1. FOCUS ON... BUSINESS
The Plasma
Fractionation Industry
New Opportunities To Move Forward?
John Curling and Christopher Bryant
S
hortly after the turn of
the millennium, Australian
fractionator CSL Ltd.
acquired the Swiss plasma
plant at ZLB, Bern (Central
Laboratory of the Swiss Red Cross
Blood Transfusion Service). Two
years later, the US plasma
fractionation industry entered the
year 2003 with an announcement
that the proposed merger between
Aventis Behring and Bayer’s plasma
operations would not happen. In
August 2004, soon after CSL
completed its acquisition of Aventis
Behring, the newswires buzzed with
speculation over Bayer’s long-
awaited divestment of its plasma
business in Clayton, NC. On 14
December 2004, Cerberus and
Ampersand agreed to acquire that
ANTHONY HERNANDEZ (WWW.ISTOCKPHOTO.COM) Bayer unit.
Such movements seem
COHN FRACTIONATION commonplace in an industry
sector that has endured consent-
The development of methods for plasma protein fractionation was driven by decrees, battled with product
a need for human albumin in World War II and the requirement to isolate shortages of both plasma-derived
diphtheria and tetanus antibodies from horse serum. and recombinant products, faced
E. J. Cohn and his many coworkers published their landmark paper describing dramatic drops in product pricing,
ethanol fractionation in 1946 (1). Their paper was 43rd in a series entitled and all but lost a market for
Studies on Plasma Proteins from Harvard Medical School. The first use of albumin. Raw material (plasma)
ethanol fractionated albumin was to treat casualties at Pearl Harbor in 1941. costs have risen significantly, and
The fractionation industry is now driven by the demand for IgG to treat processing costs rise with each
immune deficiencies and recombinant as well as plasma-derived Factor VIII incremental addition of safety
for hemophiliacs. Nonetheless, the industry standard backbone is still “Cohn measures such as inventory hold
fractionation” with chromatography and membrane technologies, integrated
with viral inactivation, dominating side-stream fractionation. and plasma pool testing.
However, CSL Ltd (www.csl.
REFERENCE com), now the holding company for
1 Cohn EJ, et al. Preparation and Properties of Serum and Plasma Proteins, IV: A System ZLB Behring and the world’s largest
for the Separation into Fractions of the Protein and Lipoprotein Components of Biological
Tissues and Fluids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62, 1946: 459–475. fractionator with a 25% market share
18 BioProcess International MARCH 2005

2. (with operations in Switzerland, PLASMA INDUSTRY CHANGES 2003 AND 2004
Germany, and the United States),
reported net profit after tax of 13% 2003
on revenues of US$1.65 billion for Bayer and Aventis halt plans for a merger of their plasma products
the past financial year, ending 30 businesses.
June 2004. Importantly, CSL’s cash
flow increased significantly, and R&D CSL announces preliminary negotiations with Aventis concerning the
expenditure was up 11% to over acquisition of Aventis Behring.
US$100 million. As another
important industry indicator, Baxter announces plans to close 26 of its 120 plasma collection centers in
approval of new plasma products the United States as well a 700,000-L plant in Michigan. Plasma collected
indicates no lack of innovation. New, and fractionated will drop from 4.6 million liters to 4 million liters, and
higher yielding side-stream processes 800 jobs will be eliminated.
also indicate innovation within limits,
Probitas Pharma completes acquisition of assets of Alpha Therapeutic from
intended or not, frequently set by
Mitsubishi Pharma.
regulatory authorities.
Octapharma completes acquisition of Mexican fractionator Probifasa SA
INDUSTRY CONSOLIDATION de CV.
Major structural changes of the
North American–European plasma Aventis Bio-Services sells 21 of its 80 plasma collection centers to
fractionation axis are shown in the International Bioresources.
