1. TransportEnergyInfrastructure
Roadmapto2050
LIQUIDFUELSROADMAP
PreparedfortheLowCVPbyElementEnergyLtd
CelineCluzel&AlastairHope–Morley
JUNE2015

2. ProjectSteeringGroup
AutogasLimited
BOCLimited
BEAMA
CalorGasLtd
EDFEnergy
ElectricityNetworksAssociation
NationalGrid
OfficeforLowEmissionVehicles
RenewableEnergyAssociation
TransportforLondon
TransportScotland
UKPetroleumAssociation
LowCVPProjectManager
JonathanMurray,
PolicyandOperationsDirector
Contractor
PreparedbyElementEnergyLtd
Authors
CelineCluzel
AlastairHope-Morley
Reviewer
AlexStewart
TransportEnergyInfrastructure
Roadmapto2050
LIQUIDFUELSROADMAP
JUNE2015
Disclaimer
Whiletheauthorsconsiderthatthedataandopinionscontainedinthisreportaresound,allparties
mustrelyupontheirownskillandjudgementwhenusingit.Theauthorsdonotmakeany
representationorwarranty,expressedorimplied,astotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthereport.

3. 3
Acknowledgements
TheLowCVPaimsto:
Developinitiativestopromotethesaleandsupplyoflowcarbonvehiclesandfuels
ProvideinputandadviceonGovernmentpolicy
Provideaforumforstakeholderstoshareknowledgeandinformation
EnsurethatUKmotor,fuelandrelatedbusinessesarebestplacedtocapitaliseontheopportunitiesinthelowcarbon
marketsofthefuture
ContributetotheachievementofUKGovernmenttargetsforroadtransportcarbonreduction
AutogasLimited
BOCLimited
BEAMA
CalorGasLtd
EDFEnergy
ElectricityNetworksAssociation
NationalGrid
OfficeforLowEmissionVehicles
RenewableEnergyAssociation
TransportforLondon
TransportScotland
UKPetroleumAssociation
TheLowCVP,establishedin2003,isapublic-privatepartnershipthat
existstoaccelerateasustainableshifttolowercarbonvehiclesand
fuelsandcreateopportunitiesforUKbusiness.
AberdeenCityCouncil
AirProducts
BRC
BYD
Calorgas
CNGFuels
CNGServices
DearmanEngineCompanyLtd
DownstreamFuelAssociation
DrivelectricLtd.
ENNGroupEurope
GasBusAlliance
Gasrec
GTC
IntelligentEnergy
Nissan
Openenergi
Riversimple
Scania
SGN
SMMT
TfL
Thriev
TowerTransit
UKLPG
UKPN
ULEMCo
UPS
Wales&WestUtilities
ProjectSteeringCommitteeWorkshopattendees

4. 4
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

5. 5
Background-a‘TransportInfrastructureroadmap’isneededto
complementexistingvehicleandfuelroadmaps
Source:AutoCouncilandLowCVP
Vehicleroadmaps
Transportfuelroadmaps
Source:AutoCouncilandElementEnergyfortheLowCVP
Inthecontextoftheexpectedtransitiontolowercarbonpowertrains
andfuels,theAutoCouncilvehicleroadmapshaveproventobea
usefultooltofocusresearch,fundingandpolicy,bringingintoone
placetheindustry’sviewsonfuturetechnologyoptions,deployment
stepsandcorrespondingpolicydrivers.
Tocomplementthesepowertraintechnologiesroadmaps,the
LowCVPcommissionedaRoadTransportFuelsRoadmapin2013-14,
whichalsoprovedsuccessfulinbringingclaritytothefueloptions
availableandmappingtheenablingmilestones.
ThisInfrastructureroadmapisthe‘missingpiece’thatwillsupport
newpowertrainsandnewfuels.Thisroadmapisallthemore
necessaryastheneedsandbarriersfordeploymentofelectric,
hydrogenandgasrefuellingstationsdiffersignificantlyand
refuelling/recharginginfrastructureisakeyenablerforlowemission
vehicles.
TheobjectivesoftheInfrastructureRoadmapareto:
−Assesstheinfrastructureneedsandbarriersfordeploymentof
electric,hydrogenandgasrefuellingstationsto2050,including
impactonupstreamdistribution,aswellastoconsider
‘conventional’liquidfuels
−Makerecommendationsfordeliveryofinfrastructure
deployment,bothatnationalandlocalgovernmentlevel.
Source:ElementEnergy

6. 6
TheInfrastructureRoadmapcoversprivateandpublicinfrastructure,
forallmainroadvehiclesandbothcurrentandfuturefuels
Depotbasedrefuellingforfleetoperatorsandreturntobase
operators
Homerechargingforprivateand(some)commercialvehicles
Publicforecourtrefuelling/recharging
Refuellinginfrastructuretypes
Fuels/energyvectorsconsidered
Zerotailpipeemissionfuels:electricityandhydrogen
‘Conventional’liquidfuels:gasoline(E5toE20,inlinewith
theTransportFuelsRoadmap),diesel,LPG/bio-propane
Methane:CompressedNaturalGas(CNG),LiquefiedNG(LNG)
andbiomethane
Niche/futurefuels:methanol,liquidairandahighbioethanol
blend(E85)
TheUK’slegallybindingtargettoreducetotalGHGemissionsbyatleast80%(relativeto1990levels)by2050,
andtransportcontributestoc.25%ofUKtotalGHGemissions;
EUlevelregulations(gCO2/km,AirQualitytargetsandEUROspec),Directives(RenewableEnergy,FuelQuality,
CleanPowerforTransport)andTransportWhitePaper
Driversforchangeinthetransportenergysystem
Vehicletypes
Source:ElementEnergy

7. 7
ThedevelopmentoftheInfrastructureRoadmapbenefittedfrominput
fromawiderangeofstakeholders,manyconsultedthroughworkshops
Developuptakescenarios
for%salesofelectricand
ICEvehicles
InputintoElementEnergy
fleetmodel
Outputnumbersof
vehiclesinthefleetand
MJusedperenergyvector
ICEvehicles:diesel,petrol,LPG,gasvehicles
Electricvehicles:Battery(BEV),Plug-inHybrid(PHEV),
Range-Extended(RE-EV)andhydrogenfuelcell(FCEV)
Niche/futurefuelsconsidered:E85,methanol,liquidair
PrepareInfrastructure
Roadmap
Reviewexistingliterature
onrefuellingand
upstreaminfrastructure
Industryconsultation
withLowCVPFuels
workinggroup
ReviewbySteering
Committee
Preparedraftreport
Completefinalreport
Hoststakeholder
workshops
Fourdedicatedfuelworkshopswereconducted
Workshopthemes:electricity,liquidfuels,methane,hydrogen
38attendeesincluded:Infrastructuremanufacturers,installers,
operators,DNOs,energycompanies,fuelsuppliers,OEM/vehicle
suppliers,endusers,localgovernment/regulator
Reportpreparation
Externalinput
Source:ElementEnergy
vkt:vehiclekmtravelled
Seefullreportsfor
furtherdetailsoffuel
uptakescenarios
Scrappagerate,stockandmileageinputsbasedonDfTdata/projections:c.40%increaseinstockand
vktby2050(39millionvehicles,740billionvkt);VehicleefficiencybasedonCommitteeonClimate
Changemodelling

