LET Reviewer - Professional Education

Comprehensive LET Reviewer based
on NCBTS and Table of Specifications
(TOS) released by PRC with sample
test questions
LET
REVIEWER
PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION

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Table of Contents
Social Dimensions of Education ......................................................................2
Foundation of Education ..............................................................................15
Methods of Teaching.....................................................................................28
Curriculum Development..............................................................................36
Principles of Teaching...................................................................................50
Teaching Profession......................................................................................60
Child and Adolescent Development, ..............................................................86
Facilitating Learning.....................................................................................99
Assessment of Student Learning .................................................................108
Educational Technology..............................................................................130
Developmental Reading ..............................................................................142
Practice Test ..............................................................................................151
Key to Correction........................................................................................224
References .................................................................................................226

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Social Dimensions of Education
Social dimension may refer to all obstacles to access, progress, and completion in
education – with the strongest emphasis on barriers to access to education.
The Nature of Education
Sociology provides educators special perspective in studying the school and society.
Schools, by their nature, are social organizations. Because of the nature of education,
the study of school systems becomes the concern of sociologists. They study the social
issues and concerns in education which impact on socialization.
The Roles of School
1. To educate citizens to fit into the society
2. To educate citizens to change the society
The purposes of the school
1. Cognitive purpose – teaches basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and
speaking.
2. Political purpose – inculcates patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order.
3. Social purpose – concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various
roles in society.
4. Economic purpose – involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of
work.
Sociological Theories in Understanding Social
Dimensions of Education
1. Consensus Theory
• Shared norms and values are fundamental to society
• It focuses on social order based on tact agreements and views social
changes as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion.
• It emphasizes social order, stability, and social regulation.
2. Conflict Theory
• It emphasizes the dominance of some social groups by others.
• It sees social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant
groups.
• It views social change as occurring rapidly in a disorderly fashion as
subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups.
3. Structural Functionalism
This states that society is made up of various institutions that work together in
cooperation.
Four Functional Imperatives (AGIL)
Parson said that these four functional imperatives are necessary for all the
systems.
1. Adaptation – a system must cope with external situational exigencies.
2. Goal Attainment – a system must define and achieve its primary goals.

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3. Integration – a system must regulate the interrelationship of its
component parts.
4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance) – a system must furnish, maintain, and
renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that
create and sustain the motivation.
4. Interaction Theories
The focus of the interaction theories is the communication and the relationship
that exists among and between groups in education- peers, teachers, students,
teacher-principal, and teacher-parents. The concern is to study the social-
psychological questions that influence normative attitudes, values, aspirations,
and self –concepts of particular groups that in return influence the teaching-
learning process.
• Labeling Theory- this theory is related to expectations. For instance, in
general the expectations of significant others on the learners determine
to a large extent in the behavior of students. To this extent, the processes
by which students are labeled either as gifted or learning disabled, fast,
or slow learner, smart or dumb, affect the quality as well as the extent
and speed of learning.
• Exchange Theory- is based on the concept of reciprocity. Reciprocal
interactions bind individuals (teachers, students, parents,
administrators) with obligations. The consequences of interaction are
rewards and benefits.
5. Symbolic Interaction
It focuses on the interpretation (social meaning) that is given to behavior, and on
the way such interpretation helps to construct the social world, the identities of
people, and ultimately how they behave.
Basic Principles
1. Humans have capacity for thought.
2. Thought is shaped by social interaction.
3. Through interaction, people learn symbols and meanings that allow them
to think.
4. Meanings and symbols allow for human action.
5. People can interpret a situation and modify their action or interaction.
6. People can create own meanings.
7. Groups and societies are made up of patterns of action and interaction.
Developing the Social Self
Charles H. Cooley’s The Looking-Glass Self
The concept of "looking glass self" to explain how we make perceptions of ourselves
through the perceptions we think other people make of us. We imagine how people will
perceive us and that makes us define ourselves and our identity which can be positive
or negative.

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Three Components of Looking-Glass Self
1. We imagine how we appear to those around us.
2. We imagine how others are judging us.
3. We develop a self-concept (we react accordingly).
George Herbert Mead on Social Theory
His theory of the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges from social
interactions, such as:
• observing and interacting with others,
• responding to others' opinions about oneself, and
• internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about oneself.
According to him, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from
social experiences and activities.
Three Activities that Develop Self
1. Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through
symbols, gestures, words, and sounds.
2. Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and
express expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through
role-playing.
3. Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the
rules of the activity.
UNESCO Five Pillars of Learning
(Education for Growth and Transformation)
The five pillars of learning are fundamental principles for shaping education.
Learning to Know (Head)
• Acquire knowledge and understanding, and think critically about our complex
and changing world
• Imply learning how to learn by developing one's concentration, memory skills
and ability to think
• Involve the development of knowledge and skills that are needed to function in
the world. These skills include Literacy, Numeracy and Critical Thinking.
• Learning to know involves mastering the instrument of knowing and
understanding:
o to learn and to discover
o to understand about his/her environment
o to think in a coherent and critical way
o to acquire a knowledge of the scientific method and instruments
o to develop a scientific spirit and an inquiring mind
o to acquire independence of judgment

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Learning to Do (Hand)
• Learn to participate effectively in local, national, and global communities
• Place knowledge and learning into practice innovatively through skill
development, practical know-how, development of competence, life skills,
personal qualities, aptitudes, and attitudes
• Involve the acquisition of skills that are often linked to occupational success
• Learning to do thus implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of higher-
order skills specific to each individual. Thus 'learning to do' means, among other
things:
o ability to communicate effectively with others
o aptitude toward teamwork
o social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relations
o adaptability to change in the world of work and in social life
o competency in transforming knowledge into innovations and job-creation
o readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts
Learning to Be (Heart)
• Build self-knowledge and be conscious of connections to nature and society
• Involve activities that foster personal development (body, mind, and spirit) and
contribute to creativity, personal discovery and an appreciation of the inherent
value provided by these pursuits.
• Learning to be may be interpreted in one way as learning to be human, through
acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values conducive to personality
development in its intellectual, moral, cultural, and physical dimensions. Its
purpose includes:
o to be human for development of mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity,
aesthetic sense, personal responsibility, and spiritual values
o to develop the qualities of imagination and creativity
o the complete fulfillment of man, in all the richness of his personality
o the full flowering of human potential, the tapping of the hidden treasure
within each individual
Learning to Live Together (Values)
• Learn to live peacefully with others and to care for our common homeland
• Involve the development of social skills and values such as respect and concern
for others, social and inter-personal skills, and an appreciation of the diversity
of the world
• Learning to live together implies an education that emphasizes discovery of
others and experience of shared purposes throughout life. Specifically, it entails
the development of such qualities as:
o knowledge and understanding of self and others
o appreciation of the diversity of the human race and an awareness of the
similarities between, and the interdependence of all humans
o empathy and cooperative social behavior in caring and sharing
o respect of other people and their cultures and value systems
o capability of encountering others, and resolving conflicts through
dialogue
o competency in working towards common objectives

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Learning to Transform Oneself and Society
• When individuals and groups gain knowledge, develop skills, and acquire new
values as a result of learning, they are equipped with tools and mindsets for
creating lasting change in organizations, communities, and societies.
• Integrate the values inherent in sustainable development into all aspects of
learning.
• Empower people to assume responsibility for creating and enjoying a sustainable
future.
Culture
• Sir Edward Taylor defined culture as complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, arts, morals, laws, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.
• The shared product of human learning, the set of learned behaviors, beliefs,
attitudes, values, and ideals that are characteristics of a particular society of
population.
Elements of Culture
1. Language – an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of
culture; the foundation of culture; it could be verbal or non-verbal.
2. Norms – are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. It must
be shared and understood.
3. Sanctions – are rewards or penalties for conduct concerning social norms.
• Positive sanctions (rewards) – pay, promotion, medals, word of gratitude
• Negative sanctions (punishments) – fines, imprisonment, threats,
ostracism
4. Values – are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and
proper or bad, undesirable, and improper in a particular culture.
Kinds of Culture
1. Material culture (tangible) – examples are housing, clothing, man’s technology,
etc.
2. Non-material culture (intangible) –examples are laws, values, ideas, norms,
attitude, etc.
Characteristics of Culture
1. It is universal human experience, yet its manifestation is local.
2. It is stable yet dynamic.
3. It is organized and integrated.
4. It is a social product.
5. It is cumulative.
Functions of Culture
1. Culture provides behavioral patterns.
2. Culture maintains the biological functioning of the group.
3. Culture gives meaning and direction to one’s existence.
4. Culture offers ready-made solutions to man’s material and immaterial problems.
5. Culture develops man’s attitude and values and gives him a conscience.

