipment to the reflector and then the reflector amplifies the micro wave
signals to send them back to the primary source equipment in exact phase as they
emitted from B.
● This method a maximum distance of 80 to 100km can be measured with an error
correction of + or – 5 to 15 mm per km.
Micro Wave Instrument
42. ● The surveying equipment functions with the help of modulated infra-red waves
come under this category.
● The use of infrared instrument is high in civil engineering surveying as they are
inexpensive and more accurate when compare to the rest.
● Distomats and electronic tacheometer or total station instruments falls under this
category. In distomat, the instrument should be focused to the reflector distomat to
receive, monitor and reflect back the wave signal. With a single touch the
instrument displays the distance on the screen after measures the five modulation
frequencies of infrared wave signal.
● Although these type of instrument used to measure up to a maximum distance of
3 – 5km, many civil engineering works limited to this distance. In these instrument
an accuracy of + or – 10mm per km can be obtained.
Infra-red Wave Instrument
43. ● The light wave instrument use visible or simply light which means wave lengths
that are visible to human eyes to measure the distance.
● The measuring range of light wave instruments is lesser than that of microwave
instruments as because of the less transmitting power of light wave instruments.
Here primary equipment is used as light wave emitting instrument and corner
cube prisms are used as reflectors. When compare to the rest this method is more
cheap when compare the value of instruments. Geodimeter falls under this type of
instrument.
● The plus points of this type instruments are, no signal loss, cheap instrument, one
main instrument is enough and a very high accuracy of 0.2mm to 1mm per km.
Light Wave Instrument
44. ● Initially theodolites were used to measure angles.
Distances were measured either with the tapes or
chains. With the advancement in technology, EDM
(Electron Distance Measurement) was mounted on
theodolites.
● Total Station is an equipment used in surveying,
designed for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles, inclusive of measuring sloping distance
of object to the instrument.
● Total stations became combination
of theodolite, and EDM,(level & tape).
Total Station
45. Components of a Total Station
● The components used in Total station surveying are
as follows:
● A tripod is used to hold the total station
● Prism and prism pole which can measure lengths up
to 2 km and up to 6-7 km can measured with triple
prism
● A micro-processor with a memory unit which deals
with recordings, readings, and the fundamental
calculation of measurements.
● Data collected from total station can be
downloaded into computer/laptops for further
processing of information.
● Battery
46. ● Used for topographic, Hydrographic, cadastral, project and construction surveys.
● Computing coordinates of survey points from horizontal angle and horizontal
distance.
● Area calculations
● Volume Calculations
● Stake out Coordinates
● Setting out Curves
● Remote distance measurement (RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM)
● Mine Survey
● Cadastral Survey
● Engineering Survey
● Large Scale Survey
● Road / Rail / Canal Survey
Applications of Total Station
47. ⦁ A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer
system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying
data related to positions on Earth's surface
⦁ GIS is a combination of hardware, software and data.
It combines graphic data in the form of maps
with additional data in the form of tables (databases)
.
⦁ GIS provides a central location for data and analysis
critical to today’s surveying, planning, construction, and
management. It allows professional land surveyors a
way to provide more accurate and less expensive
surveys.
⦁ In addition to more rapid data collection and better
planning, design & construction
GIS (Geographic Information System )
48. ⦁ The key word to this technology is Geography – this means that some
portion of the data is spatial. In other words, data that is in some way
referenced to locations on the earth.
⦁ Vector data is used to represent real world features in a GIS. A vector
feature can have a geometry type of point, line or a polygon. Each vector
feature has attribute data that describes it.
⦁ Attribute data is Nonspatial information about a geographic feature in
a GIS, usually stored in a table and linked to the feature by a unique
identifier.
⦁ Coupled with this data is usually tabular data known as attribute
data. Attribute data generally defined as additional information about
each of the spatial features. An example of this would be college. The
actual location of the college is the spatial data. Additional data such as
the college name,student capacity would make up the attribute data.
GIS (Geographic Information System )
49. ⦁ GIS can be used as tool in both problem solving and
decision making processes, as well as for visualization
of data in a spatial environment.
⦁ Geospatial data can be analyzed to determine
(1) the location of features and relationships to other
features
(2) where the most and/or least of some feature exists
(3) the density of features in a given space
(4) what is happening inside an area of interest
(5) what is happening nearby some feature or
phenomenon
(6) and how a specific area has changed over time
(and in what way).