8. 8
Fourseparatereportshavebeendeveloped–thisreportisdedicated
tothecaseofmethaneasatransportfuel
Finalreport
summarising
findingsfromeach
energyvectors
Fourseparatereportswereproducedtocapturethedifferences
betweentheenergyvectors/fuelsunderconsideration
This
report

9. 9
Backgroundandstatusquo
−Summaryofcurrentupstreamtodownstreamsystemsandliquidfuelconsumption
−Currentsupplypathways
−Currenttrendsregardingforecourts
Futureinfrastructurerequirementsandbarrierstodeployment
−Quantificationofrefuellingstationneeds,bylocationand/orvehiclesegments-basedon
projecteddemand,derivedfromvalidateduptakescenarios
−Barrierstodeploymentofinfrastructure-barrierstodeploymentofcorresponding
powertrainsarenotdiscussed–successfuldeploymentofnewpowertrains/fuelsisthe
startingassumption
Thecaseofnichefuels
Summary:infrastructureroadmapandrecommendations
−Roadmapschematicthatsummarisesabovefindings
−Recommendationsfordelivery(national,local,RD&Dneeds,fundingshortfall)
Structureofthereport

10. 10
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

11. 11
Public
forecourts
TheextensivenationalinfrastructuresupportingtheUK’sliquid
transportfueldemandcanbedividedintothreestreams
Crudeoil
refineries
Coastalrefinedoil
importterminals
Distribution
51%viapipeline
15%viarail
34%bysea
CrudeoilRefinedproducts
e.g.petrol,diesel,biofuel
InlandterminalsLong-termstorage
Bioethanolblending
Private
depots
Distribution
>95%viaroad
<5%viapipeline
UpstreamMidstreamDownstream
10million
tonnes/year
30million
tonnes/year
Totaldelivered
petroleumin
2011:
Relative%
shareof
consumption:
Total:c.50
Total:20-30Total:6
19992002200520082011
Petrol
Diesel
Source:DUKES(2014),DECC(2014),UKPIA(2015),RicardoAEA(2011)
Mt=milliontonnes
Non-transport
demand
2011:
50%diesel,
50%petrol
2011:
>95%diesel,
<5%petrol
Includesdomesticheating
c.4Mt/year),feedstockfor
chemicalplants(3-4Mt),
lubricatingoilsandgrease(0.5
Mt)andothernon-energy
productsincludingbitumen,
whitespirtandcoke(c.2Mt)
Over70%oftotal
inlandpetroleum
deliveriesarefor
transportdemand
20112005199920022008

12. 12
AllsixactiveUKoilrefinerieshavefacilitiestoimportandblend
biofuelsandLPG
TerminalandoilrefinerygeographyOilprocessingandrefinerycapacity
TheUK’ssixactiveoilrefinerieshaveatotalrefiningcapacity
ofc.63milliontonnesperannumandsupply85%ofthe
inlandmarketdemandforpetroleumproducts
ThenumberofactiveoilrefineriesintheUKhasdecreased
from19in1975to6in2015
TotalstoragecapacityoftheUK’sc.21majorcoastalimport
terminalsisc.6milliontonnes
Coastalterminals*:
Crudeoilrefineries:
Inlandterminals:
0
20
40
60
2010199520052000
Diesel
Other
LPG
Petrol
Refineryproductionhasdecreased30%overthelast10years
andnumerousrefinerieshaveclosedforcommercialreasons
Importshaveincreased;40%ofdieseldemandandc.50-55%
ofjetfueldemandisimportedtotheUK
UKoilrefineryproduction
Refineryproductionmilliontonnes/year
‘Other’:additionalrefineryproducts(e.g.naptha,kerosene,bitumen,etc.)
6oilrefineries1
c.21coastalterminals
c.12inlandterminals2
1Excludingdedicatedbiofuelproductionplants.2Includesprivatelyownedfacilitiesonly,excludesgovernmentownedfacilities
primarilyusedtosupplymilitaryairfields.Source:ElementEnergyanalysis,UKPIA(2014),DECC(2013)
TwodedicatedLPG
terminals(Immingham
andCanvey)
*Coastalterminalsincludefacilitieswithand
withoutfacilitiestoreceivelargeshipimports
Onlymajor
facilitiesshown

13. 13
Generally,FAMEisblendedatrefineriesandimportterminalsand
ethanolblendedatdistributionterminalracks
1DECCRTFOBiofuelStatistics(2014).Sources:Ecofys(2013),ElementEnergy(2014)
FAME=fattyacidmethylesters,UCO=usedcookingoil
CommercialbiofuelproductionplantsUKbiofuelproductionandconsumptioncapacity
TheUKhasc.20dedicatedbiofuelproductionplants(total
productioncapacityisc.1,500millionlitres/year)
In2014,themajorityofFAMEwasderivedfromUCOand
tallow(adheringtoREDsustainabilitycriteria)butapotential
UCOsupplyshortagecouldoccurasglobalmarketsrecognise
UCOasacosteffectiveandlowcarbonfeedstock
In2014,domesticfeedstocksupplied20%ofUKbiodieseland
bioethanolconsumption;theremaining80%wasimported1
‘Drop-in’biofuelisunlikelytobeavailableinlargequantities
untilpost-2020duetolowtechnologyreadinessand
investmentuncertainty
Biodieselplant:
Large(>5millionL/year):
Small(<5millionL/year):
Bioethanolplant:
17biodieselplants
3bioethanolplants
Biodiesel
Bioethanol
Biodiesel
millionLitresmillionLitres
Bioethanol
0
500
1,000
1,500
2014201020082012
UKconsumptionUKproductioncapacity
Biofuel
0
500
1,000
1,500
2014200820102012