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How culture is transmitted
• Enculturation - it is the process by which an individual learns about his/her own
culture. It is simply a process where a child learns about the own culture and
adopts into it.
• Acculturation - it is the process by which an individual learns another culture. It
is often seen in language, style of clothing, food habits, etc.
• Assimilation – it is the process in which an individual entirely loses any
awareness to his/her previous group identity and take on the culture and
attitudes of another group.
Multicultural Education
A field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create equal
opportunities from diverse racial, ethnic, social class and cultural groups.
The primary goal of multicultural education is to transform the school so that male and
female students, exceptional students, and students from diverse cultural social-class,
racial, and ethnic groups experience an equal opportunity to learn.
Teaching Multicultural Classes
Multicultural education embodies a perspective rather than a curriculum.
o Teachers must consider children’s cultural identities and be aware of their own
biases.
o Teachers and parents need to acknowledge the fact that we are inevitably
influenced by the stereotypes and one-sided view of society that exists in our
schools and the media. Hence, we must recognize those biases and must change
the attitude they have by accepting all children regardless of culture.
Benefits of the global perspective of multicultural education:
1. Multicultural education increases productivity because a variety of mental
resources is available for completing the same tasks and it promotes cognitive
and moral growth among all people.
2. Multicultural education increases creative problem-solving skills through the
different perspectives applied to same problems to reach solutions.
3. Multicultural education increases positive relationships through achievement of
common goals, respect, appreciation, and commitment to equality among the
intellectuals and students.
4. Multicultural education decreases stereotyping and prejudice through direct
contact and interaction among diverse individuals.
5. Multicultural education renews vitality of society through the richness of the
different cultures, of its members and fosters development of a broader and
more sophisticated view of the world.
Five Dimensions by James A. Bank
1. Content Integration
• Deals with the infusion of various cultures, ethnicities, and other
identities to be represented in the curriculum.
2. Knowledge construction process
• Involves student in critiquing the social positioning of groups through
the ways that knowledge is presented.

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3. Prejudice reduction
• Describes an activities the teachers implement to assert positive images
of ethnic groups and to improve intergroup relations.
4. Equity Pedagogy
• Means modifying teaching styles and approaches with facilitate the
intent of facilitating academic achievement for all students.
5. Empowering school cultures
• Describes the examination of the school culture and organization by all
members of school staff with the intent to restructure institutional
practice to create access for all groups.
Education and Society
Society
Society is a group of people living together in a definite territory, exhibiting a common
culture. It came from the word “societe” which means fellowship.
Social Groups
“When two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be
called a social group.” – William Ogburn
Social group is defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, share
similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.
Types of Social Groups
1. Primary Group - is a group of a small number of persons who come into direct
contact with each other. It is characterized by intimate, face-to-face, and
emotional relationship. It is the locus of our socialization. Examples are family,
neighborhood, peers, and close friends.
2. Secondary Group - is relatively large in size, formal and impersonal group that
does not display social intimacy. Example: labor union, political parties, and
business organization.
3. In-groups and Out-groups (William Graham Sumner)
• The "in-group" is the group that we belong to (or feel that we belong to).
• The "out group" is one that we feel we do not belong to, (and act as if we
would not want to belong).
4. Reference Group - is any group of people that individuals use as a standard for
evaluating themselves and their own behavior.
5. Categorical Group - member of this group share particular characteristics and a
common identity.
6. Aggregate Group - is any collection of people who are together in one place
without interacting with one another.
7. Collective Group - is temporary group which is not generally governed by
established norms of the culture and is composed of people who share some
kind of belief which motivates them to prepare for action.
8. Association Group - is composed of people who join together in an organized
manner to pursue a common interest.

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Social Institutions
According to Anthony Giddens, social institutions are “enduring features of social life”.
It is a complex of positions, norms and social relations performing a social role. A social
institution includes government, families, and other groups of people with recognizable
social interaction and norms of conduct.
Characteristics of Social Institutions
1. Social Purpose - institution satisfies social needs.
2. Permanence - institution is relatively permanent.
3. Enforcing rules and regulations - institution governs behavior.
4. Promotes values - institution exerts social pressure regarding right conduct.
Major Social Institutions
1. Family – is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, and co-
residence. It is the smallest social institution. One of the primary functions of
the family is to produce and reproduce persons both biologically and socially (in
cases of adoption).
a. Conjugal family - includes the husband, wife, and children who are not of
age yet.
b. Consanguinity family- consists of a parent and his or her children, and
other people.
c. Matrilocal family - consists of a mother and her children.
2. School (Education) - the primary purpose of education is the transmission of
knowledge. As a social institution school has the following purpose.
a. Intellectual schools teach basic knowledge and skills commonly known
as the 3Rs and eventually developing their HOTS (higher order thinking
skills).
b. Political schools develop allegiance to the country and promotes
patriotism.
c. Social schools develop person’s ability to interact with fellow human
being.
d. Economic schools prepare the person to achieve suitable occupational
endeavors.
3. Church (Religion) – Stark defines religion as the “socially defined patterns of
beliefs concerning the ultimate meaning of life; it assumes the existence of the
supernatural.”
4. Government – it is an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules
of a society as well as with regulating relations with other societies. In order to
be considered a government, a ruling body must be recognized as such by the
people its purpose to govern. There are different types of Government:
a. Democracy
b. Monarchy
c. Authoritarianism
d. Totalitarianism

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Social Process
Social Process is the social change that occurs in patterns and this is also used to
interpret social behavior.
Classification of Social Process
1. Competition – is a form of impersonalized struggle or opposition to secure a
reward or goals which cannot be shared.
2. Conflict – is a form of highly personalized and emotionalized struggle or
opposition between individuals or groups to attain scare goals or values.
3. Accommodation - is the conscious adjustment and compromise among
conflicting groups to live without conflict
4. Amalgamation – refers to some kind of biological fusion through intermarriage of
persons coming from different groups.
5. Differentiation – refers to the creation of interests resulting in individuals or
groups needing or wanting different things or services rather than the same
thing.
Child-Friendly School
Child-friendly schools aim to develop a learning environment in which children are
motivated and able to learn.
A ‘Child-friendly School’ has the following five traits:
1. It is inclusive, gender-sensitive, and non-discriminating.
2. It is effective with children. It is said to be effective with children when it is
child-centered, promotes quality learning, and encourages children to
participate in school and community activities
3. It is healthy for children.
4. It is caring and protective of all children.
5. It involves children’s families and the community.
A Child-friendly School should aspire for these seven (7) goals:
1. Encourage children’s participation in school and community
2. Enhance children’s health and well-being
3. Guarantee safe and protective spaces for children
4. Encourage enrolment and completion
5. Ensure children’s high academic achievement and success
6. Raise teacher’s morale and motivation
7. Mobilize community support for education
School-Based Management
The School-Based Management (SBM) is a decentralization of decision-making from
the central, regional and division levels down to individual school sites to better respond
to specific education needs. The main goal is to improve school performance and
student achievement.

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Objectives of School-Based Management
1. Empower school heads to lead their teachers and students through reforms that
leads to higher learning outcomes
2. Bring resources including funds, down to the control of schools to spur change
in line with decentralization
3. Strengthen partnership with communities as well as local government units to
invest time, money, and effort in making the school a better place to learn
4. Integrate School management and instructional reformation for the school
effective

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Ethics
Ethics – is the art and science that deals with the morality of human acts.
• Human Act – actions done consciously and freely by the agent/or by man.
• Act of Man – actions beyond one’s consciousness, and not dependent on the
intellect and the will.
Types of Human Acts in Relation to Reason
1. Good – in harmony with reason e.g. praying
2. Bad – in opposition to reason e.g. stealing
3. Indifferent – when it stands in no positive relation to reason e.g. eating
Essential Qualities or Constituent Elements of Human Acts
1. Knowledge of the act
2. Freedom
3. Voluntariness
Modifiers of Human Acts
1. Ignorance – is the absence of intellectual knowledge in man.
2. Concupiscence – refers to the bodily appetites or tendencies like love, hatred, joy,
grief, passion, daring, fear, and anger.
3. Fear – is shrinking back of the mind from danger.
4. Violence – is the external force applied by a free cause which impairs man’s free
will.
5. Habit – is born of frequently repeated acts.
Norms of Human Act
1. Law – St. Thomas Aquinas defined law as an ordinance of reason promulgated
for the common good by the one who has charge of the society.
2. Conscience - is the act by which we apply to our own conduct, our knowledge of
good and evil, whether our judgment be correct or incorrect.
Four principles of Moral Discernment or Judgment
1. Principle of Formal Cooperation – it occurs when someone intentionally help
another person carry out a sinful act.
2. Principle of Material Cooperation – it occurs when a person’s action
unintentionally helps another person do something wrong.
3. Principle of Lesser Evil – the principle that when faced with selecting from two
immoral options, the one which less immoral should be chosen.
4. Principle of Double Effect – this principle aims to provide specific guidelines for
determining when it is morally permissible to perform an action in pursuit of a
good end in full knowledge that the action will also bring about bad results.
Types of Moral Attitude
• Callous – not feeling or showing concern about the problems and suffering of
other people
• Strict – one who chooses the hardest way to do something
• Pharisaical – marked by insincere self-righteousness
• Scrupulous – extremely afraid of committing evil
• Lax – one which refuses to be bothered about the distinction of good and evil