“Plasma Industry Changes 2003
and 2004” box. Clearly, major Bayer initiates divestment of the plasma operations of its Biological
chemical-pharmaceutical companies Products Division. Plasma product sales were €679 in 2002. Bayer
are seeking to exit the business, employs 1350 people at its Clayton, NC, facility.
whereas dedicated plasma companies
such as CSL Ltd., which continues CSL and Aventis sign a definitive agreement, creating a new entity, ZLB
to divest non-core business, and Behring, for US$925 million. Aventis Behring generated €1.068 billion in
Probitas Pharma (Grifols) are eager sales in 2002 and employs 5800 people worldwide.
to consolidate and strengthen their
2004
positions. Increasingly, raw material
Baxter further reduces fractionation capacity by around 13% (400,000 L
(plasma) follows the laws of
annually and closure of further collection centers).
commodity markets as we witness
the acquisitions and divestments ZLB Behring, formerly Aventis Behring, closes 35 collection centers,
of collection centers across the reducing collection volume by one million liters and leaving 65 centers
United States. in operation. Plasma throughput at the Kankakee, MI, facility will be
Past and current chairs of the reduced, the Vienna plant closed, and production transferred to Marburg,
Plasma Protein Therapeutics Germany. ZLB Bioplasma’s facility will implement improved use, and the
Association (PPTA, www. combined capacity of CSL’s facilities will be reduced from 4.2 million to
plasmatherapeutics.org) have 3.1 million liters. CSL expects to save US$100 million in operating costs.
successfully differentiated the plasma
industry from the pharmaceutical Probitas Pharma is forced to suspend its IPO because of weak investor
industry. For example, raw material demand. The company expects to double its sales from US$1.26 billion
costs account for around 45% of the in 2003 over five years, achieving a 10% global market share.
units on an income statement in the
plasma industry compared with 5% Bayer’s short list of bidders for its plasma fractionation business includes
in the pharmaceutical industry (1). investment firms Bain Capital and Carlyle Group. Cerberus is also
Quality plasma costs have risen 40% bidding, and the American Red Cross is reported to have an interest. On
over the past seven years, and 14 December, Cerberus Capital and Ampersand Ventures agreed to buy
nucleic-acid testing alone adds the business for over US$590 million. The new company thus created,
US$5–15 per liter of plasma (2). NPS Biotherapeutics, Inc., will also incorporate Precision Pharma. Bayer’s
Although recalls and withdrawals plasma products generated sales of US$739 million with a pretax loss of
have declined dramatically, inventory US$426 million in 2003. Sales in FY2004 were €481 million.
hold costs the industry another
US$33 million per year (2). The Finnish Red Cross, which decided to discontinue fractionation in
In his 2004 analysis of the 2003, enters an agreement with Sanquin for the manufacture and supply
industry, the PPTA Chair Peter of plasma products for Finland’s market. Intermediates will be produced
Turner notes that “US and in the Belgian Red Cross fractionation facility and finished products
European demand for IVIG processed in Amsterdam.
MARCH 2005 BioProcess International 19

3. [intravenous immunoglobulin] Table 1: New, US, normal plasma and equivalent recombinant product approvals (BLA)
in 2002–2004
has been met, and prices have
Manufacturer Claimed Benefit/
fallen 20–25% in two years, the price Product Approval Date Indication Improvement
of albumin has halved in three years, Aralast Alpha Therapeutic API deficiency and First alternative to
substitution of recombinant Factor Alpha-1 Proteinase (now Baxter) evidence of Prolastin; patient choice
VIII for plasma-derived product Inhibitor (API) 23 December 2002 emphysema
continues, and there is greater access
to alpha1-protease inhibitor” (3). Crosseal Omrix Hemostasis in Ease of preparation and
In this climate, industry Fibrin Sealant (Distr.: American patients use
Red Cross undergoing liver
consolidation and realignment are 21 March 2003 surgery
understandable, but widely disparate
access to plasma protein therapies Zemaira Aventis Behring API deficiency and Purity (90%), safety,
Alpha-1- 8 July 2003 evidence of efficacy, convenience;
remains unaddressed across the Proteinase emphysema 15 min. infusion time
globe. Among the PPTA models Inhibitor (API) (cf 30 mins for other
for the future (3) are a products)
• Broad portfolio of high Advate Baxter Healthcare Hemophilia A Recombinant, no plasma
yielding products rFactor 25 July 2003 products used in MAb
• Global plasma reach selling VIII Plasma/ production or as
three–four products/liter of plasma Albumin Free additives; no prion risk;
• Efficient scale and competitive Method tolerability, hemostatic
efficacy; low inhibitor
cost structure. rate; easy to use
MORE PRODUCTS Gamunex Bayer Primary immune Unprecedented primary