14. 14
Roadcapacityisbestsuitedtodeliverhigherblendstoendusers
unlessdemandcanjustifynewpipelinecapacity
1BioethanolderivativescanbedistributedbypipelineifconvertedtoETBEatarefinerybyreactionwithisobutene,orby
producingbiobutanol.2FAMEmaximumspecificationinjetfuelsis<50ppm.Source:RicardoAEA(2011)
Viaroad
Distributetodepotsandforecourts
throughlogisticsandoilcompanies
Roadtankers(rigidorsemi-rigid)
generallycomprise3-6
compartmentswithvaryingcapacity
(1,000-7,000litreseach)
Higherblendcapabilityrequireslow
costtankerupgrades(e.g.newseals
for>B7,andimproved
heating/insulationfor>E5)
Operatingclosetofullcapacitybut
appetiteforexpansionexists(e.g.
organisationsusingthird-party
haulagevehicleshaveflexiblefleet
numberstomeetdemandvariation)
Viapipeline
Bioethanolcouldpotentially
corrodeexistingpipelines
andishighlyhydrophilic,
thereforeisonlyblended
duringtruckfillingatinland
terminals1
FAMEs(surfaceactive
materialswithapropensity
toleaveresiduewithin
pipelines)couldcontaminate
jetfuelsdistributedviathe
samepipeline2
Costlynewinfrastructure
requireslargethroughputto
repaycapitalinvestment
Viarail
Distributeprimarysupplyfrom
refineriesandimportterminals
toinlandterminals,wholesale
distributersandlargeend-user
depots(e.g.airports,industry)
Nohigherblends(>E5/B7)are
currentlytransportedbyrail
Infrastructureisoperating
closetofullcapacitydueto
limitedloadinganddischarge
pointsatrefineriesorterminals
Railnetworkisalsoincreasingly
limitedbypathwayavailability
Only3-4railloadingfacilities
remainactiveintheUK
Existingdistributioninfrastructuredeliverstwopetrolgrades,onedieselandoneheating/NRMMgrade
Introductionofanewgradetothedistributionsystemwouldlikelyrequiredisplacementofanexistinggrade
Pipeline,roadandraildistributionpathwaysintheUKallhaveexperiencedeliveringE5-10andB7biofuelblends
Experiencewithhigher
blends(>E5/B7)
Effectivecapacityfor
higherblenddistribution
Biofuel

15. 15
Publicforecourtnumbersaredecliningandwhilstsupermarketstation
numbersareintheminority,theirmarketshareofsalesissignificant
Forecourtoperators
Thefuelretailmarkethasexperiencedaparadigmshiftsince
Tescoopeneditsfirstfuelretailingforecourtin1970,as
increasingnumbersoflargersupermarketforecourtsoffer
lowercostfueltoencouragedriversintostores
Lowpricessignificantlyimpactindependentretailerbusiness
models,resultinginreducedcommercialviability,particularly
inruralareaswhereforecourtshavefewerpumpsandare
thereforeinherentlylessprofitable
Source:ExperianCatalist(2013),UKPIA(2014)
Supermarketforecourtnumbersareincreasingandforecourtcapacityandaveragethroughputhasincreased
IndustryfeedbackindicatedthatsupermarketforecourtgeographiccoverageisinsufficienttosupplyallUKdemand
44%
57%
16%
84%
Oilcompany,dealerandindependentretailerSupermarket
Marketshareby
numberofforecourts
Marketshareby
fueldispensed
Overallfueldemandhasdeclineddueto
increaseduseofdieselandvehiclefuel
efficiencyimprovements
Totalnumberofforecourtshasfallenby
50%since1995
Forecourtnumbers
2013
2013:8,613
forecourts
19952010200519902000
-50%
Oilcompany
Supermarket
Independent/dealer
Forecourts

16. 16
Organisationswiththelargestmarketsharearetechnicallyand
economicallybettersuitedtosellhigherbiofuelblends
Source:ExperianCatalist,RicardoAEA(2011)
RTFO=RenewableTransportFuelObligation
Forecourtthroughput(sizedependant)Forecourtgeographicdistribution
Retailerswithfourormorepumps(65%ofUKtotal)
tendhave5-15timesgreatervolumeofsalesthan
retailerswithoneortwomulti-fuelpumps
Theseforecourtsgenerallysellatleastthreegradesof
fuelandforecourtswithfewerpumpsonlyselltwo
Thereforeretailerswithfourormorepumpsselling
85%offorecourtfuelaremorelikelytoconsider
offeringhigherbiofuelblendsfromoneoftheirpumps
andincurtheassociatedupgradecosts
However,manylargeretailersarenotobligatedunder
theRTFOthereforetheiradoptionofhigherblendfuels
willbegovernedbycustomerdemand,inturn
influencedbyGovernmentpolicy
>75%offorecourtswithfewerthanfourpumps
arelocatedinruralorresidentialareas
Availabilityofmultipletankandpump
combinationsisalsoessentialtostationflexibility
andtheabilitytoofferhigherbiofuelblends
9301,000870
470
280
321>5
>1,000
54
Averagevolumedispensedper
pump(1000litres)
Numberofmulti-fuel
pumpsatforecourt
35%offorecourtshavefewerthan4pumps
(manylocatedinruralareas)andarelikelyto
requireadditionalfinancialsupporttoadopt
higherblendbiofuelsduetotheir:
Inherentlyweakereconomics
(proportionatelysmallerincome)
Limitedfueltankcapacityrequiringnew
installationsratherthanrefurbishments
50%
100%
0%
>6654321No.ofmulti-fuelpumps
Industry/Office
Residential
Motorway
Rural
UrbanTransient
ForecourtsBiofuel

17. 17Source:ElementEnergyanalysisforDfT(2012).1SeeAppendix,2Decisionbyforecourtoperatortodedicate(atleast)
onetanktostoreahigherbiofuelblend,andincrementallyupgradewithtime.
A)Installnewstorageanddispensingcapacity
Newcapacityforhigherblendsincreasesthe
overallforecourtcapacityandthereforedoesnot
cannibaliseanyexistingoutput
However,newtanksarecostlyandlogistically
difficulttoinstallonexistingforecourts
Estimatedcostsforinstallingnewcapacity
compatiblewithhigherblendsofbiofuels£90k-
110k/station(forE85compatibletankand
dispenser)
Installationofcapacitycompatiblewithhigher
biofuelblendsshouldbestrategicallytimedwith
licenseddecommissioningofold,regularfuel
capacity
B)Modifyandutiliseexistingcapacity
Modifyingexistingcapacityisconsiderablycheaperthan
installingnewcapacitybutrequirespartialdisplacement
ofaprofitable,highdemandfuel
Newequipmentwillberequiredifexistingdiesel/petrol
capacityistobeutilisede.g.heating/insulationfor
biodieselstorageandvent/sealupgradesforbioethanol
storage.Thiscouldbedoneaspartofnatural
replacementcycle,butthisoccursonlyevery20-30years
Anychange-of-useforpre-existingtankstostoreE85or
B30willrequiredewatering,sludgeremovaland
disposal,filterreplacementandflushingofallsuction
lineswithanestimatedcostofc.£30-40k/station1
Annualmaintenancecostsforinspectionandcleaning
areestimatedtobec.£1-1.5k/year/station
Bothoptionshaveacostpremiumtotheforecourtoperatortoenabletheretailoflessprofitablefuel
Industrystakeholderconsultation(2013/14)showedthatasingletankcommitment2(forforecourtsofaparticular
size)forgraduallyupgradingtohigherblendswasabarriertoadoptionduetofirstmovereconomicdisadvantage
Assuranceforvehiclecompatibilitywithhigherblendswouldbeneededbeforeoperatorsconsiderinvestment
ExistingforecourtsarecompatiblewithuptoE10only,sellinghigher
blendbiofuels(aboveE10andB7)wouldlikelyrequirenewinvestment
ForecourtsBiofuel

