The document discusses various blood disorders including changes in blood volume, anemias, and other conditions that affect the cellular components of blood. It describes how hypovolemia, hypervolemia, and normovolemia impact blood volume. Specific types of anemia are outlined such as iron-deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemias, and aplastic anemia. Abnormal red blood cell morphologies associated with different anemias are also reviewed. Other conditions examined include polycythemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, neutrophil shift, leukemia, and lymphoma.
2. Blood System Overview
• Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to
body cells
• Blood removes carbon dioxide and other
waste products from body cells for
elimination
3. CHANGE IN BLOOD VOLUME
• Blood volume is
the volume of blood (both r
ed blood cells and plasma)
in the circulatory system of
any individual.
7. HYPOVOLEMIA
• Hypovolemia is a state of
decreased blood volume
1.Cell number decreasing hypovolemia –
due to number of erythrocytes decrease
2. Cell number increasing hypovolemia- due
to volume of blood plasma decrease
3.Normal hypovolemia – eryhtrocytes and
blood plasma both decrease
9. Causes
• Loss of blood ( bleeding or blood donation)
• Loss of plasma (severe burns and lesions )
• Loss of body sodium and consequent
intravascular water; e.g. diarrhea or vomiting
• Vasodilation (involving widening of blood
vessels)
10.
11. Hypervolemia
• It is a state of blood volume decrease
Types:
1. Cell number decreasing hypervolemia - due
to blood plasma decrease
2. Cell number increasing hypervolemia - blood
cell number increase
3.Normal hypervolemia- both of blood cell and
plasma are increased, ratio of hematocrit
unchanged
12. 1.Cell number
decreasing
hypervolemia-
• Renal disease
2.Cell number
increasing
hypervolemia
• Lives in high
altitude
• Heart disease
3.Normal
hypervolemia-
• High temperature
• exercising
13. Normovolemia
• Total blood volume is not changed but
ratio between blood cell and plasma is
changed
• 1.Cell number decreasing normovolemia
• 2.Cell number increasing normovolemia
14. • Erythrolysis
• Anemia
• Loss blood
1.Cell number
decreasing
normovolemia
• Take blood2.Cell number
increasing
normovolemia
21. Anemia
• Anemia is a condition that develops when
your blood lacks enough healthy RBC or Hb.
• If you have too few or abnormal red blood
cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low,
the cells in your body will not get enough
oxygen.
22. Symptoms of anemia
• When anemia comes on slowly the symptoms
are often: feeling tired, weakness, shortness
of breath or a poor ability to exercise.
• Anemia that comes on quickly it may include:
confusion, feeling like one is going to pass out,
and an increased desire to drink fluids
23.
24. Anemia
• There are 2 main types of
anemia
Due to blood loss
Hemolytic anemia
25. Due to blood loss anemia
• Blood loss is the
most common
cause of anemia,
especially iron-
deficiency anemia.
Blood loss can be
short term or
persist over time.
26. • Causes of
blood loss
include trauma
and
gastrointestin
al bleeding
among others
27. Hemolytic anemia
• Causes of decreased production include
iron deficiency, a lack of vitamin B12
and a number of neoplasm of the bone
marrow among others.
• There are 2 main types of hemolytic
anemia
Genetic anemia
Acquired anemia
30. Hemoglobinopathy
• Hemoglobinopathy is a
kind of genetic defect
that results in abnormal
structure of one of the
globin chains of the
hemoglobin molecule.
• Common
hemoglobinopathy
include sickle-cell
disease & thalassemia
32. Iron
• ~2.5 g of iron, with 2.0 - 2.5 g circulating
as part of heme in hemoglobin
• ~0.3 g found in myoglobin, in heme in
cytochromes, and in Fe-S complexes
• Iron stored in body primarily as protein
complexes (ferritin and hemosiderin)
33. Nutritional Iron Balance
• Intake
– Dietary iron intake
– Medicinal iron
– Red cell transfusions
– Injection of iron
complexes
• Excretion
– Gastrointestinal bleeding
– Menses
• Losses can be as much
as 4 - 37mg/menstrual
cycle
– Other forms of bleeding
– Loss of epidermal cells
from the skin and gut
34. Erythrocyte
– Known as red blood cells (RBC)
• Tiny biconcave-shaped disks
• Thinner in center than around edges
• No nucleus in mature red blood cell
– Average life span = approximately 120
days
– Main component = hemoglobin
– Primary function = transport oxygen to
cells of body
37. Iron-Deficiency Anemia
• Iron deficiency anemia is a condition where a
lack of iron in the body leads to a reduction in
the number of red blood cells.