IVIG, 10% by 27 August 2003 deficiency and ITP immune deficiency (PID)
PER LITER OF PLASMA Chromatography clinical results; anti-
Blood plasma is the most complex Process infective efficacy; new
human-derived proteome. It safety paradigm
contains 55–60% albumin and offers Flebogamma Instituto Grifols Primary immune Liquid, ready-to-use
an exceptional dynamic abundance IVIG (Probitas Pharma) deficiency
range (10 orders of magnitude) — 15 December 2003
from picograms/mL of interleukins Octagam Octapharma Primary immune Only liquid and double
up to 35–50 g/L range for albumin. IVIG 21 May 2004 deficiency virus inactivated IVIG
Despite the plethora of true plasma that can be stored at
proteins (secreted from solid tissues room temperature (2–
and immunoglobulins), tissue- 25 °C) up to 24 months;
free from stabilizers
leakage products, and temporary
plasma passengers, only 289 proteins
have been documented; about 100 It also appears that the established (6). Despite lower pricing for IVIG,
are used in diagnostic assays and industry is focused on highly this product is likely to remain an
fewer than 20 as plasma competitive markets in which industry driver, but added revenues
therapeutics, with three proteins products are differentiated by from plasma-derived Factor VIII
accounting for 80% of the revenue manufacturers and distributors and alpha1-protease inhibitor are
(4). Assessing opportunities for the rather than by therapeutic effect. mandatory for an industry that
future, Over (5) found only five new (That is changing, but on “benefit- needs to invest in both plant and
products in clinical trials in 2002. to-patient” attributes such as ease R&D. Net revenues (after the cost
However, 2003 was an exceptional of use, infusion time, shelf-life, and of plasma) from existing products
year for new approvals by CBER storage conditions.) The industry per liter of plasma dropped from an
(www.fda.gov/cber/products.htm), still tends to differentiate on safety, all-time high of about US$220 in
as shown in Table 1. advocating added or improved viral 1999 to barely over US$100 in
It is striking that all those clearance or prion safety as well as 2003 (3). Among the various
products are new variants of new manufacturing techniques. measures triggered by such a loss
established products and that they A quick review of a plasma has to be the development of truly
were launched in the US market as product distributor site — www. new products from plasma, not just
an attempt to expand market share, blooddiagnostics.com — illustrates incremental improvements to
competing against existing products. the competitive nature of the market existing ones. This involves a
Significantly, products new to the as well as the product offerings. paradigm shift and a new era of
market are absent from the list of Such an environment leads to price innovation that Christensen
approvals — such as plasmin, pressures and loss of revenue/liter describes as a “disruptive
fibronectin, and apolipoprotein A-1. of plasma as described by Rankin technology” path (7).
20 BioProcess International MARCH 2005

4. HIGH-YIELDING PROCESSES Table 2: Average process yields per liter of plasma from existing “Cohn” fractionation
facilities.
The Cohn backbone process was
developed for albumin, so it is not Yield Yield Industry Industry
Target Protein Cohn trunk (%) Cohn total (%) Average (1) Average (2)
surprising that this protein is
obtained in high yield. Processes for Factor VIII by
40 18 140–270 IU ~200 IU
cryoprecipitation
other plasma proteins have been
developed either by addition of Factor IX — — — ~350 IU
(cryo-)precipitation or adsorptive
technologies before using ethanol
Immunoglobulin G 66 53 3–4 g ~3.5 g
fractionation or by mainly
chromatographic processing of Alpha1-protease
23 15 — ~0.2 g
fractions of the Cohn system, as inhibitor
in methods developed for alpha1-
antitrypsin. These processes are Albumin 95 86 22–28 g ~25 g
generally low yielding. Particularly,
Yield figures in % are calculated from industry sources. The “Industry average (1)” figures are from
the low yield of IVIG caused “Contract Fractionation”, World Federation of Haemophilia (reference 16). Industry average (2) estimates
(previously) major players Baxter are from the PPTA (reference 17).
and Bayer to implement significant
improvement to purification from
Affinity Chromatography: New
Fraction II + III. Considering the chromatography. This recently
technologies, which break the
data in Table 2, there should be reviewed (8) technique is already
“S-curve” (7) development scheme,
considerable room for improvement, used in many established process:
are unlikely to use differential
but that would necessitate a radical in the purification of coagulation
solubility as the driver of separation.
change of processing technology, factors, for example, and in new
They are far more likely to use
not generally attractive to an processes such as that for plasmin.