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Defective Norms of Morality
It is the term given to the different philosophical beliefs about morality which somehow
do not conform to the universally accepted standards of human morality.
1. Hedonism (Jeremy Bentham) – is the belief that morality is determined by the
acquisition of pleasure. What is pleasurable is moral and anything that brings
pain is immoral.
2. Utilitarianism (Herbert Spencer and Charles Sanders Perce)– subscribes to the
idea that an act is good if it brings good result or the achievement of one’s goals,
and it is bad if it fails to make man attain his goals.
3. Moral Rationalism (Immanuel Kant) – is the belief that human reason is the sole
source of all moral laws.
4. Moral Evolutionism (Friedrich Nietzsche) – is the idea that morality is not absolute
but keeps on changing until such time it reaches the perfect scale.
5. Moral Positivism (Thomas Hobbes)– advocates the state laws are the bases of all
moral laws, ergo is good if it is accordance with laws of the state and anything
opposes the state laws must be rejected.
6. Moral Sensism – is the belief that man is endowed with special moral senses that
can distinguish good or evil. An action is moral if it is in harmony with this
human sense and immoral if not in harmony with this sense.
7. Communism (Sir Thomas More and Karl Marx) – denies the existence of God and
views religion as an opium. It does not recognize human freedom and immorality
of man’s soul. It treats man as just an economical animal.
Logic
Logic – is the science and art of correct thinking and correct reasoning.
• Induction – is reasoning that is done through the process of inferring a general
law or principle from the observation of particular instances to a general
conclusion.
• Deduction – is reasoning through a process that is from a general principle to
specific included within the scope of that principle.
• Syllogism – is argumentation in which a conclusion is derived from two
propositions called premises.
• Dialect – is a mean of discovering the truth by processing from an assertion or
thesis to a denial or antithesis and finally reconciling the two into synthesis.
Values
Values – Cecilio Duka defined values as anything that can be desired, and something
chosen from alternative acted upon and enhances creative integration and development
of human personality.
Properties of Value
1. Value is relative - “good for what?” or “good for whom?”
2. Value is subjective - we define values differently, good for others but not for
others
3. Value is objective – it is independent from human appreciation; has absolute
character
4. Value is bipolar - good value has an exact opposite; good and bad
5. Value is hierarchical – a scaled gradation; ranked based on weight/ level of
complexity

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Hierarchy of Values (Max Scheler)
• Sensory values - values which would satisfy the individual’s material/sensory
desires (food, clothing, vices, etc.)
• Vital values - values which are important to human civilization (social relations
and involvement)
• Spiritual values - justice, truth, peace, and freedom
• Holy values - the peak of human existence; the concept of being “holy”

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Foundation of Education
History of Education
1) Early Conceptions of Education
a) Primitive Education (Education for Conformity)
i) Aims:
• Security: to stay alive, to protect oneself and his family from the
destructive forces of nature, both human and divine
• Conformity: to conform to the tribe to which they belong
ii) Contents: Practical and Theoretical Education
iii) Methods: Tell me and show me (imitation and observation), trial and error,
enculturation of characteristics, skills, knowledge and attitudes upon
children, indoctrination
Proponents: Primitives
b) Oriental Education (Education for the Preservation of Social Stability)
i) Aims: To impress traditional ideas and customs in order to maintain and
perpetuate the long-established social order
• Egyptian: Preservation of cultural pattern
• Chinese: Ethical learning and cultural development
• Indian: Intellectual, religious, and cultural
ii) Contents:
• Egyptian: Embalming, engineering, Mathematics
• Chinese: Maxims of moral and political nature
• Indian: Vedas and other religious texts
iii) Methods:
• Egyptian: Apprenticeship, repetition, and observation
• Chinese: Direct and exact imitation and Confucian Method
• Indian: Imitation and memorization
iv) Proponents: Orientals (Chinese, Indians, Egyptians)
c) Greek Education (Education for the Development of Individuality)
i) Aims: To promote individual success and welfare through the harmonious
development of the various aspects of human personality
• Spartan: To develop a good soldier in each citizen
• Athenian: To nurture civic responsibility
ii) Contents:
• Spartan: Military, physical education, moral training
• Athenian: Liberal education; gymnastics and music, reading and
writing, drama, and poetry, but little of arithmetic
iii) Methods:
• Spartan: Competition and participation
• Athenian: Principle of Individuality; human relation and discipline
iv) Proponents: Greeks

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d) Roman Education (Education for Utilitarianism)
i) Aim: To develop civic responsibility for the empire, administrative and
military skills
ii) Content: Physical and military exercises, Laws of the Twelve Tables, Ballad,
and songs
iii) Methods:
• Elementary - memorization, direct imitation
• Secondary - literary exercises, intensive drill on speech, grammar
iv) Proponents: Romans
2) Modern Conceptions of Education
a) Individualistic Humanism (Education of Rich, Full Life)
i) Aim: academic freedom, abundant living, liberal education
ii) Contents: World of the past, subjective world of emotion, and world of
grammar, rhetoric, and mathematics
iii) Methods: Text study, written themes, self-activity, and self-expression
iv) Proponent: Vittorino da Fettre
b) Northern or Social Humanism
i) Aim: social reform, religious and moral literacy, democratic
ii) Contents: Classical and biblical literature (Religious)
iii) Methods: Individualized instruction, repetition and mastery, motivation, use
of praise and rewards
iv) Proponent: Desiderius Erasmus
c) Reformation
i) Aim: Religious moralism
ii) Content: Physical education, Character education, Math, History, Science
iii) Methods: Memorization, religious indoctrination
iv) Proponent: Martin Luther
d) Counter-Reformation
i) Aim: To develop an unquestioning obedience to the authority of the church
ii) Content 4R’s (religion included)
iii) Methods:
• adapting the lesson to the abilities, needs, and interests of children
• reviewing the previous lessons
• repetition for mastery
• memorization with understanding
• use of textbooks
iv) Proponents: Christian Brothers, Jansenists, Jesuits
e) Formal Discipline (Education as Training of the Mind)
i) Aims:
• To train the mind through rigorous exercises in order to develop
intellectual capacities
• To form character (mental, physical, and moral)
ii) Contents: Classical Languages and Math; Physical (vigor of the body) mental
(mental power) and moral (good conduct)
iii) Methods: Formal- sensation, memory and reasoning, drill method
iv) Proponent: John Locke

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f) Rationalism
i) Aim: To enable man to think for themselves
ii) Contents: philosophical/scientific knowledge, ethics, and morality
iii) Methods: critical analysis, application of reason
g) Naturalistic Conception of Education (Education in Harmony with Nature)
i) Aims: To develop the individual in accordance with the laws of human
development and to preserve the natural goodness of man
ii) Contents: Holistic education (physical, moral, intellectual)
iii) Proponent: Jean Jacques Rousseau
h) Nationalistic Conception (Education for Patriotic Citizenship)
i) Aim: To develop military preparedness and aggressiveness for the
preservation and glorification of the State
ii) Content Social Studies
iii) Methods: Practical
i) Education as Psychological Development
i) Aim: To direct and control growth and development through appropriate
educational procedures
• Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - Social regeneration of humanity
• Friedrich Froebel - Development of the child
• Jonathan Herbart - Moral development
• Edward Lee Thorndike - realize the fullest satisfaction, of human
wants
ii) Contents: Math, science, language, arts, history, literature
iii) Methods: Principles and Laws of Learning
j) Education as a Scientifically Determined Process
i) Aim: To mate education a science
ii) Content Science.
iii) Methods: Experimental, problem-solving, scientific method and research.
k) Social Experimentalism (Education as Social Reconstruction)
i) Aim: Prepare for a progressive rebuilding of the social order
ii) Content Social Studies.
• Intellectual - critical examination of the social conditions and social
problems
• Civic - intelligent participation and cooperation in civic affairs
• Vocational - social relationships of one’s Job
iii) Methods: Guidance (including social guidance), intelligent and cooperative
participation; Field Trips, Directed Classroom Study (community life)

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Philosophies of Education
Etymology of Philosophy
Philosophy derives from the two Ancient Greek words “philo” which means “love” and
“sophia” which means “wisdom”. Hence, philosophy means love of wisdom.
Definitions of Philosophy, Education and Philosophy of Education
A. Philosophy
• Philosophy is the science of all things according to its causes, principles,
effects, and attributes studied through the light of human reason alone.
• Philosophy is the humanistic field that attempts to answer essential
questions through human reasoning.
B. Education
• Education is a system which the knowledge and skills are acquired and
developed through a schematic learning process.
• Education is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general
knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and
generally preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.
C. Philosophy of Education
• Philosophy of Education is the study of education attempting to resolve
questions of education- discerning the best approach in educating a
person.
Branches of Philosophy
1. Epistemology is the study of the nature, origin, and scope of human knowledge.
• How do we acquire knowledge?
• Do we possess any innate knowledge?
• How we should we teach?
2. Metaphysics is the study of the nature, meaning and existence of reality.
• Does God exist?
• What is the nature of the mind?
• What makes an individual an individual?
3. Axiology or Ethics is the study of values. It deals with the concepts and
principles that underlie our evaluations of human behaviors.
• Is euthanasia humane or inhumane?
• Is homosexuality moral or immoral?
• Is abortion the solution to prevent increase in population?
4. Politics is the study of government and nations.
• What obligations teachers have towards their students?
• What makes good government?
5. Aesthetics is the study of the nature of beauty.
• What is work of art?
• What do we mean when we say something is beautiful or ugly?

