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Chap2
1.
Chapter 2
The Person and the Situation Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
2.
Chapter Outline
The Enigma of the Ordinary and Extraordinary Man The Person The Situation The Person and The Situation Interact Revisiting the Enigma of an Ordinary and Extraordinary Man Chapter Summary Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
3.
Outline
The Person Motivation: What Drives Us Knowledge: Our View of Ourselves and the World Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods Focus on Method: Assessing Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
4.
Motivation: What Drives
Us Motivation: the driving force that moves people toward their desired outcomes. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
5.
Motivation
WHAT ARE YOUR GOALS? What goals do you have for today? What goals do you have for this semester? What goals do you have for your career? What goals do you have for your life? Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
6.
Motivation
Gain Status Get Well-Paying, Highly Respected Job Earn High Grades Attend Take Study for Class Notes Exams Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
7.
Motivation
Attention: the process of consciously focusing on aspects of our environment or ourselves. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
8.
Motivation
Automaticity: the ability of a behavior or cognitive process to operate without conscious guidance once it’s put into motion. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
9.
esearc
h Motivation Willpower: Use it and lose it. Participants in one experiment were asked to eat radishes rather than nearby cookies. Others were asked to eat cookies and ignore the radishes. The students were then asked to solve puzzles (which, unbeknownst to them, were actually impossible). Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
10.
esearc
h 25:0 Motivation 0 25:52 20:0 18:54 Persisten 0 15:0 ce on 0 puzzles 10:0 8:21 (minutes) 0 5:00 Control Cookie- Radish- (Puzzle eaters (No eaters Task Only) Radishes (No Cookies Allowed) Allowed) Participants who had to exercise will- power to resist the cookies had less will-power left over for the difficult puzzles Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
11.
esearc
h 25:0 Motivation 0 25:52 20:0 18:54 Persisten 0 15:0 ce on 0 puzzles 10:0 8:21 (minutes) 0 5:00 Control Cookie- Radish- (Puzzle eaters (No eaters Task Only) Radishes (No Cookies Allowed) Allowed) These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that: Using willpower for one task reduces its availability for later Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
12.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Explanations Beliefs Sensory Memories Mental Representation Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
13.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World King pursued his Explanations goal because he was religious Beliefs Sensory Memories He was Martin Luther spiritual, wanted to King eliminate “I have a discriminatio dream…” Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
14.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Exemplar: mental representation of a specific episode, event, or individual. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
15.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Schema: A mental representation capturing the general characteristics of a particular class of episodes, events, or individuals. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
16.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Self Concept: A mental representation capturing our views and beliefs about ourselves. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
17.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Reflected Appraisal Process: The process through which people come to know themselves by observing or imagining how others view them. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
18.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Self Perception Process: the process through which people observe their own behavior to infer their own internal characteristics. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
19.
Knowledge: Our View
of Ourselves and the World Social Comparison: the process through which people come to know themselves by comparing their abilities, attitudes and beliefs with those of others. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
20.
Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions,
and Moods Attitudes: favorable or unfavorable feelings towards particular people, objects, events or ideas. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
21.
Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions,
and Moods Self-esteem: the specific attitude we have toward ourselves. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
22.
Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions,
and Moods Emotions: relatively intense feelings characterized by physiological arousal and complex cognitions (e.g., fear, anger, joy). Emotions are more intense than attitudes. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
23.
Feelings: Attitudes, Emotions,
and Moods Moods: relatively long- lasting feelings that are less focused than emotions, and not directed toward a particular target. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
24.
Feelings
Focus on Method: Assessing Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods On a 9-point scale – 1=extremely sad 9=extremely happy How do you feel right now? Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
25.
Feelings
Focus on Method: Assessing Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods The self-report method asks a person directly “how are you feeling?” Self-report may not work if people have reason to hide their feelings. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
26.
Feelings
Focus on Method: Assessing Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods Self-report bias is reduced by: • Making responses anonymous • Leading participants to believe that they are Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
27.