discerning technologies,
established industry bound by Such technologies allow for
commonplace in downstream
existing product licenses in the sequential adsorption, not
bioprocesses, such as affinity
United States and around the world. precipitation, from the main
FDA GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY:
SCREENING MATERIALS FOR HUMAN DONORS OF BLOOD AND BLOOD COMPONENTS
by James Reilly
In 2000, the American Association of Blood Banks Questionnaire.” The outcome of the task force and
(AABB) convened an Interorganizational Uniform workshop proceedings was a series of donor-history
Donor History Questionnaire Task Force at the request questionnaire (DHQ) documents, which when
of the US Food and Drug Administration. The Task implemented in their entirety effectively represent a
Force included a wide spectrum of constituents comprehensive donor history screening system.
including blood center staff, survey design experts,
In April 2004 the FDA published a draft guidance titled
an ethicist, and a statistician, as well as organizational
Acceptable Full-Length Donor History Questionnaire
members from AABB, America’s Blood Centers,
and Accompanying Materials for Use in Screening
American Red Cross, Plasma Protein Therapeutics
Human Donors of Blood and Blood Components,
Association, US Department of Defense, and liaisons
which fully incorporated the DHQ documents
from the FDA, Centers for Disease Control and
including
Prevention, and Canadian Blood Services. The goals
of the task force were to • Blood Donor Educational Materials
• Full-Length Donor History Questionnaire
• Provide major improvement in blood donor
• Medication Deferral List
screening
• Donor History Questionnaire
• Make the process more effective in capturing
• User Brochure (including glossary, flow charts, and
relevant blood-donor qualifying information
references).
• Simplify the screening process
• Enhance recruitment and retention without AABB DHQ DOCUMENTS
sacrificing the safety of transfusion recipients. Several important points need to be made regarding
In October 2000, the FDA and AABB cosponsored a the DHQ documents and the FDA draft guidance.
workshop on “Streamlining the Blood Donor History (continued)
22 BioProcess International MARCH 2005

5. stream and the design of a 91% of the world’s production of is a highly complex issue. The
backbone that targets the most pharmaceuticals (9). Plasma product InterAcademy Council (IAC,
needed plasma products. use is no exception to this. In 2000, www.interacademycouncil.net)
the Americas and Europe consumed notes that “the global reality is
GLOBAL ACCESS 83% of the plasma-derived Factor that many innovations fail to accrue
TO PLASMA PRODUCTS VIII and almost all the world’s to those who need them most.”
With a supply crisis for IVIG an issue recombinant products (10). In the Furthermore, “stronger science
of the past, the overproduction of same report, Europe and North and technology capacity in the
albumin, and the availability of new- America accounted for about three developing nations is not a luxury,
generation Factor VIII presentations quarters of the IVIG. For all but an absolute necessity if these
and alternative alpha1-protease products, the use of plasma nations are to participate as full
inhibitor (API) products, the derivatives in Africa is only about partners in the world’s fast-forming,
majority of patients in North 1% of the total. With the current knowledge-based society” (13).
America, Europe, and other worldwide market for plasma- The debate attempting to resolve
developed countries generally receive derived products stable at US$5.8 issues related to plasma fractionation
the products they need. Exceptions billion, North America accounts for is not new with advocates of “self-
are that many hemophiliacs have yet 37% and Europe for 30% (11). In sufficiency” (those who advocate
to be on prophylactic treatment, and contrast, North America accounts local or national fractionation or
according to the Alpha-1 Foundation for 6.7% and Europe for 12% of the contract fractionation at a distant-
(www.alphaone.org), at least 90% of world population of just over six but-established fractionator). The
the 100,000 API-deficient patients in billion. Although the United States December 1997 Transfusion Today
the United States remain exports over 6.5 million liters of contains six short articles on the
undiagnosed and untreated — plasma (12), that is largely to subject (14), and the Gordian knot
indicating a market opportunity if facilities in Europe that either lack has not been untied over almost two
reimbursement policies would allow. sufficient collection structures or are decades. Central to the ability to
However, a very much larger and mandated not to use domestic produce safe and reliable plasma
more global issue must be tackled. sources because of possible vCJD products is the existence of an
The World Health Organization risk (as in the United Kingdom). adequate infrastructure for plasma
(www.who.int) estimates that 15% The state of science and collection, recently discussed by
of the world’s population consumes technology in developing countries Farrugia (15). This is a necessity
FDA GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY (CONTINUED)
Blood Donor Educational Materials: This document Medication Deferral List: The most significant
provides a first layer of safety by familiarizing donors improvement to this component of the donor screening
with the donation process and risks that result in process was combining the various FDA-required
deferral from donation. The document emphasizes the permanent and temporary deferrals for medications.
