The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life. There are approximately 37.2 trillion cells in the human body. Cells have various internal structures that carry out specific functions necessary for life. The structures include the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, and plasma membrane.

1. Cell
Cell: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known
living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life.

2. Conversion
Quotation
Amount
International
Quotation
1 Lac 100,000.00 100 Thousands
10 Lacs 1,000,000.00 1 Million
1 Crore 10,000,000.00 10 Million
10 Crores 100,000,000.00 100 Million
100 Crores 1,000,000,000.00 1 Billion
100,000 Crores 1,000,000,000,000.00 1 trillion
Human cell No.
37.2 trillion
3 crore72 lac crores
(372 00000 crores)

3. Chromosomes
•Usually in the form of chromatin
•Contains genetic information
•Composed of DNA
•Thicken for cellular division
•Set number per species
(i.e. 23 pairs for human)
Different Functions of a Cell

4. Nuclear membrane
• Surrounds nucleus
• Composed of two layers
• Numerous openings for
nuclear traffic

5. Nucleolus
• Spherical shape
• Visible when cell is not
dividing
• Contains RNA for protein
manufacture

6. Centrioles
• Paired cylindrical organelles
near nucleus
• Composed of nine tubes,
each with three tubules
• Involved in cellular division
• Lie at right angles to each
other

7. Chloroplasts
• A plastid usually found in
plant cells
• Contain green chlorophyll
where photosynthesis takes
place

8. Cytoskeleton
• Composed of microtubules
• Supports cell and provides
shape
• Aids movement of materials
in and out of cells

9. Endoplasmic reticulum
• Tubular network fused to
nuclear membrane
• Goes through cytoplasm
onto cell membrane
• Stores, separates, and
serves as cell's transport
system
• Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
• Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface

10. Golgi apparatus
• Protein 'packaging plant'
• A membrane structure
found near nucleus
• Composed of numerous
layers forming a sac

11. Lysosome
• Digestive 'plant' for proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates
• Transports undigested
material to cell membrane
for removal
• Vary in shape depending on
process being carried out
• Cell breaks down if lysosome
explodes

12. Mitochondria
• Second largest organelle with
unique genetic structure
• Double-layered outer
membrane with inner folds
called cristae
• Energy-producing chemical
reactions take place on cristae
• Controls level of water and
other materials in cell
• Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, and forms

13. Ribosomes
• Each cell contains thousands
• Miniature 'protein factories'
• Composes 25% of cell's mass
• Stationary type: embedded in
rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Mobile type: injects proteins
directly into cytoplasm

14. Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Contractile vacuoles for
water removal (in
unicellular organisms)

15. Cell wall
• Most commonly found
in plant cells
• Controls turgity
• Extracellular structure
surrounding plasma
membrane
• Primary cell wall:
extremely elastic
• Secondary cell wall:
forms around primary
cell wall after growth is
complete

16. Plasma membrane
• Outer membrane of cell
that controls cellular
traffic
• Contains proteins (left,
gray) that span through
the membrane and allow
passage of materials
• Proteins are surrounded
by a phospholipid bi-
layer.

17. Difference between a plant and animal cell chart
Structure Animal cell Plant cell
Nucleus Present Present
Cilia Present It is very rare
Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
Chloroplast Animal cells don't have
chloroplasts
Plant cells have chloroplasts
because they make their own
food
Cytoplasm Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Vacuole One or more small vacuoles
(much smaller than plant cells).
One, large central vacuole taking
up 90% of cell volume.
Plastids Absent Present
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Cell wall Absent Present
Plasma Membrane only cell membrane cell wall and a cell membrane
Flagella May be found in some cells May be found in some cells
Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. Lysosomes usually not evident.