18. 18
Privatedepotsgenerallyonlyhaveoneon-sitetank,restricting
supplytoasinglefuelandlimitingmulti-fuelhigherblendtrials
Drop-infuel=biofuelblendindistinguishablefromstandardcrude-derivedfuel
Source:RicardoAEA(2011),DfT(2014)“Petroleumconsumptionbytransportmodeandfueltype”
Raildepots(demand:c.0.6milliontonnes/yr)
Lightmaintenanceandrefuellingdepots(c.
50intheUK)utiliseasinglepipenetwork
betweendispensersandstoragetanks(i.e.
single-fuelpumps)
Higherblendbiofuelsrequirededicated
storageanddispensingfacilitiesandhave
beenlimitedtotrialsintheUK
Airportdepots(demand:c.0.1milliontonnes/yr)
Airportdepotsstoresmallquantitiesofbiodieselup
toB7forairsidegroundvehiclesandarebelievedto
becapableofstoringhigherbiofuelblends
Appetiteforhigherblendsexistsbutisrestrictedby
concernsovervehiclecompatibility
HGVdepots(demand:c.8milliontonnes/yr)
Coach/busdepots(demand:c.1milliontonnes/yr)
Fragmenteddepotnetworks;estimated2-3,000
privatedepotsintheUKstoringbiodieseluptoB7
Majorityofdepotsincludesingletanksonly
(restrictedtoonlyoneblend)butexceptionswith
highdemandhaveupto3tanks
Requirefinancialincentive,consistentsupplyand
sustainablecertificationforfleetstobegin
consideringfeasibility
HGVstravelacrossEUsoneedconsistentfuels
Moreconsistentdepotnetworks,withthe
majorityadoptingreturn-to-baseoperation
withsingletanksites
Toaccommodatehigherbiofuelblends
operatorsmusteitherrefurbishexistingtank
andrunbusesonsamehigherblendof
biodiesel(c.£20k/depot)orinstallnew
storagefacilities(equivalenttoc.£2.5kper
busserved)
DepotsBiofuel

19. 19
Despiteanextensiveinfrastructurenetwork,demandforLPGhas
fallenfollowingtheexpiryofincentivesforvehicleconversion
LPGtransportdemandrelativetototalUKsupply
Between2001-2006,LPGconsumptionfortransportrose
duetoattractivefueldutyincentivesandavehicle
conversiongrantscheme
Thegrantschemeexpiredin2006andthefuelduty
differentialbetweenLPGandotherfuelshasdiminished
In2013,90,000tonnesofLPG(4%oftotalUKLPGsupply)
wassuppliedtothetransportsector,markinga31%
declineintransportdemandsince2006
SOURCE:DUKES“Petroleumproducts:commoditybalances”(3.2-3.4),DECC“EnergyconsumptionintheUK”
(Chapter2),industryinput.FLT=Forklifttruck
LPGtransportinfrastructureintheUK
LPGismostcommonlyusedbypassengercars,
vansandforklifttrucks(FLTs)
Over1,400publicsellingpointsintheUK
currentlyhaveLPGdispensers
Inaddition,over2,000privatedepotsinclude
LPGrefuellingfacilitiesforFLTs–anestimated
30%ofFLTsintheUKrunonLPG
ThecurrentLPGdistributionsupplychainisa
commercialactivity,requiringnosupport
LPGpublicforecourt:
LPG
0
1
2
3
4
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
201320102001
LPGtransport
demand(Mt)
TotalLPG
supply(Mt)
20042007
-31%
TotalLPGsupply(leftaxis)
LPGtransportdemand(rightaxis)
Note,DECC’stransportconsumptionfiguresdonotaccountforallbunkered
LPGforforklifts–industryisworkingwithDECCtoimprovethisdataset

20. 20
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

21. 21
Duetoincreasingsalesofnewpowertrains,salesofconventional
ICEvehiclesareexpectedtofallsignificantlybeyond2020
Currentsplitofpetrol/dieselenginesfornewcars
(50/50)isassumedtoremaininthefuture
DieselwillbeB7(EN590)withanincreasing
amountofdrop-inrenewablediesel–i.e.no
compatibilityissuestobeconsideredforthe
distributioninfrastructure
Forpetrolengines,weevaluatedtheamountof:
EthanolneedediftheE10becomesthe
maingradeby2020andE20by2032
LPGneededforacasewheretherateof
conversion(orsalesifOEMsupplyisputin
place)acceleratestoreach5%ofthepetrol
carstock(equivalenttoc.40,000
conversionsperyearuntil2030)
Allnewvansareassumedtorunondiesel
Adecreaseofsalesofdiesel(hybrid)busesto
92%in2020,80%in2030and0%in2050
AdecreaseofsalesofdieselHGVsto94%in2020,
78%in2030and15%in2050;someofwhichare
dualfuelLPG(25%substitutionrate)
3.0%
0.0%
20302050
5.0%
2013
0.6%
2040
Shareofspark-ignitioncar(ICEandHEV)stockfuelledwithLPG
MarketshareofICEvehiclesales(newsales)
-28%
49%
97%
49%
70%
35%
35%
2050
0%
2015
50%
20202030
50%
100%
20%
40
20152030
46%
100
50%
0%
91
20%46%50%
20202050
-56%
CompressionignitionSparkignition
Moderate
scenario
CCCTarget
Increasinguptakedrivenby
airqualitybenefitsandfuel
costsavingsfollowedbya
declineinsalesinlinewith
decarbonisationthrough
electricpowertrains
InconsultationwiththeLowCVPFuelsWorkingGroup,wederiveduptakescenariosfornewpowertrains/fuels,they
arepolicyled,typicallybasedonCCCtargets.Scenariosareusedtoforecastinfrastructurerequiredtomatch
transportpolicyambitionandestimatethecorrespondingupfrontcostsofthisinfrastructure
SeeAppendixformoredetailonscenariosandsources

22. 22
Under‘CCC
Target’
uptake
scenario
Demandforpetrol&dieselforroadtransportwillsignificantly
decreasebeyond2020whileuseofLPGcouldincrease
9986
1416
15
12
9
1210
9
7
4
33
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2015
35
2040
25
2030
31
2020
35
-81%-53%
2050
7
1
2050
16
Diesel-heavyvehicles
Diesel-lightvehicles
Petrol
Source:EEfleetmodel,basedonuptakescenariospresentedonpage21
Fueldemand
Milliontonnes/year
LPGcase
TotalLPGdemandfortransportcould
increasetoc.360ktpaunderanambitious
LPGconversion/vehiclesuptakeprogram
Dependingonthelevelofuptakeofalternativefuelvehicles,the
demandforpetrolanddieselwilldecreaseby50to80%between
nowand2050
147146
280130
808498
300
2,500
200
400
100
0
2020
148
2
2015
98
Total
current
supply
2,500
2050
80
2040
277
2030
364
TotalUKsupply
LPG-heavyvehicles
LPG-lightvehicles
N.B.LPGdemandcouldcontinue
ifbio-LPGisavailableatscale
Fueldemand
Thousandtonnes/year