importance of accuracy and honesty in responses to The document includes a rationale for the deferral,
screening questions. written in terms that donors can understand, and
defines the period that a donor would be ineligible to
Full-Length Donor History Questionnaire: The
donate. This approach allowed the replacement of
questionnaire is significantly different from previous
multiple questions with a single question about
questionnaires and is designed to be either donor self-
medications in DHQ documents after review of the
administered or administered by direct oral screening,
list. Facilities, at their option, can supplement the list
or computer-assisted screening. However, staff must be
with additional medications that have been identified
readily available to help donors in all cases. The DHQ
as a result of local medical policies.
uses “capture” questions that require additional action
when a donor gives an unacceptable answer. Donor History Questionnaire User Brochure: The brochure
provides detailed instructions to facility screening
The questionnaire allows for addition of facility-
personnel regarding how to administer the overall
specific questions to meet local regulatory
documents and system. The glossary, flow charts, and
requirements and questions that respond to temporary
references provide follow-up questions to the “capture”
situations — such as those about severe acute
questions and explain the process.
respiratory syndrome (SARS). The DHQ documents
incorporate screening questions based on cancer; DHQ Document Evaluation and Review: The first donor-
organ, tissue, or bone marrow transplants; bone or skin screening questionnaire was developed in 1953.
grafts, and pregnancy (1). These go beyond the FDA
(continued)
requirements in 21 CFR Part 640.
24 BioProcess International MARCH 2005

6. independent of the volume of Handed down from the UN center responsible for the commercial
plasma made available for Millennium Development Goals production of plasma products.
fractionation and independent of (www.un.org) and embedded in If the gap between “have” and
where fractionation is carried out. WHO thinking are ambitious targets “have-not” nations is to be
However, another side of the coin is for maternal and child health, narrowed, the technology for such
that it must be possible within the infectious disease control, and an industry needs to embrace
healthcare system to diagnose, access to essential medicines. Many current, best biopharmaceutical
reach, and treat patients in need. mechanisms for achieving those goals practice and embrace high yielding,
Additionally, there needs to be depend on partnerships that serve to competitive, and economically
political will and a regulatory narrow the ever-widening gap beneficial processes. In plasma
environment to support provision between developing and developed product manufacturing, this is
of plasma products. nations. The IAC Report provides unlikely to be based on Cohn
Import of finished products, strong arguments and a framework fractionation technology, but to rely
although a possible short-term for local development (13). In on the standard unit operations of
necessity, is neither a long-term, countries that benefit from the bioprocessing: chromatography and
sustainable solution nor an realization that supply of plasma membrane separations together with
economically satisfactory resolution products is a biopharmaceutical the most recent and proven means
for making plasma products endeavor rather than an “altruistic” of viral inactivation. R&D efforts
available. The pros and cons of branch of blood transfusion, there will, therefore, probably be shared
contract fractionation available in is every reason to investigate between the technology providers
developing countries are well establishing a national and the local, transfer recipients.
discussed in a World Federation nongovernmental organization When product development occurs
of Haemophilia document (16). (NGO) or independent industrial at the local (national) level, patient
Neither solution encourages the venture. Creating world-class centers needs can be targeted in the setting
development and establishment of of excellence in biotechnology and where the products are to be used.
biopharmaceutical processing at a bioprocessing can embrace
local level. establishing a plasma biotechnology
FDA GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY (CONCLUDED)
Since that time, donor screening has become A SIGNIFICANT ADVANCEMENT
significantly more complex and time consuming. The Donor screening is one of the pillars of transfusion
DHQ documents represent a significant redesign and medicine and related biological therapies safety. The
modified process. They were evaluated and modified FDA DHQ documents, when implemented in their
as a result of testing that used a series of focus groups entirety, represent a significant advance in donor
and one-on-one cognitive interviews (2). screening systems.
Additional information and the DHQ documents can
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
be found at www.aabb.org, click on “Pressroom, AABB
The FDA draft guidance allows facilities to implement
Donor History Questionnaire.” The complete FDA
DHQ documents — if adopted in their entirety — with
Draft Guidance document can be found at www.fda.
notice to the FDA only as a part of their annual report.
gov/cber/guidelines.htm.