Feelings
Focus on Method: Assessing Attitudes, Emotions, and Moods Feelings can also be inferred from behavior (e.g. clenched fists, or frowns) or from physiological measures (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure) Researchers search for convergence between self-reports, behaviors, and physiological measures. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
28.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Evidence for genetic influences: People from different societies express and experience emotions in surprisingly similar ways: People in remote regions of the world agree on facial expressions for happiness, fear, anger, and Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
29.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Evidence for genetic influences: Children born deaf, blind, and brain damaged are unable to learn emotional responses from their social world. Nevertheless, they show many normal emotional reactions like smiling, laughter, anger, and Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
30.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Evidence for genetic influences: Behavior genetic studies indicate a heritable component to emotions and moods expressed by related individuals. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
31.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Evidence for cultural influences: People in different cultures learn different rules about expressing emotions. Example: Utku Eskimos rarely express anger; Awlad’Ali Bedouins quickly express their Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
32.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Classical conditioning: Involuntary process through which feelings become associated with new objects or events. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
33.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Instrumental learning: The process through which people learn new voluntary responses by being rewarded or punished. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
34.
Feelings
Genetic and Cultural Foundations Observational learning: The process through which people learn by watching others get rewarded or punished. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
35.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Gently hold a pen between your teeth, making sure it doesn’t touch your lips. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
36.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Now grip the end of the pen firmly with your lips, making sure it doesn’t dip downward. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
37.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings In an experiment by researchers Fritz Strack, Leonard Martin and Sabine Stepper, students read cartoons while holding the pen with either their teeth or their lips. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
38.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Compared to control participants who held the pen in their hands, those who held the pen in their teeth rated cartoons as funnier. Those who held the pen in their lips rated the cartoons as less funny. Why? Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
39.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Holding the pen between your teeth contracts the facial muscles into something like a smile. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
40.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Holding the pen firmly between the lips creates an expression similar to an angry grimace. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
41.
Feelings
Proximate Contributors to Feelings Our feelings are influenced strongly be how we appraise our situations. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
42.
esearc
h Feelings Proximate Contributors to Feelings Who is happier following Olympic performances – Silver medalists or bronze medalists? Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
43.
esearc
h Feelings Proximate Contributors to Feelings Researchers analyzed films from 1992 Olympics, and found that athletes who won Bronze medals were happier than those who Why? Silver. won Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
44.
esearc
h Feelings Proximate Contributors to Feelings Silver medalists talked about how close they had come to a Gold. Bronze medalists imagined winning no medal at all. Counterfactual thinking - Process of imagining alternative versions of actual Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
45.
Outline
The Situation Persons as Situations: Mere Presence, Affordances, and Descriptive Norms Focus on Social Dysfunction: Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on Campus Rules: Injunctive Norms and Scripted Situations Strong Versus Weak Situations Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
46.
Persons as Situations:
Mere Presence, Affordances, and Descriptive Norms Small schools are “undermanned”-- they need all their students. Because of this, students participate in more activities and feel more challenged. Large schools are “overmanned”-- they don’t need all their students. Thus, students are less needed and Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
47.
Persons
as Situations Affordance Imagine you are at the company picnic and you spot your new boss sitting by himself. This could be a good chance to advance your career. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
48.
Persons
as Situations Affordance - Opportunity or threat provided by a situation. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
49.
Persons
as Situations Descriptive norm - Information about what people commonly do in a situation. Example: Many students wear jeans to classes. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
50.
Persons
as Situations Pluralistic Ignorance Imagine you are in your social psychology class, and don’t understand a concept the professor just explained. You look around and no one else seems confused. Not wanting to look like the only one who doesn’t understand, you don’t raise your hand. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
51.
Persons
as Situations Pluralistic Ignorance - The phenomenon in which people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone in the group is acting inconsistently with their beliefs. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
52.
Focus on Social
Dysfunction: Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on Campus • Over 40 percent of students binge drink at least twice a month. • Males are more likely to drink than females (51% vs. 40%) • Princeton researchers found pluralistic ignorance plays a role Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
53.
Focus on Social
Dysfunction: Descriptive Norms, Pluralistic Ignorance, and Binge Drinking on Campus • Many students were uncomfortable with drinking on • campus guessed other students Yet they were not as uncomfortable • Over time, men shift their opinions to be more consistent with their misperceptions of Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
54.
Rules: Injunctive Norms
and Scripted Situations Injunctive norm - Rules that define what is typically approved and disapproved of in a situation. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
55.
Rules: Injunctive Norms
and Scripted Situations Scripted Situation - A situation in which certain events are expected to occur in a particular order. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
56.
Script For a
Getting a Date 1. Two people notice each other. 2. They get caught staring, and smile. 3. Find out about one another from friends. 4. They attempt to “accidentally” come across one another again. 5. They get a friend to introduce them. 6. They begin a conversation. 7. One requests the other’s phone Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
57.