23. 23
PetrolcouldtransitiontoE10before2020andtoE20in2030swhile
noblendshigherthanB7areexpected
4
88
2
12
0
5
10
15
2050
1
2050
4
-64%
2030
9
1
2020
10
2015
12
E5E20E10
Thecaseofpetrol-forecourt
Almostalldistributedthroughforecourts
Accordingtothefuelroadmap1,
−TransitiontoE10couldbeinplace
before2020
−Possibletransition(pendingEUlevel
actions)toE20inthe2030s
1EEfortheLowCVP,UKTransportFuelsRoadmap,2014
2Petrolequivalenceaccountsfordifferenceinenergydensitybetweenpetrol(43MJ/kg,LCV)andethanol(27MJ/kg,LCV)
Thecaseofdiesel
Distributedc.40%indepots,60%at
forecourts
Theprojectedfallindemandunderthe
highuptakeofAFVstranslatesinto:-80%
demandatforecourtsand-75%atdepots
Accordingtothefuelroadmap1,nohigher
blendsthanB7areexpected(butdrop-in
fuelscanincreaserenewableshare)
Milliontonnespetrolequivalent2
ILLUSTRATIVESPLIT
887
151716
9
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
-47%
2050
24
2020
22
2030
23
2015
3
12
2050
2
6
DepotForecourt
Under‘CCC
Target’
uptake
scenario
Milliontonnesdiesel

24. 24
Thedecliningfueldemandatforecourts(mostlyforlightvehicles)is
likelytoresultinfurtherforecourtclosures
202020302050
Totalfuel
demand
(Mt/year)
Forecourts
88
4
2
2030
1
13
3
20502020
16
9
17
1
2050
25
27
4
E20E5DieselE10
‘CCCTarget’
uptake
scenario
Demand
mostlyfrom
PHEVs/RE-EVs
Mechanismstosupportsmallforecourtsinremoteareaswillbeneededasexistingsupermarketforecourt
coverageisgeographicallyinsufficienttosupplyallUKdemand.Underascenarioofextremedemandreduction,
thecommercialcaseforurbansitesmaybecomechallengingifreplacementrevenuestreamscannotbefound
Securingplanningapprovalforforecourtupgradescanoftenbedifficultduetoenvironmentalconcernsand
unfamiliaritywithnewfuels(e.g.tankupgradeornewtankforhighblends)
Delaysinapprovalprocesscouldaccelerateforecourtclosures
Infrastructureadjustmentstocopewithdecliningdemandwillbemarketdriven
Associatedsafetyrisksofmultiplefuelcoexistenceatasingleforecourtneedtobebetterunderstood
BritishstandardsfornewbiofuelscanbeadoptedthroughEUframeworkstoensuretechnicalcompatibility
Driversshouldbeinformedoffuelavailabilityviaacommunicationsystemasfuelchoicebecomemorediverse
Impactofreduceddemandonthecontinueddeclineindomesticrefineryproductionisbeingaddressedby
DECC’sMidStreamOilTaskForce
Expectedissuesintheshort,mediumandlong-term
Source:EEfleetmodel,basedonuptakescenariospresentedinChapter1(Introductionandcontext)

25. 25
Tankerdistributioniswellsuitedtodeliveringhigherblendbiofuelsbut
incentivisinginfrastructureoperatorstoinvestwillbemoredifficult
BarrierDescriptionExamplesolution
Costsforinstallingnew
stationcapacity
Civilworksandinstallationofnew
equipmentcancostuptoc.£100kper
station
Storagetanks,dispensersandpipeworkare
fullycommercialtechnologieswithlittle
opportunityforsignificantcostreduction
Costsforupgrading
existingstationcapacity
Refurbishmentofexistingequipmentcan
costuptoc.£10k/station
Dedicatedfinancialsupport?
Lackofconfidencefor
vehiclecompatibility
withhigherblends
Operatorswillnotinvestinhigherblend
infrastructureunlessnationalvehicle
compatibilityisunderstood/inplace
Infrastructureoperatorsrequireclear
dialoguefromvehiclesuppliers
Lackofconfidencein
longtermviability
Uncertaintyofbiofuelspolicyandgrowing
competitionfromalternativefuelscreates
strongdemandriskforinvestors
Longtermvisibilityofdatesforminimum
biofuelblendsatforecourts?
Firstmovercommercial
disadvantagefor
adoptinghigherblends
ForecourtupgradesareneededforE20;
investmentnecessitatesdisplacementof
regular,moreprofitablefuelsales
Singletankcommitmentlegislation
Commercialnon-
viabilityofsmall
throughputforecourts
Small/independentretailersarealready
understrainandthisaffectsruralareas
more;investmenttotransitiontoE10/E20
mightnotbeviablewithoutsupport
Dedicatedstrategytomaintainforecourtsin
someareas(likelyruralareasinshortterm
butmorewidespreadissueovertime)
Limitedrailpathway
capacity
Fueldeliverybyrailisbeingincreasingly
displacedbycompetingservicesforrail
pathwaysfrome.g.passengertrains
Dedicatedrailpathway(capacity)for
transportfueldistribution
Forecourts
Source:RicardoAEA(2011),ElementEnergyanalysis
E10/E20

26. 26
AlthoughblendshigherthanB7arenotexpectedatforecourts,private
depotscanadopthigherblends
202020302050
Estimateofdemandbasedonshareofbuses,trucksandvansrefuellingthroughbunkeredsupplyatdepot–doesnotincludethedemand
fromNonRoadMobileMachinery1BasedontheLowCVPEEFuelRoadmapandAutoCouncilEnergyroadmap
Depots
2
3
7
8
2050(CCC
targetscenario)
2050(moderate
scenario)
20302020
Diesel
Depotfleetsareincreasinglyutilisingpublicforecourtfacilitieswithfuelcardsinsteadofdepotfacilities
Thisshiftinoperationisdrivenbytheeliminationofmany,oftencumbersome,responsibilitiesassociated
withthemanagementofbunkeredfuelatdepots(e.g.mitigationofleakagestoavoidenvironmentaldamage,
theftprevention,generalmaintenance)
Demandfromfleetsthroughfuelcardseffectivelymaintainmanytrunkroadforecourtsbyprovidinga‘base
load’andassociatedspending(e.g.atthekiosk).Afurthermoveawayfromdepotrefuellingtofuelcards
couldsupportforecourts,however,thisbenefitislikelytobeoutweighedbytheoveralldecreaseinfleetfuel
demand
WhileblendshigherthanB7arenotexpectedatforecourts1,captivefleetsmightchoosetoadopthigher
blendswhichcanbedeliveredtodepotsbyroadtanker,e.g.C.120busesarealreadyrunningonB20in
London
Totalfuel
demand
(Mt/year)
Expectedissuesintheshort,mediumandlong-term
‘CCCTarget’
uptake
scenario