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Relationship of Philosophy and Education
• Philosophy is theoretical and speculative while education is practical.
• Philosophy asks questions and examines facts of reality and experience and
many of which are involved in the educative process while the process of
educating is a matter of actively dealing with factors such teaching, organizing
programs, administering organizations, and building curricula.
• Philosophy yields a comprehensive understanding of reality, a world view, which
when applied to educational practices lends direction and methodology which
are likely to be lacking otherwise. In education, the experience of the teacher in
nurturing the young places him in touch with phases of reality which are
considered in making philosophical judgments.
• While philosophy is a guide to educational practice, education as a field of
investigation yields certain data as basis for philosophical judgments.
Greatest Philosophers and their Philosophies to Education
1. Socrates
a. Knowledge is wisdom which, in effect, means virtue.
b. The problem of evil is the result of ignorance.
c. Knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice.
d. Knowledge is the basis of all right actions including the art of living.
2. Aristotle
a. The end of education is not knowledge alone. It is the union of the innate
intellect of the individual and his will. It is knowledge expressed in
action.
b. Virtue which is moral excellence, goodness and righteousness is not
possession of knowledge. It is the state of the will.
c. The process of correct thinking can be reduced to rule like physics and
geometry and taught to any normal mind.
d. Advocates the practice of moderation.
e. Vices are irrational habits or practices because they often stem from
passion which often goes beyond reason.
3. Plato
a. Every individual should devote his life to what is best fitted for him to do.
b. The important function of education is to determine what every
individual is by nature capable and fitted of doing things.
c. Poor leadership will lead to wrong decisions, and an individual who
should lead society be endowed with superior intelligence and possessed
impeccable integrity.
d. The physical objects are not permanent representations of unchanging
ideas, and that the ideas alone give true knowledge as they are known by
the mind.
4. Confucius
a. Development of moral and ethical principles to promote peace and order
and preserve human dignity. Order and harmony should begin in the
inner nature of man.
b. Golden rule: “One should treat others as one would like others to treat
oneself.”

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c. Reason and natural law constantly enjoy man to live righteously to
offend no one and to give one his due. Reason is supposed to rule and
regulate the lower craving of man such as appetites and passions.
d. Justice and love always go together.
e. The coming into being of the perfect man is a perfect social order is
simply the full development of the human personality through the
realization of man’s powers and natural endowments- his physical,
intellectual, emotional, political and economic aspirations.
5. Comenius
a. Development of the whole man before he becomes professional.
b. Effective learning is done through the use of the vernacular.
c. Both boys and girls should be included in education regardless of their
socio-economic status.
d. Advocated the use of visual aids in classroom teaching.
6. John Locke
a. Tabular Rasa: “A child is born with a blank mind neither good nor bad.”
b. Education can help shape the pupil according to the disposition of the
teacher.
c. Emphasized formal discipline, moral and physical education.
d. Methods of instruction should consider habit formation through drill and
exercise, memorization and reasoning.
7. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
a. Education is a social process of organized growth and development.
b. Education should be in accordance with the laws of natural growth and
development of the child.
c. Lessons were to be learned through direct experience with objects and
places through observation, inquiry, and reasoning.
d. Emphasis on method and technique of imparting knowledge and
information.
e. Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form; it is fixed, based
on natural law.
f. Subject matter curriculum should be humanistic.
8. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel
a. He proposed “kindergarten system” which emphasizes on playing as
means of education for children.
b. Education should be accompanied with spirit of informality and joy.
c. Self-activity as means of development.
d. Individual differences should be respected.
e. A subject matter curriculum emphasizing the great and enduring ideas of
culture.
9. Johann Friedrich Herbart
a. Learning should lead to character formation.
b. Aim of education should be ethical and moral.
c. The curriculum should include a wide range of subjects.
d. Unity could be achieved through reflection and could be greatly aided by
a correlation of subject matter.

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10.Herbert Spencer
a. Knowledge acquired that is best for use in life is also the best for the
development of power.
b. Emphasis on physical activity.
c. Science-oriented curriculum.
d. Opposed to free education; those who really want an education should
work hard to acquire the means to attain it.
11.John Dewey
a. Learning by doing.
b. Education is life, not preparation of life.
c. Education is a social process.
d. Education is growth and a continuous reconstruction of experience.
e. The center of education is the child’s own social activities.
f. The school is primarily a social institution.
Philosophical Foundation
1) Major Philosophical Thoughts
a) Idealism
a. Principles:
o It believes that the world of mind, ideas and reasons are primary. Mind
over matter.
o It states that spiritual nature of man and stresses that the human spirit,
soul, or mind are the most important elements in life.
o It holds that knowledge is independent of sense perception or experience
and lays stress on the mental idea, intrinsic or spiritual value rather
than physical fact or material value.
o Focus: mind
b. Aim of Education: to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society.
c. Content: Literature, History, Philosophy, Religion, Mathematics, Arts
d. Teaching methods: lecture-discussion method, brains, introspection,
reflection/reflective thinking
e. Roles of Teacher:
o acts as an excellent example/role model for the student – intellectually
and morally
o exercises great creative skill in providing opportunities for the learners'
minds to discover, analyze, synthesize, and create applications of
knowledge to life and behavior
o questioner- encourages students to think and ask more questions and
develop logical thinking
f. Role of School:
o trains future leaders
o develops morality and to distinguish right from wrong
o maintains and transmits values
o place emphasis on developing the mind, personal discipline, and
character development

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b) Realism
a. Principles:
o It feels that the universe exists whether the mind perceives it or not.
Reality for them is composed of matter (body) and form (mind).
o Knowledge is derived from sense experience.
o Focus: body
b. Aim of Education: to enable the student to understand laws of nature.
Students should be left to explore the world though their senses.
c. Content: Science and Mathematics
d. Teaching methods: lectures, demonstrations, and sensory experiences,
inductive logic
o serves as a guide or a demonstrator, who has full mastery of the
knowledge of the realities of life
o requires the learner to recall, explain, and compare facts; to interpret
relationships, and to infer new meanings
o rewards the success of each learner and reinforces what has been
learned utilizes learner's interest by relating the lessons to the learner's
experiences, and by making the subject matter as concrete as possible
f. Roles of School:
o transmits knowledge
o ensures that classrooms are highly ordered and disciplined
c) Pragmatism
a. Principles:
o It asserts that education should be about life and growth.
o Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn
best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems as they
arise. They are concerned with the total development of the child through
experiencing or through self-activity.
o Focus: experience
b. Aim of Education: to enhance the potentials of the student to adopt to a
constantly changing world
c. Content: Practical and utilitarian subjects
d. Teaching Methods: project method, free and open discussion, individual,
problem-solving research, scientific method
o captures the child's interest and build on the natural motivation
o uses varying teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning
style
o acts as a helper, guide, and arranger of experiences
2) Modern Philosophical Thoughts
a) Perennialism
a. Principles:
o Teacher-centered direct educational philosophy focuses on everlasting
ideas and universal truths.
o It suggests that the focus of education should be the ideas that have
lasted for centuries believing the ideas are as relevant and meaningful
today as when they were written.
b. Aim of Education: to teach student to think rationally and develop minds
that can think critically.

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c. Roles of Teacher:
o interprets and tells eternal truth
o spends more time teaching about concepts
and explaining how these concepts are
meaningful to students
b) Essentialism
a. Principles:
o This philosophy contends that teachers
teach for learners to acquire basic
knowledge, skills, and values.
o Teach basic skills or the fundamental R’s -
reading, writing, arithmetic, right conduct-
as these are essential to the acquisition of
higher or more complex skills needed in
preparation for adult life.
o Knowledge is derived from sense
experience.
b. Aim of Education: to instill students with the
“essentials” of academic knowledge, enacting a
back-to-basic approach.
c. Roles of Teacher: focuses heavily on achievement test scores as a means of
evaluating progress.
c) Progressivism
a. Principles:
o This educational philosophy connotes real-world problem solving and
individual development.
o It is concerned with “learning by doing” and purports that children learn
best when pursuing their own interest and satisfying their own needs.
o Education is always in the process of development.
o Education should be child-centered – it is focused on the whole child and
the cultivation of individuality.
b. Aim of Education: to provide the pupil the necessary skills to be able to
interact with his ever-changing environment
c. Roles of Teacher: plans lessons that arouse curiosity and encourage the
students to develop a higher level of knowledge
d) Existentialism
a. Principles:
o Man shapes his being as he lives.
o This philosophy helps the students understand and appreciate
themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for
their thoughts, feelings, and actions. It encourages students to
philosophize about life to recognize and fulfill personal freedom.
o Existentialists believe that education should enable man to make choices
for his life.
o Knowledge is subjective to the person’s decision and varies from one
person to another.
b. Aim of Education: to train the individual for significant and meaningful
existence
Keywords
Realism - senses
Idealism - thoughts
Pragmatism - use, practice
Perennialism - constant
Essentialism - basic
Progressivism - improvement
Existentialism - choice
Social Reconstructionism -
benefit of all
Naturalism - nature
Humanism - whole
Behaviorism - change
Utilitarianism – greater good

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c. Roles of Teacher:
o assists students in their personal journey
o aids children in knowing themselves
e) Social Reconstructionism
a. Principles:
o It is an educational philosophy asserting that schools, teachers, and
students should take the lead in addressing social problems and
improving society.
o It focuses on improving social inequalities and reconstructing society into
a just social order (change in society).
b. Aim of Education: education for change and social reform
c. Roles of Teacher: uses community-based learning and brings the world into
the classroom
3) Other Philosophies of Education
a) Naturalism
o It views that all objects and events are capable of being accounted for by
scientific explanation. According to this philosophy, the ultimate
explanation of all reality is to be found in nature.
b) Humanism
o This philosophy rejects supernaturalism, regarded man as natural
objects, and asserted the essential dignity and worth of man and his
capacity to achieve self-realization with reason and scientific method.
c) Behaviorism
o Student’s behavior is a product of his environment.
o Manipulate the learning environment and present stimuli using
conditioning and social learning to shape student behavior.
o Focus on cultivating behaviors that are beneficial to society.
d) Utilitarianism
• This philosophy refers to actions that are geared toward the total amount
of happiness that one can achieve.
• It focused on producing students who will be able to fit into society at an
elite level and contribute as productive citizen.
4) Oriental Philosophies
a) Hinduism
• It emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way of life characterized by
honesty, courage, service, faith, self-control, purity, and non-violence
which can be achieved through yoga. It was founded by Mahatma
Gandhi.
• This religion has a triad of chief gods known as Trimurti composed of
Brahma (the Supreme Spirit), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the
destroyer and re-creator).