18. THE EVOLUTION OF THE CELL
Some of the oldest cells on Earth are
single-cell organisms called bacteria.
Fossil records indicate that mounds of
bacteria once covered young Earth. Some
began making their own food using carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and energy they
harvested from the sun. This process
(called photosynthesis) produced enough
oxygen to change Earth's atmosphere.
Soon afterward, new oxygen-breathing life
forms came onto the scene. With a
population of increasingly diverse bacterial
life, the stage was set for some amazing
things to happen. Bacteria are single-celled organisms
with a circular DNA molecule and no
organelles.

19. There is compelling evidence that
mitochondria and chloroplasts were once
primitive bacterial cells. This evidence is
described in the endosymbiotic theory. How
did this theory get its name? Symbiosis
occurs when two different species benefit
from living and working together. When one
organism actually lives inside the other it's
called end symbiosis. The endosymbiotic
theory describes how a large host cell and
ingested bacteria could easily become
dependent on one another for survival,
resulting in a permanent relationship. Over
millions of years of evolution, mitochondria
and chloroplasts have become more
specialized and today they cannot live
outside the cell.

20. In everyday speech, people use the word theory to mean an
opinion or speculation not necessarily based on facts. But in the
field of science, a theory is a well established explanation based
on extensive experimentation and observation. Scientific theories
are developed and verified by the scientific community and are
generally accepted as fact.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have striking similarities to bacteria
cells. They have their own DNA, which is separate from the DNA
found in the nucleus of the cell. And both organelles use their
DNA to produce many proteins and enzymes required for their
function. A double membrane surrounds both mitochondria and
chloroplasts, further evidence that each was ingested by a
primitive host. The two organelles also reproduce like bacteria,
replicating their own DNA and directing their own division.

22. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has a
unique pattern of inheritance. It is
passed down directly from mother to
child, and it accumulates changes
much more slowly than other types
of DNA. Because of its unique
characteristics, mtDNA has provided
important clues about evolutionary
history. For example, differences in
mtDNA are examined to estimate
how closely related one species is to
another. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from people
around the world has revealed many clues
about ancient human migration patterns.

23. Conditions on Earth 4 billion
years ago were very different
than they are today. The
atmosphere lacked oxygen, and
an ozone layer did not yet
protect Earth from harmful
radiation. Heavy rains, lightening
and volcanic activity were
common. Yet the earliest cells
originated in this extreme
environment. Today, a group of
single-celled organisms called
archaeabacteria, or archaea, still
thrive in extreme habitats

24. Summary of the Phases of Mitosis

25. Interphase
• Chromosomes are
not visible because
they are uncoiled

26. Prophase
• The chromosomes coil.
• The nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
• Spindle fibers (microtubules)
form.
• The drawing shows a cell
with 8 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 2
chromatids for a total of 16
chromatids.

27. Metaphase
• The chromosomes become
aligned.
• The drawing shows a cell
with 8 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 2
chromatids for a total of
16 chromatids.

28. Anaphase
• The chromatids separate
the number of
chromosomes doubles.
• The drawing shows a cell
with 16 chromosomes.
Each chromosome has 1
chromatid for a total of
16 chromatids.

29. Telophase
• The cell divides into two.
• The chromosomes uncoil.
• The nucleus reforms.
• The spindle apparataus
disassembles.
• The drawing shows a cell
with 16 chromosomes.
Each chromosome has 1
chromatid for a total of
16 chromatids.

30. G1 Interphase
• The chromosomes have
one chromatid.
• The drawing shows two
cells. Each cell has 8
chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 1
chromatid for a total of 8
chromatids per cell.

31. G2 Interphase
• The chromosomes have
two chromatids each.
• The drawing shows two
cells. Each cell has 8
chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 2
chromatids for a total of
16 chromatids per cell.

32. Summary of the Phases of Meiosis

33. Prophase I
• Homologous chromosomes
become paired.
• Crossing-over occurs between
homologous chromosomes.
Crossing over:-

34. Metaphase I
Homologous pairs become
aligned in the center of the cell.
The random alignment pattern
is called independent
assortment. For example, a cell
with 2N = 6 chromosomes
could have any of the
alignment patterns shown at
the left..

35. Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes
separate.

36. Prophase II
Metaphase II

37. Anaphase II
Telophase II
Daughter Cells

39. See DNA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-
6JXLYS-k

40. HUMAN HEART

41. BLOOD CIRCULATION SYSTEM

43. WHAT IS A HEART?
• Your heart is really a muscle. It's located a little to the left of
the middle of your chest, and it's about the size of your fist.
There are lots of muscles all over your body — in your arms,
in your legs, in your back, even in your behind. But the heart
muscle is special because of what it does. The heart sends
blood around your body. The blood provides your body with
the oxygen and nutrients it needs. It also carries away waste.
Your heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The
right side of your heart receives blood from the body and
pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact
opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to
the body.

44. Facts About Human Body
• 1. Your heart beats about 35 million times in a year. During an
average lifetime, the human heart will beat more than 2.5
billion times.
• 2. Your body has about 5.6 liters (6 quarts) of blood. This 5.6
liters of blood circulates through the body three times every
minute. In one day, the blood travels a total of 19,000 km
(12,000 miles)- that's four times the distance across the U.S.
from coast to coast.
• 3. The heart pumps about 1 million barrels of blood during an
average lifetime - that's enough to fill more than 3 super
tankers.

45. • 4. If all arteries, veins, and capillaries of the human circulatory
system were laid end to end, the total length would be 60,000
miles, or 100,000 km. That's nearly two and a half times
around the Earth!
• 5. Even though its thickness averages just 2mm, your skin gets
an eighth of all your blood supply.
• 6. The skull looks as though it is a single bone. In fact, it is
made up of 22 separate bones, cemented together along rigid
joints called sutures.

46. • 7. If a human adult's digestive tract were stretched out, it would be 6 to 9
m (20 to 30 ft) long.
• 8. Red blood cells may live for about four months circulating throughout
the body, feeding the 60 trillion other body cells. Red blood cells make
approximately 250,000 round trips of the body before returning to the
bone marrow, where they were born, to die.
• 9. Human hair grows about 1/4 inch (about 6 millimeters) every month
and keeps on growing for up to 6 years. The hair then falls out and
another grows in its place.
• 10. The average healthy mouth produces about 600 milliliters of saliva
each day. That's enough to fill a 12-ounce soda bottle.
• 11. The fastest nerve cells are carrying messages along their axons at an
amazing 130 yards per second (268 mph).
•

47. Human Nervous System

48. DNA Vs RNA

49. DNA FACTS…1
• DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid codes for your genetic make-up. There are
lots of facts about DNA, but here are 10 that are particularly interesting,
important, or fun.
• 1.Even though it codes for all the information that makes up an organism,
DNA is built using only four building blocks, the nucleotides adenine,
guanine, thymine, and cytosine.
• 2.Every human being shares 99% of their DNA with every other human.
• 3.If you put all the DNA molecules in your body end to end, the DNA
would reach from the Earth to the Sun and back over 600 times (100
trillion times six feet divided by 92 million miles).
• 4.A parent and child share 99.5% of the same DNA.
• 5.You have 98% of your DNA in common with a chimpanzee.
• 6.If you could type 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take
approximately 50 years to type the human genome.

50. DNA FACTS ..2
7.DNA is a fragile molecule. About a thousand times a day, something
happens to it to cause errors. This could include errors during
transcription, damage from ultraviolet light, or any of a host of other
activities. There are many repair mechanisms, but some damage isn't
repaired. This means you carry mutations! Some of the mutations cause
no harm, a few are helpful, while others can cause diseases, such as
cancer.
8.Scientists at Cambridge University believe humans have DNA in common
with the mud worm and that it is the closest invertebrate genetic relative
to us. In other words, you have more in common, genetically speaking,
with a mud worm than you do with a spider or octopus or cockroach.
9. Humans and cabbage share about 40-50% common DNA.
10.Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in 1869, although scientists did not
understand DNA was the genetic material in cells until 1943. Prior to that
time, it was widely believed that proteins stored genetic information.