Strong Versus Weak
Situations Strong situations demand people act in particular ways. Examples: Funeral, job interview. Weak situations allow people to behave in many different ways. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
58.
Culture
Culture - the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by people living in a particular time and place Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
59.
Culture
Individualist Culture - A culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as individuals, and to give priority to their own personal goals. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
60.
Culture
Collectivist Culture - A culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as members of a larger group, and to place the group’s concerns before their own. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
61.
Culture
Where would you rank the following five countries on individualism? • Canada –> # 4 • South Korea –> # 44 • United States–> # 1 • Japan –> # 22 • Mexico –> # 32 (Hofstede, Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
62.
Outline
The Person and the Situation Interact Different Persons Respond Differently to the Same Situation Focus on Application: Person Situation Fit in the Workplace Situations Choose the Person Persons Choose Their Situations Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the Person Persons Change The Situation Situations Change the Person Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
63.
Different Persons Respond
Differently to the Same Situation Different people are attuned to different parts of a situation, and the same situation means different things to different people. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
64.
esearc
h Different Persons Respond Differently to the Same Situation Imagine you’ve agreed to participate in an experiment studying the psychology of sports performance. The study involves a golf- like putting task. How do you think you’d do? Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Different Persons Respond Differently to the Same Situation Two groups of students were asked to perform this exact putting task. The first group was told the task measured “natural athletic ability.” Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Different Persons Respond Differently to the Same Situation Two groups of students were asked to perform this exact putting task. The second group was told the task measured “sports intelligence.” Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Motivation Average 3 27.8 number of 0 2 23.1 strokes. 5 (higher 20 number 15 indicates 1 worse 0 performance) 5 Natural Ability Sports Intelligence White participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “natural ability.” Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Motivation Average 3 27.8 27.2 number of 0 2 23.1 23.3 strokes. 5 (higher 20 number 15 indicates 1 worse 0 performance) 5 Natural Ability Sports Intelligence Black participants performed worse than usual when told the test measured “sports intelligence.” Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Motivation Average 3 27.8 27.2 number of 0 2 23.1 23.3 strokes. 5 (higher 20 number 15 indicates 1 worse 0 performance) 5 Natural Ability Sports Intelligence Both groups appeared to do worse when they had to worry about re-enforcing pre- existing stereotypes.Stone et al. (1999) Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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h Motivation Average 3 27.8 27.2 number of 0 2 23.1 23.3 strokes. 5 (higher 20 number 15 indicates 1 worse 0 performance) 5 Natural Ability Sports Intelligence These findings illustrate how different people respond differently in the same situations. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Different Persons Respond
Differently to the Same Situation (continued) Person Situation Fit The extent to which a person and a situation are compatible. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Focus on Application:
Person Situation Fit in the Workplace When employees’ personal characteristics – interests, goals, abilities, traits – fit with the demands and opportunities of their occupations, employees are happier and more likely to stay at their jobs. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Focus on Application:
Person Situation Fit in the Workplace Other research illustrates the value of having the person fit not just the job but the organization’s culture. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Situations Choose the
Person Example: Athletic teams have slots for only so many players, so not everyone gets the experience of playing on the team. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Persons Choose Their
Situations We choose situations based that provide opportunities that fit with our personal characteristics. Example: If you are an introvert, a quiet evening at home might be more appealing than a crowded rock concert. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Different Situations Prime
Different Parts of the Person Inside each one of us, there are different motives, memories, and feelings. Each of these is likely to be triggered by some situations more than others. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Different Situations Prime
Different Parts of the Person Example: After watching a slapstick comedy that primes memories of innocent accidents, an ambiguous collision with a stranger may draw one reaction: (“Oops. How clumsy of me!”) But a blow-em-up action thriller may trigger your inner Rambo: Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Persons Change The
Situation Sometimes people change situations to better achieve their goals. (a teacher will set up her class so that her students get along) Other times people change situations inadvertently. (depressed college students may depress their roommates) Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Situations Change the
Person You may be a different person after spending time in a situation. Example: Two similar high school students may be very different after one spends four years in the military while the other is in a liberal arts college. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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Situations Change the
Person Socialization The process through which a culture teaches its members about its beliefs, customs, habits, and language. Copyright © 2002 by Allyn and Bacon
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