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• The people are divided into four classes known as the caste system
o Brahmins or Brahmans – the priests
o Kshatriyas – the nobles and the warriors
o Vaisyas – the traders, cultivators, and peasants
o Sudras – the servants
o Outside the caste system are the Untouchables also known as the
outcasts.
• The practice of Hinduism is a complex of rights and ceremonies
performed within the framework of the caste system under the
supervision of the priests.
• They believe in the Law of Karma – a process or series of birth and
rebirth until one attains perfection and eventually reaches nirvana,
which is the place of unending happiness and bliss.
• The Veda is the most sacred of all Hindu scriptures composed of four
main collections – Rig Veda (hymns and praises), Yajur Veda (prayers
and sacrificial formulas), Sama Veda (tunes and chants), and Atharva
Veda (magical formulas).
b) Buddhism
• It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama.
• The basic teaching of Buddha which are core to Buddhism are:
o The Three Universal Truths
▪ Nothing is lost in the universe
▪ Everything changes
▪ The Law of Cause and Effect
o The Four Noble Truth
▪ Dukkha – the noble truth of suffering. Life is suffering.
Suffering is real and almost universal. Suffering has many
causes: loss, sickness, pain, failure, and the
impermanence of pleasure.
▪ Samudaya – the noble truth on the origin of suffering.
Suffering is due to attachment. It is the desire to have and
control things. It can take many forms: craving of sensual
pleasures, the desire for fame, and the desire to avoid
unpleasant sensation like fear, anger, and jealousy.
▪ Nirodha – the noble truth on the cessation of desire.
Suffering ceases with the final liberation of Nirvana. The
mind experiences complete freedom, liberation, and non-
attachment. It lets go of any desire or craving.
▪ Magga – the noble truth to the way of the cessation of
desire. In order to end the suffering, you must follow the
Eightfold Path.
o The Eightfold Path
▪ Right understanding
▪ Right thinking
▪ Right speech
▪ Right conduct or right action
▪ Right livelihood
▪ Right effort
▪ Right mindfulness
▪ Right concentration

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c) Confucianism
• It teaches moral life through devotion to the family, loyalty to the elders,
love of learning, brotherhood, civil service, and universal love and justice.
• It stresses the Five Cardinal Virtues, and these are: benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity.
• It is the body of beliefs and practices that are based on the Chinese
classics and are supported by the authority of Kung fu-tzu or Confucius.
• The teachings of Confucius are found in the Analects, a collection of
discussions and sayings.
• The Confucian Scriptures are known as the Six Chinese Classics.
o Shu Ching – the book of history
o Shi Ching – the book of poetry
o I Ching – the book of changes
o Li Chi – the book of rites
o Yeuh Ching – the book of music
o Ch’un Chu – spring and autumn annals
• Confucians ethical teaching include the following (The Five Virtues):
o Jen – goodwill, empathy, generosity
o Yi – rightness, duty as guardians of nature and humanity
o Li – right conduct and propriety, demonstrating your inner
attitude with your outward expressions
o Chih – wisdom
o Hsin – faithfulness and trustworthiness
d) Taoism
• It was founded by Lao Tzu.
• The original teachings of Taoism are found in Tao Te Ching, China’s most
influential book.
• The focus of Taoism is the individual in nature rather than the individual
in society.
• Taoists stress the importance of harmonizing with nature by balancing
yin and yang and developing chi through meditation and disengagement.
e) Shintoism
• It was coined from the Chinese shen (gods) and tao (the way).
• It teaches physical purity is more important than moral purity.
• It centers on the reverence of the kami (divine spirits that live in nature).
f) Judaism
• The primary sources of Judaism are the Hebrew Bible and Rabbinic
literature.
• Pentateuch – the first five books of the Hebrew Bible also known as the
Torah from the patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are the Jewish’s
people’s holy book.
• Jews believe in One God. They believe that they share a “covenant
relationship” between God and themselves (the Hebrew people).
• Jews believe in obeying the 10 Commandments. Commandments are like
religious laws.
• Jews believe God leads them to the “promised land.”
• The Talmud is the record of rabbinic teachings. It is made up of two
separate works: the Mishnah (primarily a compilation of Jewish laws)
and the Gemara (rabbinic commentaries and discussions on the
Mishnah).

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g) Christianity
• Christians take their name from Jesus Christ.
• The Christians believe that Jesus Christ is both the Son of God and Son
of Man – fully human and fully divine and without sins.
• The Christian canon of scripture known as the Bible contains 39 books
of Jewish scriptures (the Old Testament) and 27 books of Christian
scriptures (the New Testament).
• Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old
Testament. They also believe that there is only one God, but that this one
God consists of 3 persons.
h) Islam
• Islam means submission to God.
• The Islamic faith is centered on the Five Pillars of Islam:
1. Shahada – it refers to a Muslim exclaiming that Allah is the only
God and that Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.
2. Salat – it refers to the obligatory prayers that a Muslim has to
offer five times a day.
3. Zakat – Muslims give two and one-half percent of their income
and other properties to charity.
4. Ramadan – refers to fasting where Muslims fast from dawn till
dusk for a whole month.
5. Hajj – it is pilgrimage to the house of Allah in Makkah.
• The Quran is holy book of Islam which Muslims believe to be a revelation
from Allah.
• Hadith records the traditions or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. It
contains Sunna of the prophet and the standards which all the Muslims
should follow.

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Methods of Teaching
Method is a systematic plan to achieve a learning objective. It refers to a series of
related and progressive acts performed by the teacher and students to achieve the
objectives of a lesson.
Strategy suggests a teacher’s unique way of presenting a topic to the learners,
characterized by adeptness in performing the steps with utmost care to ensure the
attainment of a learning objective.
Techniques refer to the art, style of manner of teacher’s performance in a following a
procedure.
Instructional Objectives
Educational or instructional objective provides guidance in organizing suitable learning
situations and choosing appropriate methods to find out if said objectives have been
attained.
Rules in formulating instructional objectives
1. Describe the expected behavior of the student
2. Describe the observable behavior in terms of an outcome verb which the student
will perform
3. Describe the criterion for evaluating an acceptable performance of the behavior
4. Specify important conditions under which the student will perform the behavior
5. Measure only one outcome verb for each objective

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Learning Taxonomies
A. Cognitive Domain (Benjamin Bloom) - describe the knowledge that learners
are to acquire.
Levels of
Learning
Outcomes
Description Action Words Used in
Formulating Objectives
Knowledge Student can recall, define,
recognize, or identify specific
information presented
during instruction
List, define, identify, name,
recall, state, select, label,
reproduce
Comprehension Student can demonstrate
understanding of
information by translating it
into a different form or by
recognizing it in translated
form
Describe, interpret,
classify, differentiate,
explain, translate,
distinguish, compare,
modify, give examples
Application Student can apply the
information in performing
concrete actions
Apply, demonstrate, solve,
interpret, use, experiment,
measure, compute,
illustrate, use
Analysis Student can break down
material into its component
parts so that the whole
structure is understood
Separate, infer, analyze,
explain, discriminate,
prove, categorize, detect,
revise
Synthesis Student can put parts
together to form a new
whole
Summarize, design,
combine, reconstruct,
draw, relate, integrate,
plan, generalize, propose,
create
Evaluation Student can apply a
standard in making a
judgment on the worth of
something – an essay, an
action, or a design, etc.
Assess, decide, judge,
support, summarize,
defend, conclude, appraise,
justify, deduce

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B. Affective Domain (David Krathwohl) – describes the attitudes, feelings, and
dispositions that the learners are expected to develop.
Categories Description Some Illustrative Verbs
Receiving Student shows willingness to
attend to particular classroom
stimuli on phenomenon in the
environment
Acknowledge, ask, choose,
follow, listen, reply, watch
Responding Student is required active
participation based on the
stimuli
Answer, assist, contribute,
cooperate, follow up, react
Valuing Student displays definite
involvement or commitment
toward some experience
Adopt, commit, desire, display,
explain, initiate, justify, share
Organization Student has integrated a new
value into his general set of
values and can give it its
proper place in a priority
system
Adapt, categorize, establish,
generalize, integrate, organize
Value
Characterization
Student acts consistently
according to the value and is
firmly committed to the
experience
Advocate, behave, defend,
encourage, influence, practice
C. Psychomotor (R.H. Dave) – relates to the manipulative and motor skills that
learners are expected to master.
Categories Description Some Illustrative Verbs
Imitation Early stages of learning a
complex skill after an
indication of readiness to take
a particular type of action
Carry out, assemble, practice,
follow, repeat, sketch, move
Manipulation A particular skills or sequence
is practiced continuously until
it becomes habitual and done
with some confidence and
proficiency
Acquire, complete, conduct,
improve, perform, produce
Precision A skill has been attained with
proficiency and efficiency
Achieve, accomplish, excel, master,
succeed, surpass
Articulation An individual can modify
movement patterns to meet a
particular situation
Adapt, change, excel, reorganize,
rearrange, revise
Naturalization An individual responds
automatically and creates new
motor acts or ways of
manipulation out of
understandings, abilities and
skills developed
Arrange, combine, compose,
construct, create, design