GIS (Geographic Information System )
50. ⦁ Hardware-The hardware part of GIS refers to computers, printers,
output devices, input devices and large amounts of disk space to
store
⦁ Software- GIS software lets you produce maps and other graphic
displays of geographic information for analysis and presentation.
⦁ Ex. Google Earth Pro. ,Maptitude, MapInfo Pro. ,Google Maps API.
⦁ Data- spatial data, attribute data & metadata data (images or
pictures such as remote sensing data or scans of maps or other
photos consider)
⦁ People- GIS users range from technical specialist who design &
maintain
⦁ Methods- the map creation can either be automated or it can be
manually using scanned copies.
Key components of GIS
51. ⦁ State Land Inventory
⦁ Municipal and Regional Planning
⦁ Social Infrastructure Planning
⦁ Organizing Municipal Services
⦁ Transportation Planning
⦁ Slum rehabilitation
⦁ Natural Resource Management
⦁ Land Use Planning
⦁ Watershed Management
⦁ Coastal Zone Management
⦁ Environmental Monitoring
⦁ Forest Cover Monitoring
⦁ Climate Change Mapping
⦁ Disaster Preparedness/Early Warning
⦁ Tourism
Common fields of application
of GIS
52. GPS (Global Positioning System)
The Global Positioning System ( GPS ) is
a satellite-based navigation system
made up of a network of 24 satellites
placed into orbit by the U.S.
Department of Defense.
GPS was originally intended for military
applications, but in the 1980's, the
government made the system available
for civilian use.
53. • GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year.
• The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the
earth about 12,000 miles above us. These satellites are travelling at speeds
of roughly 7,000 miles an hour.
• GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries
onboard to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when
there's no solar power.
• Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct
path. Each satellite weighs about 2,000 pounds and is built to last about
ten years.
GPS
54. GPS
GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as
it can give a position (Latitude, Longitude
and Height) directly, without the need to
measure angles and distances between
intermediate points.
Survey control points could now be
established almost anywhere and it is only
necessary to have a clear view of the sky so
the signal from the GPS satellites could be
received clearly.
55. Applications and Benefits of GPS
GPS provides surveying and mapping data of the highest accuracy.
GPS is especially useful in surveying coasts and waterways, where
there are few land-based reference points.
Bridge builders and offshore oil rigs also depend on GPS for
accurate hydrographic surveys.
Significant productivity gains in terms of time, equipment, and labor
required.
Accurate as compared to conventional techniques.
Accurate positioning of physical features that can be used in maps
and models.
Faster delivery of geographic information needed by decision makers.
56. ● Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or
phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus
is in contrast to on-site observation. The term is applied especially to
acquiring information about the Earth.
● In current usage, the term "remote sensing" generally refers to the use
of satellite or aircraft-based sensor technologies to detect and classify
objects on Earth.
● Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or
inaccessible areas.
Remote sensing
57.
58. 1. Passive sensor
The sensors gather radiation that is emitted or
reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Sunlight
reflection is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive
remote sensors are photography, infrared, and
radiometers.
2. Active sensor
The sensor embodies within itself the source of
illumination like a satellite equipped with a RADAR
sensor. Active sensors throw their own energy to scan
the object. RADAR is examples of active remote
sensing which measure the time delay between
emission and return.
Types of remote sensing
59. application of remote sensing
Creating a base map for visual reference
Nowadays many modern mapping technologies are based on Remote Sensing
including Google maps, open street maps, Bing maps, NASA’s Globe view, etc.
Controlling forest fires
Information acquired by satellites using Remote Sensing enables firefighters to be
dispatched on time and over correct locations so the damage from such fires can
be decreased to minimal.
Predicting potential landslides
Landslides cause noticeable death and wealth loss around the globe. Remote
sensing technique for providing an early warning regarding potential landslides.
60. Toposheet
Maps which represent a symbolic or conventional picture
of the physical and cultural landscape of small area on
very large scale are known as Topographical maps
or topo sheets.
These maps are based on actual survey of the area.
Topographic maps are a detailed record of a land area,
giving geographic positions and elevations for both
natural and man-made features. They show the shape of
the land the mountains, valleys, and plains by means of
contour lines (lines of equal elevation above sea level).
61. Use Toposheet
Topographic maps show contours, elevation, forest cover, marsh,
pipelines, power transmission lines, buildings and various types of
boundary lines such as international, provincial and administrative, and
many others.
Toposheet provide valuable information about the topography of area,
whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous. The nature of the ground
surface of an area can be understood by studying topographic map.