27. 27
Underanambitiousconversionprogramforcars/vans,theLPGpublic
networkwouldhavetoincreasesignificantly
EstimateofdemanddoesnotincludethedemandfromNonRoadMachinery.Source:EEforUKPLG(2013)1-Drivenfor
examplebyincentivesrecognisingitsairqualitybenefits2-seewww.uklpg.org/shop/codes-of-practice/
Networktosupportincreaseddemand
147146
280130
808498
0
100
200
300
400
20402050
80
277
98
2
2020
148
364
20302015
Heavyvehicles
LightvehiclesThousandtonnes/year
1,800
3,000
2,000
1,400
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
2015204020202030
Assuminganincreasedinaveragethroughputthroughmore
frequentdeliveries
LPGdemandprojectionasperdescribedinslide19.
Assumesheavyvehicleswouldrefuelatdepot
UndertheLPGuptakescenario1,demandforLPG
atpublicforecourtcouldincreasetoc.280ktby
2030,fromunder100kttoday
Todeliverthisdemand,thenetworkofpublicLPG
sellingpointswouldneedtoincreasefrom1,400
toc.3,000.Thesemightbemainlynon-forecourt
installationsastheyarecheaperandquickerto
commission(CodeofPracticesinplace2butfewer
restrictionsthanaforecourtintegrateddispenser)
NewinvestmenttodeploynewLPGsellingpoints
willbeentirelymarketdrivenbutwillalsorequire
commitmentsignalfromUKgovernmentforuse
ofLPGintransport
BiopropaneisexpectedtoentertheUKmarketin
theshorttermhowever,asarenewable‘drop-in’
fuelforconventionalLPG,itwillnotrequireany
infrastructureupgrade
TrucksandNonRoadMobileMachineries(forklifts,
refrigerationunits,etc.)refuelindepots–there
arenoparticularinfrastructurechallengesfora
transitionto/increaseuseofbunkeredLPG
LPG
CorrespondingpublicLPGsellingpoints
ForecastedLPGtransportfueldemand

28. 28
Assumptions:upgradecost=£35k/site,capacitycost£100k/site(Source:ElementEnergyforDfT,2012),65%of
existingforecourtshave3+pumpsandseparatestoragetanks,remainderhave<3pumpsandstoragetanks.
Allforecourts
in2015
£497m
50%of2015
activeforecourts
75%of2015
activeforecourts
£249m
£373m
Upgrades/refurbishments
Newcapacityinstallations
Approximatelevelofinfrastructureinvestmentrequiredforatransitionforallpublicforecourts
toadoptasingletankcommitmentforahigherblendbiofuel(e.g.E20)
Approximately£500millionwouldberequiredtoadaptthecurrentUK
publicforecourtnetworktobecompatiblewithhigherbiofuelblends
Totalnumberof
publicforecourts:
Assumessamemarketshareof
pumpsperforecourtfollowing
25%and50%closures
Scenariowhereall
forecourtpetrol
demandismetwith
E20by2050

29. 29
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

30. 30
ThereareanumberoffuelscurrentlynotusedintheUKtransport
systemthatcouldhavearoleinfuture
1-OptionsandrecommendationstomeettheREDtransporttarget,ElementEnergyforLowCVP(2014)
AC=Airconditioned
Methanol
Theintroductionof
preferentialfuelduty
(expectedearlyintothenext
Parliament)couldstimulate
thedevelopmentofheavy
dutyvehicleenginesworking
onhighblendmethanol
TheUK-basedcompany
ZeroMiscurrentlyworkingon
thisconcept
Thereisalreadyabio-
methanolsupplychain,albeit
forlowblendapplications
LiquidAir(LAIR)
Recentstudieshaveoutlined
thepotentialforLiquidAirin
refrigerationapplicationsas
wellashybridpowersystems
ThreeUKbasedcompanies
havedevelopedLAIRengines
Existingproductionofliquid
nitrogencanbeusedinthe
shorttermbeforetransitioning
toliquidair
OLEVwillsupportDearman
Engine’sdevelopmentofa
prototypepowerandcooling
systemforrefrigeratedtrucks
andACbuses(aspartofan
£11mfundingschemeto
supportUKinnovation)
E85
Othercountrieshave
successfullydeployedflex-
fuelvehicles,whichcan
operateongasolineaswell
asonE85(upto85%vol.
blendofethanolwith
gasoline),notablyBrazil
Techno-economicmodelling
studiessuggestE85isoneof
themostcost-effectiveways
ofincreasingtheshareof
renewableenergyin
transportfuels1
Thecaseofthreeniche/futurefuelswereinvestigatedinconsultationwithindustry:
Niche/futurefuels

31. 31
1ProductionofBio-methanol,TechnologyBrief(2013)
Source:EnergyCarriersforPowertrains,ERTRAC2014,EuroCare(2015)
Productionofmethanolismainlyfromfossil
fuelsbutitcanbemadefromrenewable
sources
Methanolismainlyproducedfromfossilfuels
suchasnaturalgasorcoal
Bio-methanolisproducedfromrenewable
resourcese.g.agriculturalwaste,wood
CanalsobemadefromcapturedCO2
Whenproducedfromfossilfuels,costsare
comparabletopetrolanddieselonanenergy
basiswhilebio-methanolcostsare1.5-4times
higher1
Methanolisusedasafeedstockforvarious
productsandcanalsobeusedintransport
Chemicalfeedstockfore.g.plastics,syntheticfibres
andpaints
Intransport,itisusedinvariousways:
−Directlyasafuelorblendedwithpetrol
−ConvertedtoDME,adieselreplacement
−ConvertedtoMTBE,ablendcomponentofpetrol
−Aspartofthebiodieselproductionprocess
Methanolfuelcellsarebeingdeveloped,thoughmain
industryfocusisonpurehydrogensystems
SAFETY
Blendsofpetrolandmethanolhaveanincreasedvapourpressure
Methanolisrelativelylowintrinsictoxicitybutitismetabolisedintohighlytoxiccompounds(e.g.formaldehyde
andformicacid);ingestionofc.50mlcancausedeathifnottreated
FinlandtriedtosecureanEU-widebanontheuseofmethanolinmultipleproducts(e.g.windscreenwasherfluid)
buttherequesthasbeenrejected
Offerssimilarfiresafetychallengestoethanol
Moredifficulttoignitethanpetrol,burnsslowerandwithacooler,invisibleflame
Methanol
Methanolisproducedfromnaturalgas,coalorbiomassandcanbe
usedasapetrolblend,neatortoproduceMTBEandbiodiesel

32. 32
TheUKdemandformethanoliscurrentlysmallthoughitsviability
foruseinfuelisdemonstratedbyitspopularityinChina
1ProductionofBio-methanol,TechnologyBrief(2013),2RTFOBiofuelStatistics(2014),3Directive
2009/30/EC.Sources:MethanolInstituteBlog(12-09-2014),BrombergandCheng(2010)
UK
Thegovernmentisexpectedto
legislatedearlyinthenext
Parliamentareducedfuelduty
of7.90p/ltoaqua-methanol
(whichcannotbeblendedin
petrol)
Thedifferencebetweena-
methanolrateandthemain
ratewillbemaintaineduntil
2024(reviewedin2016)
ECFuelQualityDirectivelimits
thepercentageofmethanolin
petrolto3%,withfurtherlimits
ontotaloxygenates3
Approximately34.5ktofbio-
methanolwereblendedin
gasolineintheUKin2013-142
China
China’stotalmethanol
consumptioninfuelswas11Mt
in2013,including4.6Mtusedin
vehiclesand7Mtusedfor
dimethylether
Chinaproducesmethanol
mainlyfromcoal,makingit
cheaperthanimported
petroleumfuels
160,000vehiclesinChinahave
beenmodifiedtorunon
methanolfuelblends
AChinesenationalM15
standardisbeingpreparedand
manylocalstandardsare
alreadyinplace
US
InUS,largescaletestsin
Californiain1980s-90s
demonstratedmethanol’s
viability
Dedicatedandflexiblefuel
vehiclesweredeployedand
refuellinginfrastructurewas
installed
Lackofeconomicincentive(low
petrolprice)andlackofpolitical
advocacyledtomethanol’s
failuretobecomeasignificant
transportfuelintheUS
Globalmethanolproductionin2013wasc.45Mt/year1
Methanol