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Techniques of Questioning
The kind of questions teachers ask can be categorized according to the following:
1. The type of response desired
a. Soliciting – asking for information
b. Directing – proposing course of action to take, guiding, or redirecting
thinking, suggesting alternative
c. Responding – doing something called for
d. Evaluating - agreeing or not, expressing satisfaction, assessing
2. The level of the lesson’s objective
a. Low level questions – they require responses of the simple recall or
memory type of answers. Defining, stating, and discussing are common
examples.
b. High level questions – these questions call for analysis, synthesis,
evaluation, and problem-solving ability.
3. Their use or purpose
a. For verification – it is the determination of whether or not a statement is
true.
i. Analytic questions – they are questions that ask for definition of
terms, translation, or meanings of phrases or statements.
Example: What is a jeep?
ii. Empirical questions – they are questions that elicit responses that
are empirical statement. The response is obtained from evidence
gained through “sense experience.” Example: If we raise the
temperature to 100C, what will happen?
iii. Valuative questions – they are questions that elicit responses that
are value statements. Example: Who is your favorite hero and
why?
b. For productive thinking
i. Cognitive-Memory Questions – they are questions that elicit
responses needing “cognitive-memory operations” such as those
that are simple reproduction of facts, formula, or other items that
are remembered through the use of such processes as
recognition, rote memory, and selective recall. Example: Who was
the first Filipino president?
ii. Convergent Questions – they are questions that elicit responses
which involve the merging of diverse data. Example: Compare
Teacher A and teacher B.
iii. Divergent Questions – they are questions that elicit responses
wherein the individual is free to generate his own ideas. Example:
What comes to mind when you think of Robotics?
iv. Evaluating Questions – they deal with “matter of judgment”, value
and choice and are characterized by its judgmental quality.
Example: What do you think of President Rodrigo Duterte?
c. For cognitive function
i. Focusing questions – they serve to introduce a topic and indicate
the direction of discussion. Example: After knowing the effect of
water on fire, explain how it affects rocks.

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ii. Foundation questions – they are questions whose function is to
elicit responses that will serve as the basis of a more complex
question or discussion, a recapitulation of an ongoing discussion
or the presentation of new information not yet offered. Example:
Will you review for us the main products grown in that province?
iii. Extending questions – they are questions that clarify or elaborate
upon the statements already made. Example: Please explain
again how the food reaches the intestines that will help us trace
the discomfort.
iv. Lifting questions – they elicit from the respondents a level of
thought higher or more complex that what has already been
established. Example: Who is the modern painter you like most?
Why?
v. Promoting questions – they have function of responses that
promote the flow of the discussion. The questions may elicit
responses which will fill the missing parts in an explanation.
Example: Considering the criteria, rate the candidates. Then we
will be able to rank them.
Teaching Methodologies
1. Individualized Teaching Methodologies
a. Independent study – is a technique resorted to by a teacher in recognition
of individual differences among his students.
b. Journal – is a daily record, chronology, or a register of events. It is
sometimes called a diary. As used in teaching, it is a record of what
transpires during a learning activity.
c. Narratives – students are made to recall past experiences that could help
them understand why things happen or what events lead to an important
discovery.
d. Individualized instruction – is used for a specific purpose and an
identified client. It is “tailored-planned.”
e. Projects and collections – a project could be in the form of a finished
product that is constructed for the purpose of demonstrating how a
principle works, usually in the sciences. A collection is an organized way
of presenting a variety of objects, organisms or materials which is
classified according to some common characteristics.
f. Discovery approach – is a teaching strategy which aims to assist the
student in finding solutions or answers to a problem or attaining a
learning objective through self-discovery.
g. Constructive approach – views learning as process of constructing
meaning which is greatly influenced by the learners accumulated
experiences and understandings.
h. Experiential learning – is essentially a way of acquiring knowledge of
skills through direct and keen observations followed by an analysis of
what has been sensed and understood. In short, it is a process of
learning through experience.
i. Reports – are the activities after the students undertake an investigation
of a topic using the data or information gathered.
j. Problem solving – as teaching methodology, it consists of a fixed step-by-
step procedure directed towards finding an answer or a solution to a
problem.
k. Creative writing – as teaching methodology, it incorporates the act of
writing as part of the instruction process.

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2. Methodologies for Small Groups
a. Cooperative learning methodology – works well with groups or teams
wherein members help one another to achieve a desired outcome.
Approached used:
i. Think-Pair-Share – (1) Thinking Phase: the teacher poses a
question about the lesson. Students spend time thinking of the
answer alone. (2) Pairing Phase: Each student pairs with another
and discusses the answers together. This interaction leads to
sharing of ideas. (3) Sharing Phase – the teacher asks the pair to
share their answers with the whole class.
ii. Buzz Groups – Groups of 3 to 6 discuss all their ideas about a
topic. Then a recorder summarizes the ideas arrived at to the
class.
iii. Jigsaw – The students are assigned to 5 or 6-member study
teams. Then a topic is presented to them and each is responsible
for a portion. Members from different teams with the same topic
meet together to study and help each other learn their own topic.
Then each returns to their home team and discusses with the
members what they have learned. After discussions each member
takes a quiz. Team scores are obtained, and the high scoring
team and each member is recognized.
b. Role-playing – consists of an enactment of a learning situation through
which they depict real life responses and behavior.
c. Sociodrama – is an excellent device to make students “gain awareness” of
situations involving conflict. It refers to a group problem solving of real-
life situations through spontaneous enactment followed by guided
discussions.
d. Peer tutoring – when used in teaching-learning situations, to tutor means
to coach, teach, or instruct another. The tutor is more knowledgeable,
skilled and has the ability to influence others.
e. Microteaching – consists of teaching a brief lesson to a small group of
students in an actual classroom.
f. Direct instruction – is a way of teaching which helps students master
basic knowledge and skills in a step-by-step procedure.
g. Inquiry approach – is teaching method which is modeled after the
investigative processes of scientists.
h. Reading – as a teaching methodology requires the students to search for
information from printed and illustrated learning materials.
i. Integrative approach – aims to teach “organized body of knowledge.” It
presents a comprehensive collection of systematically arranged
knowledge such as facts, concepts, and principles.
j. Experimenting – an experiment is described as learning activity wherein a
student investigates a problem by manipulating a variable.
3. Methodologies for a Class
a. Discussion – refers to a free communication of ideas between the teacher
and the students and among students as well.
b. Reflective teaching – is a process where teachers think over their teaching
practices, analyzing how something was taught and how the practice
might be improved or changed for better learning outcomes. Strategies
using reflection are:
i. Writing journal
ii. Keeping a portfolio
iii. Self- analysis

34
c. Concept teaching - refers to the way knowledge and experiences are
sorted out to form a specific class. There are two basic approaches:
i. Direct presentation approach – this approach uses the rule-to-
example method or the deductive method.
ii. Concept attainment approach – this approach assists the
students to arrive at a concept using example-to-rule method or
the inductive method.
d. Team teaching – consists of tapping the expertise of two or more teachers
in planning, teaching, and evaluating the students’ learning.
e. Demonstration – a lesson could be presented through a brief
demonstration performed by a student, teacher, or an invited specialist.
f. Field studies – is an out-of-the-classroom activity intended to present
concepts in the most realistic manner. Often referred to as field
investigations, educational excursions, and study tour or nature trek.
g. Lecture – delivering a lecture is a teaching strategy which consists of an
oral presentation by an expert.
h. Simulation – is an imitation of real process or concept.
i. Field trip – is an out-of-the-classroom activity whereby student study
things in their natural setting.
4. Other Teaching Strategies
a. Brainstorming - is a process for generating creative ideas and solutions
through Intensive and freewheeling group discussion. It consists of
individual or more in which a deliberate attempt is made to think
creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a given
problem.
b. Distance Learning or distance education - is a mode of delivering
education and teaching, often on an individual basis, to students who
are not physical present in a traditional setting such as a classroom. It
provides “access to learning when time and distance or both separate the
source of information and the learners."
c. Metacognitive teaching (thinking about thinking) - teachers guide learners
to become more strategic thinkers by helping them understand the way
they are processing information. It can be done using any of the following
processes: advance organization, organizational planning, directed
attention, selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, auditory,
and representation.
d. Socratic Method - question and answer used by Socrates. The teacher
does not give information directly but instead asks students series of
questions. Its goal is helping the students to process information and to
engage in deeper understanding of topics. It can be used at any grade
level and with all subject areas, and lessons can be adapted to fit a
changing society
e. Symposium - is a formal activity where two to five persons talk on or
discuss a topic, especially an academic topic or social problem before an
audience.

35
Methods and Learning Resources
1. Technology-aided strategies – examples are microscope, television, projector, etc.
2. Audiovisual media – there are types of audiovisual media
a. Print materials – these are books, journals, and printed handouts
b. Model, miniatures, and mock-ups - models are three-dimensional
replicas of actual objects.
c. Graphs, charts, and maps are flat representations that are easy to
understand.
d. Bulletin boards and chalkboards
e. Projected still pictures
f. Audio media
g. Videotapes and films
h. Television
i. Computers
j. Realia – the real objects and materials that are naturally available in the
environment.