38. Causes of Iron Deficiency
• Increased demand for iron
and/or hematopoiesis
– Rapid growth in infancy or
adolescence
– Pregnancy
• Increased iron loss
– Chronic blood loss
– Menses
– Acute blood loss
– Blood donation
• Decreased iron intake or
absorption
– Inadequate diet
– Malabsorption from disease
(sprue, Crohn's disease)
– Malabsorption from surgery
(post-gastrectomy)
– Acute or chronic
inflammation
40. Folic Acid–Deficiency Anemia.
• Folic acid deficiency anemia is caused by
having too little vitamin B9 (folate) in your
blood.
• Unlike in vitamin B12 deficiency, neurologic
abnormalities do not occur.
42. Aplastic Anemia
• Aplastic anemia describes a disorder of
pluripotential bone marrow stem cells that
results in a reduction of all three
hematopoietic cell lines—red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets.
43. • There are two main mechanisms of stem cell
injury.
– Predictable, dose-dependent, toxic injury, typified by exposure
to certain chemotherapeutic drugs, chemicals and ionizing
radiation.
– Idiosyncratic, dose-independent, immunologic injury, as seen
in idiopathic cases or after certain drug exposures or viral
infections.
45. Polycythemia
• Polycythemia, or erythrocytosis, denotes an
increase in red cells per unit volume of
peripheral blood, usually in association with
an increase in hemoglobin concentration.
• Polycythemia may be
– absolute (defined as an increase in total red cell
mass)
– relative
46. • Relative
• Reduced plasma volume (hemoconcentration)
• Absolute
• Primary
– Abnormal proliferation of myeloid stem cells, normal or low
– erythropoietin levels ; inherited activating mutations in the
erythropoietin receptor (rare)
• Secondary
– Increased erythropoietin levels
47. Abnormal red blood cell
morphologies associated
with various types of
anemia.
54. Neutropenia
• Causes:
- Decreased production in bone marrow
- Increased destruction (drug, immune)
• Symptoms:
Fever, mouth ulcer, sore throat, pain or
swelling around a wound
55. • Less than 1000 cells per mm3 - worrisome
• Less than 500 per mm3 - serious
• treated with granulocyte colony-stimulating
factor (G-CSF), a growth factor that
stimulates the production of granulocytes
from marrow
58. Causes of Leukocytosis
Neutrophilic
leukocytosis
Acute bacterial infections,
inflammation (myocardial infarction,
burns)
Eosinophilic
leukocytosis
(eosinophilia)
Allergic disorders such as asthma,
allergic skin diseases; parasitic
infestations; drug reactions; Hodgkin’s
disease; collagen vascular disorders
59. Basophilic
leukocytosis
(basophilia)
Rare, often indicative of a
myeloproliferative disease
Monocytosis Chronic infections (e.g., tuberculosis),
malaria and inflammatory bowel
diseases
Lymphocytosis Associated with chronic immunologic
stimulation (e.g., tuberculosis); viral
infections (e.g., hepatitis)
60. Neutrophil Shift
• Determines affinity of leukopoiesis by
studying neutrophil’s nucleus
– Left shift – high number of immature cells
(infection, necrosis, inflammation)
– Right shift – low number of immature cells
(hypersegmentation)
63. Leukemia
• Bone marrow malfunction
• High numbers of WBC
• Not fully developed blasts
• Becomes cancerous cells
• Caused by smoking, ionized radiation,
chemicals, Down syndrome
Humans contain ~2.5 g of iron, with 2.0 - 2.5 g circulating as part of heme in hemoglobin Another ~0.3 g found in myoglobin, in heme in cytochromes, and in Fe-S complexes
Iron stored in body primarily as protein complexes (ferritin and hemosiderin)
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum (Fig. 11–9). Nonheme
iron is carried across the apical and basolateral membranes
of enterocytes by distinct transporters. After reduction by
ferric reductase, ferrous iron (Fe2+) is transported across the
apical membrane by divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT1).
A second transporter, ferroportin, then moves iron from
the cytoplasm to the plasma across the basolateral membrane.
The newly absorbed iron is next oxidized by hephaestin
and ceruloplasmin to ferric iron (Fe3+), the form of
iron that binds to transferrin. Both DMT1 and ferroportin
are widely distributed in the body and are involved in iron
transport in other tissues as well. As depicted in Figure
11–9, only a fraction of the iron that enters enterocytes is
delivered to transferrin by ferroportin. The remainder is
incorporated into cytoplasmic ferritin and lost through the
exfoliation of mucosal cells.