51. OROGIN OF SPECIES
After traveling on the HMS Beagle for five years (1831-1836)
collecting biological samples and fossils, Charles
Darwin returned home to England to proceed with the
monumental task of cataloguing and reporting on his findings,
and if that was not enough he also began work on his "hobby"
which was developing his theory about natural selection.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or
the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle of Life was
first published 150 years ago on 24 November 1859 after more
than 20 years of work. His work has become the basis for
modern evolutionary science and this book is simply one of the
most influential publications in history.

52. The evolution of crops
Domesticated vs. cultivated crops:
•A domesticated crop (animal or plant) has
been genetically altered from their wild
state and brought into a man’s home.
•A cultivated crop has been tended for a
field through tilling, seedbed preparation,
weeding, pruning, watering, fertilizing, etc.

53. Symbiotic relationship:
•A fully domesticated plant cannot survive without the
aid of man, but only a minute fraction of the human
population could survive without cultivated plants.
•Crops and man are mutually dependent.
Recent history:
•From time of colonization of the Americas until the
mid-1800s, little formal breeding.
•From 1800-1900s, beginning of the “corn show era”.
•From 1900s to present, open-pollinated populations
to hybrid.

54. Crop Center of Origin Chromosome
Wheat Near East and
Ethiopian Highlands
2n=42
Rice Asia 2n=24
Maize North America 2n=20
Millets West Africa 2n=18
Sugarcane New Guinea & North
India
2n=80, 126
Cotton Africa 2n=52
Potato South America 2n=42
Center of Origin

55. Pollination
Pollination: Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in
the reproduction of plants, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual
reproduction.
Two types of Pollination
1.Self-Pollination &
2.Cross-Pollination
Self-Pollination: Some plant do not need outside help to transfer the
pollen grains. They are able to pollinate themselves. Pollen is transferred
from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of
another flower of same plant.
Cross-Pollination: In most plants, transfer of pollens occurs through
cross-pollination. In this process, the pollen from one flower is
transferred to the stigma of another flower on a different plant of the
same kind.

56. Self pollination Crops Cross pollination Crops
Oat =2n=42 Millet = 2n=18
Lettuce =2n=18 Onions = 2n=16
Wheat = 2n=42 Corn =2n=20
Rice =2n=24 Carrot =2n=18
Tomato =2n=24 Rye=2n=14
Self pollinated crops and cross pollinated crops
with their chromosome numbers

57. The sexual process of reproduction
Plant reproduction: Plant reproduction is the production of new
individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual
or asexual means. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion
of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from the parent
or parents.
Animals typically produce male gametes called sperm, and female
gametes called eggs and ova, following immediately after meiosis, with
the gametes produced directly by meiosis. Plants on the other hand
have mitosis occurring in spores, which are produced by meiosis. The
spores germinate into the gametophyte phase. The gametophytes of
different groups of plants vary in size; angiosperms have as few as three
cells in pollen, and mosses and other so called primitive plants may
have several million cells. Plants have an alternation of generations
where the sporophyte phase is succeeded by the gametophyte phase.
The sporophyte phase produces spores within the sporangium by

58. Flowering plants
Flowers are the sexual organs of flowering plants.
Flowering plants are the dominant plant form on land and they
reproduce by sexual and asexual means. Often their most
distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, commonly
called flowers. The anther produces male gametophytes, the
sperm is produced in pollen grains, which attach to the stigma on
top of a carpel, in which the female gametophytes (inside ovules)
are located. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's
style, the sex cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the
ovule to fertilize the egg cell and endosperm nuclei within the
female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization.
The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid
endosperm (one sperm cell plus two female cells) and female
tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the
developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female
gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the
seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. Non
flowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other means
of sexual reproduction.