36
Curriculum Development
Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes
Curriculum (Daniel Tanner) - it is a design plan for learning that requires the
purposeful and proactive organization, sequencing, and management of the interactions
among the teacher, the students, and the content knowledge we want student to
acquire.
According to Arthur Cunningham, curriculum is “the tool in the hands of an artist to
mold his or her material, according to his or her ideals in his studio. In this definition,
artist is the teacher, material is the student, ideals are objectives, and studio is the
educational institute (school/university).
Curriculum Development – it is defined as the process of selecting, organizing,
executing, and evaluating learning experiences on the basis of the needs, abilities and
interests of the learners and the nature of the society or community.
Fundamental Concepts of Curriculum
• Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of organized knowledge
• Curriculum as an experience
• Curriculum as an instructional plan
• Curriculum as an instructional outcome
Characteristics of a Good Curriculum
1. The curriculum is continuously evolving.
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived.
4. The curriculum is the result of long-term effort.
5. The curriculum is a complex of details.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs in the
community.
8. The curriculum has educational quality.
9. The curriculum has administrative flexibility.
Elements/Components of the Curriculum
1. Aims, goals and objectives – what is to be done?
a. Aims of the Philippine education based on Article of the Philippine
Constitution of 1987
b. Aims of the levels of education according to Education Act of 1982
c. Goals based on DepEd Vision and Mission
d. Institutional objectives
• Vision statement – the vision of the school embodies its desired
state in the future; that is, what it wants to be.
• Mission statement – the mission of the school states how they
plan to achieve their institutional vision.

37
e. Instructional objectives using ABCD Model (Robert Mager)
• Audience – describes the intended learner of the instruction
• Behavior - describes learner capability
• Condition – describes what the learner will use, have access too
(equipment/tools).
• Degree – describes the minimum criteria for acceptable student
performance
f. Taxonomy of Objectives
• Cognitive domain levels by Benjamin Bloom
o Knowledge
o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
o Synthesis
o Evaluation
• Revised cognitive domain levels by Lorin Anderson and David
Krathwohl
o Remembering (knowledge)
o Understanding (comprehension)
o Applying (application)
o Analyzing (analysis)
o Judging (evaluation)
o Creating (synthesis)
• Affective domain levels by David Krathwohl
o Receiving
o Responding
o Valuing
o Organization
o Characterization
• Psychomotor domain levels of Elizabeth Simpson
o Perception - using sensory cues to guide motor activity
o Set - readiness to act physical activities
o Guided Response – imitating physical activity
o Mechanism – performing parts of complex physical activity
o Complex Overt Response – performing complete physical
activity
o Adaptation – modifying physical activity to suit
preferences
o Origination – creating new movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific problem
• Psychomotor domain levels of Anita Harrow
o Reflex movements – responding instinctively
o Fundamental movements – performing basic tasks
o Perceptual abilities – responding to stimuli
o Physical abilities – displaying endurance, stamina, agility,
strength
o Skilled movements – displaying advanced physical
movements
o Non-discursive communications – using physical/non-
verbal communication skills effectively

38
• Psychomotor domain levels by R.H. Dave
o Imitation
o Manipulation
o Precision
o Articulation
o Naturalization
2. Subject matter or content – what subject matter is to be included?
3. Learning experiences – what instructional strategies, resources and activities
will be employed?
4. Evaluation approaches – what methods and instruments will be used to assess
the results of the curriculum?
Philosophies of Education vis-à-vis Curriculum
Philosophy Aim of
Education
Role of
Education
Focus on the
Curriculum
Curriculum
Trends
Perennialism To educate
the rational
person; to
cultivate the
intellect
Teachers help
students think
with reason.
Classical
subjects, literary
analysis and
curriculum is
constant
Use of great
books and
return to liberal
arts
Essentialism To promote
the
intellectual
growth of
the
individual
and educate
a competent
person
Teachers are
the sole
authority in
his or her
subject area of
field of
specialization.
Essential skills of
the 3R’s and
essential subjects
of English,
Science, History,
Math and Foreign
Language
Excellence in
education, back
to basics and
cultural literacy
Progressivism To promote
democratic
and social
living
Knowledge
leads to growth
and
development of
lifelong
learners who
actively learn
by doing
Subjects are
interdisciplinary,
integrative, and
interactive.
Curriculum is
focused on
students’
interest, human
problems, and
affairs.
School reforms,
relevant and
contextualized
curriculum,
humanistic
education
Reconstructionism To improve
and
reconstruct
society,
Education
for Change
Teachers act
as agents of
change and
reform in
various
educational
projects
including
research.
Focus on present
and future trends
and issues of
national and
international
interests
Equality of
educational
opportunities in
education,
access to global
education

39
Curriculum Approaches
Curriculum approach is a way of dealing with a curriculum, a way of doing, creating,
designing, and thinking about a curriculum.
1. Behavioral Approach
• The achievement of objectives is of primary importance.
• Success of the curriculum is based on whether objectives are attained.
2. Managerial Approach
• The overall process and the decisions about the curriculum implementation
are of primary importance.
• The school principal is both the curriculum and instructional leader.
3. Systems Approach
• The interactions among the various elements of the instructional process –
the stakeholders – are of primary importance.
• Instructional elements such as administration, instruction, and evaluation
are of the same importance.
4. Humanistic Approach
• The total development of the learner is of primary importance.
• All elements of the curriculum must be geared toward the holistic
development of learners.
Types of Curriculum
Allan Glatthorn describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools. These are
1. Recommended curriculum – is that which is recommended by curriculum
experts and/or professional organizations. Examples: Basic education is
recommended by DepEd, higher education is recommended by CHED, and
vocational education is recommended by TESDA.
2. Written curriculum – is the curriculum that appears in state and locally
produced documents, such as syllabi, modules, books, and lesson plans.
3. Taught curriculum – is that which teachers actually deliver day by day.
4. Supported curriculum – includes that support the curriculum - textbooks,
software, and other media.
5. Assessed curriculum – is that which appears in tests and performance
measures: standardized tests and teacher-made tests.
6. Learned curriculum – is the bottom-line curriculum – the curriculum that
students actually learn. It is indicted by the results of the tests and changes in
behavior which can either be cognitive, affective, or psychomotor.
7. Hidden curriculum – is the unintended curriculum which is deliberately
planned but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. It defines
what students learn from the physical environment, the policies, and the
procedures of the school

40
Curriculum Patterns
1. Traditional Curriculum Pattern
a. Subject curriculum
• The school subjects constitute the bases for organizing the school
experiences of the learners.
• Various subjects are offered based on their logical relationship so
as to meet the multifarious needs of the child.
b. Correlated curriculum
• It articulates and establishes relationship between two or more
subjects on the basis of a topic or a theme.
• Teaching similar topics in two or more subjects simultaneously in
an effort to help students gain a better understanding of the
topic. Example: Organic and Inorganic Chemistry are used to
reinforce each other.
c. Broad-fields curriculum
• It combines several specific areas into larger fields. Example:
Political Science, History, Geography, Sociology are combined to
become Social Science.
• It is subject centered in nature.
2. Integrative Curriculum Pattern
• Eliminates school subject division
• Aims to foster integration of the learner to his socio-cultural milieu
• Uses actual learning experiences, social needs, interest, abilities, and
learner’s interests as learning tools
• Is learner-centered and socially oriented
a. Learner-centered
• It organizes the learning experiences and content around the life
of the child.
b. Experience curriculum
• It puts emphasis on the immediate interests and needs of the
child and not on the anticipated needs.
• The learners are given opportunity to choose an activity based on
their area of interest.
c. Core Curriculum
• It is also called social function or Area-of-Living Curriculum.
• Learning experiences are organized on the basis of major function
of social life or aspects of living.
• It is intended to enable the learners to study the problems that
demand personal and social action.
3. Unified Program
• Common sense point of view in the curriculum organization
• A balance between the direct teaching of the subject skills and unified
learning experiences based on problems which are life centered.
• Learning should be organized on persistent life situations as well as on
the basis of organized body of knowledge when needed.

41
Different Types of Curriculum Models
1. The Tyler Model
• One of the best-known models for curriculum development
• Tyler’s Rationale is an authoritarian approach to curriculum development as
it sees the school administrators as the major movers of the curriculum
design.
• Teachers will be seen as the implementers of the curriculum.
• Tyler argued that these four principles/questions are necessary to be
addressed in developing curriculum:
o What are the educational purposes that the school must attain?
o What educational experiences must be provided so as to attain these
purpose?
o How can these experiences be organized?
o How can the attainment of the purposes be determined?
2. The Leyton Soto Model
• Leyton Soto charted three basic elements – philosophy, psychology, and
sources, three basic processes – selection, organization, and evaluation, and
three fundamental concepts – objectives, activities, and experiences. He
significantly showed the interrelationship among the various components of
the model.
3. The Taba Model
• It is known as grassroots approach to curriculum development.
• Taba believed that the curriculum must be designed by teachers rather than
handed down by higher authority. She felt that teachers should begin the
process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students rather
than creating a curriculum design. She advocated an inductive approach to
curriculum development, starting with specifics and building up to general
design and working down to specifics.
• Taba stipulated this Grassroots Approach in these seven stages:
o Identifying the needs of the learner
o Formulating learning objectives
o Selecting learning content
o Organizing learning content
o Selecting learning experiences
o Organizing learning
o Evaluating the elements of the development stages
4. The Saylor, Alexander and Lewis Model
• Galen Saylor, William Alexander and Lewis defined curriculum as “a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals
and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a
single school center. Yet it is not to be conceived as a single document but
rather as many smaller plans for particular portions of the curriculum.”
• Their model presents – (1) goals, objectives, and domains, (2) curriculum
designing, (3) curriculum implementation and (4) evaluation.