When the body is replete with iron, most iron entering
duodenal cells is “handed off” to ferritin, whereas transfer
to plasma transferrin is enhanced when iron is deficient or
erythropoiesis is inefficient. This balance is regulated by
hepcidin, a small hepatic peptide that is synthesized and
secreted in an iron-dependent fashion. Plasma hepcidin
binds ferroportin and induces its internalization and degradation;
thus, when hepcidin concentrations are high, ferroportin
levels fall and less iron is absorbed. Conversely,
when hepcidin levels are low (as occurs in hemochromatosis)
(Chapter 15), basolateral transport of iron is increased,
eventually leading to systemic iron overload.
Regulation of iron absorption. Duodenal epithelial cell uptake of heme and nonheme iron discussed in the text is depicted. When the
storage sites of the body are replete with iron and erythropoietic activity is normal, plasma hepcidin levels are high. This situation leads to downregulation
of ferroportin and trapping of most of the absorbed iron, which is lost when duodenal epithelial cells are shed into the gut. Conversely, when
body iron stores decrease or erythropoiesis is stimulated, hepcidin levels fall and ferroportin activity increases, allowing a greater fraction of the absorbed
iron to be transferred into plasma transferrin. DMT1, divalent metal transporter-1.
Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most common type of anemia worldwide, occurring in both developing and developed countries and affecting as many as one fifth of the world population.
Iron deficiency interferes with normal hemoglobin synthesis and leads to impaired erythropoiesis .
The normal total body iron mass is about 2.5 g for women and 3.5 g for men. Approximately 80% of functional body iron is present in hemoglobin, with the remainder being found in myoglobin and iron-containing enzymes (e.g., catalase, cytochromes)
Blood loss. Blood contains iron within red blood cells. So if you lose blood, you lose some iron. Women with heavy periods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia because they lose blood during menstruation. Slow, chronic blood loss within the body — such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer — can cause iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.
A lack of iron in your diet. Your body regularly gets iron from the foods you eat. If you consume too little iron, over time your body can become iron deficient. Examples of iron-rich foods include meat, eggs, leafy green vegetables and iron-fortified foods. For proper growth and development, infants and children need iron from their diet, too.
An inability to absorb iron. Iron from food is absorbed into your bloodstream in your small intestine. An intestinal disorder, such as celiac disease, which affects your intestine's ability to absorb nutrients from digested food, can lead to iron deficiency anemia. If part of your small intestine has been bypassed or removed surgically, that may affect your ability to absorb iron and other nutrients.
Pregnancy. Without iron supplementation, iron deficiency anemia occurs in many pregnant women because their iron stores need to serve their own increased blood volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for the growing fetus.
The diagnosis of a megaloblastic anemia is readily made
from examination of smears of peripheral blood and bone
marrow. The anemia of folate deficiency is best distinguished
from that of vitamin B12 deficiency by measuring
serum and red cell folate and vitamin B12 levels.
Typically, the red cells are normochromic and normocytic
or slightly macrocytic. Reticulocytes are reduced in number
(reticulocytopenia).
Most cases are idiopathic, and no specific initiating etiology can be identified. The prognosis is unpredictable. Depending on its cause, stem cell injury may or may not be reversible. Bone marrow transplantation often is curative, particularly in non transfused patients
younger than 40 years of age.
Relative polycythemia results from dehydration, such as occurs with water deprivation, prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, or the excessive use of diuretics. Absolute polycythemia is described as primary when the increased red cell mass results from an autonomous proliferation of erythroid progenitors, and secondary when the excessive proliferation stems from elevated levels of erythropoietin. Primary polycythemia (polycythemia vera) is a clonal, neoplastic myeloproliferative disorder considered later in this chapter. The increases in erythropoietin that cause secondary forms of absolute polycythemia have a variety of causes .
-Hemoglobin C disease results from homozygous inheritance of a
structurally abnormal hemoglobin, which leads to increased erythrocyte
rigidity and mild chronic hemolysis.
-Hereditary spherocytosis is a heterogeneous group of inherited
disorders of the RBC cytoskeletons, characterized by a deficiency
of spectrin or other cytoskeletal components (ankyrin, protein 4.2,
band 3).
-Hereditary elliptocytosis is a heterogeneous group of inherited
disorders involving the erythrocyte cytoskeleton.
-In sickle cell disease, an abnormal hemoglobin, namely hemoglobin S, transforms the erythrocyte into a sickle shape upon deoxygenation.
-Acanthocytosis results from a defect within the lipid bilayer of the
red cell membrane and features spiny projections of the surface,
which may be associated with hemolysis.
-Thalassemias are congenital anemias caused by deficient synthesis
of the globin chain subunits of hemoglobin.
-