33. 33
Methanoliscorrosivetomanymaterialsbutis
compatiblewithstainlesssteel,carbonsteeland
methanol-compatiblefiberglass
Forstorageatretailservicestations,new
undergroundtankstoragemaybenecessary
Existingtankscanbeconvertedbythorough
cleaningand,wherenecessarytheuseofa
methanol-compatibleliner
Pumpsandpipingusedtomovemethanolfrom
thestoragetanktothedispensermustbemadeof
methanol-compatiblematerials
Dispensersusedforpetroleumfuelstypically
includeelementsthataremethanolincompatible
(aluminium,brass,elastomers)sospecially
developeddispensersmustbeusedtoavoidleaks
Conventionalnozzlesdesignedformethanolare
available,asisaspill-freenozzledevelopedbythe
MethanolFuelCellAlliance
Transportationofmethanolwouldbemainlybytruckandadaptation
ofrefuellinginfrastructurewouldrequireinvestment
Source:UseofMethanolasaTransportationFuel,TheMethanolInstitute,2007
1Methanolenergycontent=20MJ/kg(lowercalorificvalue),TotalHGVenergydemandin2050=264PJ
Transportation
Methanoltypicallyshippedbyrailwaytankcar,
bargeandtrucktanker
IntheUSsomeissentbypipeline(oververyshort
distances)
Therearedifficultieswithusingpipelinesusually
usedforotherpetroleumproductsforshipping
methanol
−Degradationbyminglingwithotherproducts
−Methanolwillremovewater/residuesinthe
pipeline
−Pipelinescanbeconvertedbycleaning,though
theremaybematerialcompatibilityissues
Assuming5%oftotalHGVenergydemandby2050,
0.6milliontonnesofmethanolcouldbeconsumed
intheUK1
Forecourtstorageanddistribution
Methanol

34. 34
Liquidairenginetechnologycouldoffersignificantbenefits,
particularlyinrefrigerationoftrucksandtrailers
1DearmanEngineCompany.TRU:TransportRefrigerationUnit
Source:LiquidAirontheHighway,LiquidAirEnergyNetwork,2014
Variousliquidairenginetechnologieshavebeenproposed,ofwhichtheDearmanengineisthemostmature
TheDearmanengineusestherapidexpansionofliquidairasitcomesincontactwithawarmheat
exchangefluidtopowerapistonengine
Thiscanbeusedinthreeconfigurations:
OtherenginesusingliquidairhavebeenproposedincludingtheRicardosplitcycleliquidnitrogenengine
andtheEpiQairrotaryliquidairengine
Refrigeration
RefrigerationinvansandsmalltrucksisprovidedbythemainICE,whileformostlargertrucksandtrailersitis
providedbyanauxiliaryICE
Mostrefrigeratedtrucksandtrailersusereddieselauxiliaryengines,whoseemissionsarecurrently
unregulatedanduntreated,andcanaccountforover80%ofNOxandPMemissionsdespiteaccountingfor
only20%oftheoverallfuelconsumption
Usingliquidnitrogen(N2(l))evaporationforrefrigerationisbeingtrialledin6vehiclesintheUK(1000
worldwide),thoughthisrequiresancillarypowerfromthemainengine,increasingitsdieselconsumption
TheuseofaDearmanliquidairenginewouldofferimprovedefficiencyoverN2(l)evaporationasitwould
producebothcoolingandshaftpower
Aprototypeiscurrentlyintestingandsmallseriesproductionisduetobeginin20161
Onitsown,drawingheatfromthe
environment(suitableforshort
range,lowpowerrequirement
vehiclessuchasfork-lifttrucks)
Asaheathybrid,usingexcess
heatfromanICE(suitablefor
buses,coaches,lorries,urban
deliveryvehicles)
Forrefrigerationina‘powerand
cooling’configuration(TRUfor
vans,lorries,trailers,shipping
containers)
Liquidair

35. 35
Largevolumesofspareliquidnitrogenproductioncapacityexistin
theUK,withindeliverydistanceofallmajorcities
Source:LiquidAirontheHighway,LiquidAirEnergyNetwork(2014),DECCpressrelease“£8millionboost
forenergystorageinnovation”(13/02/2014)
LiquidairisnotcurrentlyproducedintheUK(liquidnitrogenwillbeused)
Liquidairisnotyetproducedcommercially,butliquidnitrogen(LIN)is
widelyproducedandcanbeusedforsimilarapplications
LINisproducedatc.10AirSeparationUnits(ASUs)intheUKviaan
energyintensiveprocess,generallyrunduringoffpeakelectricityhours
AccordingtotheLiquidAirEnergyNetworkreport,usingthesefacilities
duringthedaycouldprovide2,200tonnesofLINperday
Majorindustrialusersaresuppliedbypipelinewhileothercustomers
aresuppliedbyroadtanker–mostlargecitiesarewithinthe
distributionrangeofoneormoreLINproductionsites
LINisstillroutinelydeliveredtoareasoutsidethosecoveredonthis
map,butcostsmaybehigher
Anoperatorwouldneedtorentacryogenictankandpumpinorderto
storeanddispenseLIN
CurrentUKlocationswithspareLINproduction
capacitywithindicativedeliveryradius(c.350km)
Liquidair
DECCwillsupportaprojecttodemonstratea5MW/15MWhLiquidAir
EnergyStorage(LAES)system,duetostartoperationin2015in
Manchester(ledbyHighviewPowerandViridor)
Highviewhavesuccessfullypilotedtheirenergystorageconceptata
350kW/2.5MWhplantwithSSEsince2010
Thisnewprojectwillassessthepotentialforliquidairtechnologyto
addressgrid-scaleenergystorageneedsandsupporttheintegrationof
intermittentrenewablegeneration