42
5. The Oliva Model
• It is a linear, deductive and prescriptive model that offers a faculty a
process for the complete development of a school’s curriculum.
• Peter Oliva recognized the needs of students in particular communities
are not always the same as the general needs of students throughout our
society.
• His curriculum development model is composed of 12 components,
namely:
o Component 1: Philosophical formulation, target, mission and
vision of the institution
o Component 2: Analysis of the needs of the community where the
school is located
o Component 3 and 4: General purpose and special purpose
curriculum
o Component 5: Organizing the design and implement curriculum
o Component 6 and 7: Describe the curriculum in the form of the
formulation of general objectives and specific learning
o Component 8: Define the learning strategy
o Component 9: Preliminary studies on possible strategies or
assessment techniques to be used
o Component 10: Implement the learning strategy
o Component 11 and 12: Evaluation of learning and curriculum
evaluation
6. Understanding by Design by Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins
The Understanding by Design framework (UbD framework) offers a planning
process and structure to guide curriculum, assessment, and instruction. Its two
key ideas are: focus on teaching and assessing for understanding and learning
transfer, and design curriculum “backward” from those ends.
The UbD framework is based on seven key tenets:
1. Learning is enhanced when teachers think purposefully about curricular
planning. The UbD framework helps this process without offering a rigid
process or prescriptive recipe.
2. The UbD framework helps focus curriculum and teaching on the
development and deepening of student understanding and transfer of
learning (i.e., the ability to effectively use content knowledge and skill).
3. Understanding is revealed when students autonomously make sense of
and transfer their learning through authentic performance. Six facets of
understanding—the capacity to explain, interpret, apply, shift
perspective, empathize, and self-assess—can serve as indicators of
understanding.
4. Effective curriculum is planned backward from long-term, desired results
through a three-stage design process (Desired Results, Evidence, and
Learning Plan). This process helps avoid the common problems of
treating the textbook as the curriculum rather than a resource, and
activity-oriented teaching in which no clear priorities and purposes are
apparent.
5. Teachers are coaches of understanding, not mere purveyors of content
knowledge, skill, or activity. They focus on ensuring that learning
happens, not just teaching (and assuming that what was taught was
learned); they always aim and check for successful meaning making and
transfer by the learner.

43
6. Regularly reviewing units and curriculum against design standards
enhances curricular quality and effectiveness and provides engaging and
professional discussions.
7. The UbD framework reflects a continual improvement approach to
student achievement and teacher craft. The results of our designs—
student performance—inform needed adjustments in curriculum as well
as instruction so that student learning is maximized.
The Three Stages of Backward Design:
1. Identify Desired Results – what is it that I want the students to
understand and know and be able to do?
2. Determine Assessment Evidence – how will I know that they know what I
want them to know?
3. Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction – What do I need to do in the
classroom to prepare them for the assessment?
Components of UbD Lesson Plan Procedure
1. Explore (Introduction/Activity) – focuses on diagnosing student’s needs
and activating their prior knowledge.
2. Firm Up (Interaction/Analysis) – allows students to give more examples
and to reinforce learning.
3. Deepen (Abstraction) – moves students and teachers to extend to higher
order thinking skills and activities for deeper understanding of the new
knowledge gained.
4. Transfer (Integration/Application) – encourages students to demonstrate
knowledge, skills, and understanding, transferring what they learned in
real-life context.
Models of the Curriculum – Instruction Relationship
1. Dualistic model - curriculum sits on one side and instruction on the other – no
intersection.
2. Interlocking model - curriculum and instruction are shown as systems
entwined. The separation of one from the other would do serious harm to both.
3. Cyclical model - curriculum and instruction are separate entities with a
continuing circular relationship. Curriculum makes a continuous impact on
instruction and, vice versa, instruction has impact on curriculum.
4. Concentric model- mutual dependence is the key feature of concentric models.
Two conceptions of the curriculum–instruction relationship that show one as the
subsystem of the other.
Curriculum Process
1. Curriculum Planning – considers the school vision, mission and goals and
includes the philosophy or strong education belief of the school.
a. Determinants of Curriculum Planning
o Learners
o Society
o Knowledge
b. Need Assessment – it is completed to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of existing curriculum situations and provide directions for
their improvement.

44
c. Formulating goals – goals are the statements of purposes. By analyzing
the school goals, we can determine the scope of its entire educational
program.
2. Curriculum Designing – the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the
selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools
to measure achieved learning outcomes. It also includes the resources to be
utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.
a. Sources of Design
o Science - The scientific method provides meaning for the
curriculum design.
o Society - School should draw its ideas for the curriculum from the
analysis of the social situation.
o Eternal and Divine Sources - Designers should simply draw on
the pad for guidance as to what is appropriate content
o Knowledge – “What knowledge is of most worth?"
o Learner - Curriculum should be derived from what we know
about the learners, how he or she learns, forms attitude,
generates interests and develops values
b. Guides in Addressing Content in Curriculum
Palma proposed the BASIC principle as a guide addressing content in the
curriculum
i. B – Balance: Content should be fairly distributed in depth and
breadth.
ii. A – Articulation: as the content complexities progresses with the
education levels bridging should be provided
iii. S – Sequence/Scope: the logical arrangement of the content refers
to sequence or order: vertically – for deepening the content and
horizontally – for broadening the content
iv. I – Integration: content in the curriculum does not stand alone or
in isolation. It has relatedness to other contents.
v. C – Continuity: curriculum should continuously flow as it was
before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future.
c. Selection of the Curricular Elements
o Selection of Objectives
• should describe behavior
• stated analytically and specifically
• developmental rather than terminal
• SMART
• considers the 3 objective domains
ii. Selection of Subject Matter
• Self-sufficiency – is about helping the learners to attain the
utmost independence in learning yet in an inexpensive
way. This means more of the results and effective learning
outcomes through lesser amount of the teacher’s effort
and so with the learner’s effort.
• Significance – brings the content to the degree to which it
contributes the basic ideas, concepts, principles, and
generalizations and to the development of particular
learning abilities, skills, processes, and attitudes.

45
• Validity – refers to the degree of authenticity of the content
selected and to the congruence of the content in the light
of the objectives selected.
• Interest – is the degree to which the content caters of
fosters particular interests in the students.
• Utility – means deciding on subject matter, its usefulness
is considered to be essential.
• Learnability – is the appropriate of the content in the light
of the particular students who are to experience the
curriculum.
• Feasibility – refers to the question “can the selected
content be taught in the time allowed, considering the
resources, staff and particular community?”
d. Grade Placement
• Involves allocation of content to definite grade capable of learning
• Considers such factors as: child's ability, difficulty of item,
Importance of content, maturation, mental age, experiential
background
e. Time Allotment
• Refers to specification of definite time for subject/course; amount
of time given to a subject
• Considers such factors as: importance of subject; child’s ability;
grade level average number of days/hours
3. Curriculum Implementation – putting into action the plan, it is where the
action takes place and involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s
classroom where learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum Evaluation – determines the extent to which the desired outcomes
have been achieved. This is an ongoing procedure as in finding out the progress
of learning (formative) and the mastery of learning (summative).
a. Why Evaluate
• Meet demands that current educational reforms have made
• Provide directions, security, and feedbacks to all concerned
• Determine appropriate and available resources, activities,
content, method or whether curriculum has coherence, balance,
articulation, scope, integration, continuity, and sequence in order
to meet curriculum goals/ objectives
b. Steps to curriculum evaluation
1. Focus on one component of the curriculum evaluation
2. Collect or gather information
3. Organize the information
4. Analyze the information
5. Report the information
6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback
c. Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model of Evaluation
o The model was developed in the by Daniel Stufflebeam and is
considered a decision-oriented model that systematically collects
information about a program to identify strengths and limitations
in content or delivery, to improve program effectiveness or plan
for the future of a program. It has four components:
• Context - What needs to be done?
• Input - How should it be done?
• Process - Is it being done?

46
• Product - Is it succeeding?
5. Curriculum Improvement – refers to enriching, modifying certain aspects
without changing fundamental conceptions/elements/structure
a. Levels of Operations for Improvement
o Substitution – replacing the present curriculum with a new one
o Alternation -introducing minor changes on the current curriculum
o Restructuring – introducing major changes on the current
curriculum to the point of restructuring the curriculum
o Perturbation – changes in the curriculum happen in a very short
time
o Value orientation change – responding to shifts in the curriculum
through a reorientation of the vision/mission of the school
b. Actions that Facilitate Curriculum Improvement
• Change climate and working condition to encourage improvement
• Maintain appropriate tempo
• Arrange for variety of activities
• Build evaluation procedure
6. Curriculum Change - refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design
of learning experiences based on conceptions, which may be at the school,
district, or national level.
a. Principles that Guide Change Process
1. People improve when they detect the desire of the stimulator to
improve himself
2. Direction of improvement should be determined cooperatively
3. People must identify and examine each other’s centrally held
values
4. People improve through experience
5. Divide time between contact individual and with group
6. People's resistance to efforts of others constitutes major
individual differences
7. Create a climate of freedom
8. Keep channels of communication open
9. Use power with great care
10. Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given time
b. Ten Axioms of Curriculum Change (by Peter Olivia)
1. Curriculum change is inevitable and necessary, for it is
through change that life forms grow and develop.
2. A school curriculum not only reflects but is a product of its
time.
3. Curriculum changes made at an earlier period of time can exist
concurrently with newer curriculum changes at a later period
of time.
4. Curriculum change results from changes in people.
5. Curriculum change is effected as a result of cooperative
endeavor on the part of groups.
6. Curriculum development is basically a decision-making
process.
7. Curriculum development is a never-ending process.
8. Curriculum development is a comprehensive process.
9. Systematic curriculum development is more effective than trial
and error.

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