There are two exceptions: Facilities choosing to modify
the DHQ (except for deletion of certain questions not
REFERENCES
currently part of FDA requirements) must notify the 1 Blood Bank Transfusion Service Standards Program Unit.
FDA using the “Prior Approval Supplement” Standards for Blood Banks and Transfusion Services, 22nd edition.
submission process; and those wishing to use the AABB: Bethesda, MD, 2003.
computer-assisted interactive interview procedure 2 Orton SL, Virvos VJ, and Williams AE. Validation of Selected
Comprehension. Transfusion 40(11) 2000: 1407–1413. 
should consider this a “moderate change” and use Donor-Screening Questions: Structure, Content, and
the “Changes Being Effective in 30 Days (CBE30)”
notice process. (Additional information on FDA
James Reilly is the director of Global Development, AABB
reporting can be obtained at www.fda.gov/cbergdlns/ Consulting Services, 8101 Glenbrook Rd. Bethesda, MD
donorhistques.pdf). 20814; jreilly@aabb.org
26 BioProcess International MARCH 2005

7. 7 Christensen CM. The Innovator’s 15 Farrugia A. Plasma for Fractionation:
REFERENCES Dilemma. Harper Business: Boston, MA, Safety and Quality Issues. Haemophilia 10
1 Waeger R. The Future of Plasma
1997. 2004: 334–340.
Protein Therapies. Presented at Plasma
Forum 2003, 11– 13 June 2003 (Washington, 8 Curling JM. Affinity Chromatography: 16 Contract Fractionation: Facts and
DC). PPTA: www.pptaglobal.org. From Textile Dyes to Synthetic Ligands By Figures. Monograph Series No. 5, World
Design. Intl. BioPharm 17(7) 2004: 34–42; Federation of Haemophilia, September 1998.
2 Rankin PJ. Perilous Economics of the
and Intl. BioPharm 17(8) 2004: 60-66. Accessed at www.wfh.org
Industry. The Source (PPTA), September/
November 2003: 5–10. 9 The World Health Report 2003: 17 Gustafson M. Overview of Plasma
Shaping the Future. World Health Fractionation Practices. Presented at FDA’s
3 Turner P. Current Trends in the
www.fda.gov/cber/summaries.htm#plasma. 
Organisation: Geneva, 2003; p. 30. Plasma Standards Workshop, 31 August 2004;
Plasma Therapeutics Industry. Presented at
International Plasma Protein Congress (IPPC) 10 Robert P. Access to Therapy.
2004, 9-10 March 2004 (Brussels, Belgium). Presented at Plasma Forum 2002, 11–12
PPTA: www.pptaglobal.org. June 2002, Arlington, VA. PPTA:
www.pptaglobal.org Corresponding author John Curling is
4 Anderson NL, Anderson NG. The
11 Robert P. Personal communication, senior scientist and consultant, ProMetic
Human Plasma Proteome: History, Character
The Marketing Research Bureau, BioSciences Ltd. 211 Cambridge
and Diagnostic Prospects. Mol. Cells
Proteomics 1(11) 2002: 845–867. August 2004. Science Park, Cambridge CB4 OZA,
12 International Blood Plasma News, john@consultcurling.se. Christopher
5 Over J. Plasma Protein Products,
Opportunities for the Future. Downstream April 2003, p 128. http://home.earthlink. Bryant is program director, Plasma
PPB ´03 Extended Reports. Amersham net/~mrb_ibpn/home2.htm. Protein Purification, ProMetic
Biosciences, 2004; http://bioprocess. 13 Inventing a Better Future: A Strategy BioSciences Inc., USA, 3155 Toulouse
apbiotech.com/Applic/upp00738.nsf/ for Building Worldwide Capacities in Science Bourbonnais, IL 60914, chris.
4A6F5FFC1256E97003EF794/ and Technology. InterAcademy Council, 2004; c.bryant@prometic.com. For further
$file/18117706.pdf. www.interacademycouncil.net; report can be information please contact ProMetic
accesssed at www.interacademycouncil.net/
6 Rankin PJ. Economics of the Plasma BioSciences Ltd. at enquiries@prometic.
Products Industry. Presented at International Object.File/Master/6/720/0.pdf.
co.uk.
Plasma Protein Congress (IPPC), 9–10 14 Boukef K, et al. Transfusion Today,
March 2004 (Brussels, Belgium). PPTA: December 1997. International Societies for
www.pptaglobal.org. Blood Transfusion.