36. 36
Sufficientproductioncapacityexistsforearlydeploymentandfuture
newcapacitycouldexploit‘wastecoolth’fromLNGregasification
Source:LiquidAirontheHighway,LiquidAirEnergyNetwork,2014
Policy/Regulationissues
Thereissufficientspareproductioncapacityfor
pilotschemesandearlydeployment
TheLiquidAirEnergyNetworkreportpredictsthat
consumptionofLINwillbe4.1ktpdforrefrigeration
alonein2025
Thisimpliestheneedforinstallationofliquefaction
capacityforanadditional1.9ktpdLINorliquidair
bythisdate
ProductionofliquidairischeaperthanLIN
productionandconsumes20%lessenergy,asthere
isnoneedtoseparatethecomponentgases
TheLiquidAirEnergyNetworkreportsuggeststhat
ifthereiswidespreadtake-up,newcapacitywould
berequiredsoonestinEastLondonandtheWest
Midlands
InJapan,ASUsarebeinglinkedtoLNG
regasificationterminalstousetheirwaste‘coolth’
toimproveliquefactionefficiency(usingtwothirds
lesselectricity)
ThiswouldbepossibleintheUKatitsthreeLNG
inputterminalswherere-gasificationtakesplace
Regulationofemissionsofauxiliarydiesel
enginesusedforrefrigerationwouldencourage
theuptakeoflowemissionreplacements
Liquidnitrogeniscurrentlyseenasanenergy
intensiveindustrialcommodityandistaxed
accordingly,asituationwhichcouldbeamended
tosupportitsuseintransport
Futuredemand
0
2
4
6
8
10
4.1
Demandincluding
heathybrid
9.6
Demandfrom
refrigerationonly
Heathybriddeliveryvehicles
Refrigeratedtrucks
Refrigeratedtrailers
2025ProjectedLINdemand
(ktpd)
Liquidair

37. 37
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

38. 38
Infrastructuregrowth
entirelymarketdriven
Operatorstrialnichefuelwith
smallnumbersoffleetvehicles
Keyfindingsfromtrialsinform
futureoperatorinvestment
Withapredicteddemanddecreaseforliquidfuels,forecourtsmay
havetointegratenewfuelsand/orreceivesupportincertainlocations
Continuedslowrateofclosuresfromc.8,600stations
Increasedcoexistenceofmulti-fuel
infrastructuretomaximiseutilisation
Public
forecourts
Growingproportionofbunkereddemand
willshifttoutiliseforecourtswithfuelcards
Private
depots
20152050202020302025
Supportmeasuresforsomeareasmightbeneededtomaintainnetwork
c.£250m-£600minvestmentrequiredfor
upgradesandcapacityinstallations
Trialintegrationofmultiple
fuelinfrastructures
Dashedlinesrepresent
highuncertainty
Majormilestone
/enabler
c.2,000c.1,400c.3,000
Nichefuels
Diesel
Integration
E20forecourt
investment
Coverage
PotentialtransitiontoE20would
requireupgradestoexistingforecourts
Dependentonfeasibilityof
multi-fuelintegration
and/orspecificsupport
mechanisms
Publicselling
points
LPG
Depotinfrastructurefullycommercial–growthtofollowdemand
Cars
Vans
HDVs
Thousandvehicles
Projectionsarebasedonpolicy-
leduptakescenariospresented
onpage21
Uptakescenariosinformed
quantificationofinfrastructure
requirements
Liquidfuelvehiclestock
6,000-
31,000
1,000-
5,000
360
32,000
4,300
700
32,000
4,300
700
30,000
4,000
700
By2050carsaremostlyRE-EVs/PHEVs
50-80%
decreasein
fuel
demandon
2015levels
Infrastructureroadmap
2050202020302025
c.2,000

39. 39
Delaystoplanningtomodifyforecourtsshouldbeminimisedtoavoid
investoruncertaintyandfinancialsupportmaybeneededincertainareas
Stationeconomicsandsupport1
Steepdeclineindemandbeyond
2030islikelytosignificantlyimpact
commercialviabilityoffuelretailing
(particularlyforsmallpublic
forecourtslocatedinruralareasof
theUKtostartwith,butmore
widespreadissueinlongterm)
Atransitiontoahigherbiofuel
blendwillrequirelargeinvestments
fortankreplacementsand/or
upgrades
Recommendations
CentralGovernment:Consider
mechanismstoensureminimumfilling
stationcoverage,particularlyinrural
areas
LocalAuthorities:Identifyanylocal
supplyshortagesandforecourtsmost
affectedbydecliningfueldemand
Planningpermissionguidance2
Acquiringplanningpermissionto
upgradeexistingforecourt
facilitiescanoftenbedelayedor
rejected
Delaysforupgradeapprovalcan
causepartialunavailabilityand
negativelyimpactcommercial
operation,therebydirectly
acceleratingforecourtclosure,
particularlyforunderutilised
areas
Recommendations
CentralGov.andLAs:Workwith
regulatorstoidentifycommoncauses
ofdelaysandimproveplanning
permissionguidelinesasappropriate
Innovationopportunities3
Biodieselandbioethanol
requireadditionalhandling
considerations
Higherbioethanolblendscan
damageregularrefuelling
facilitiesbycausingstress
corrosioncrackingofsteel
anddegradationof
elastomers,therefore
significantinvestmentwillbe
requiredtoupgradeexisting
infrastructure
Recommendations
R&Dbodies:Investigatecost
reductionopportunitiesfor
stationupgradestohandlehigher
biofuelblends
Source:ElementEnergy

40. 40
Asdecliningliquidfueldemandcausesstationclosures,facilitating
optimaluseofremainingforecourtsislikelytoberequired
Multi-fuelinfrastructureintegration4
Thetransportsystemisexpectedtobedecarbonised
throughmultiplealternativefuels/energyvectors
Existingforecourtsarestrategicallysitedtooptimally
servicedriverneedsbymajorroadsandjunctions
Co-locatinginfrastructureformultiplefuelsat
forecourtscouldensureutilisationismaintained
Recommendations
Regulators:Developstandardsforco-locatingmultiple
infrastructuresandworkwithcentralgovernmentto
developplanningguidanceforLocalAuthorities
R&Dbodies:Identifytechnicalbarrierstoco-locating
multipleinfrastructures(e.g.highpowerrapidcharge
pointsadjacenttoliquidfuels)
Industryandgov.:LiaisewithAPEAtoupdateBlueBook1
accordingly
Communicationofforecourtavailability5
Asforecourtclosurescontinue(andnew
blendsareintroduced),therewillbean
increasingneedtoensuredriverscaneasily
accessinformationdetailingstation&blend
availabilityandlocation
Communicationsystemstoinformdriversof
real-timefuelavailabilityatnearbypublic
forecourtssupportedbyanationaldatabase
couldbedeveloped
Centralcoordinationofsoftware
developmentwillensureaconsistent
interfacebetweendriversandpublic
infrastructuree.g.allowingusewithexisting
navigationsystemproviders
Recommendations
Industry:Developcommunicationsystem
+
1NationalGuidancedocumentjointlypublishedbytheEnergyInstituteandAssociationforPetroleumand
Explosives(APEA)usedtoassessandsignoffthesafetyofnewforecourtinstallationsandupgrades

41. 41Source:ElementEnergyandindustryinput
Methanol
Consultedindustrystakeholdersare
doubtfulofthepotentialof
methanolintheUK,onthebasisof
safetyconcernsandneedfornew
HGVsenginedevelopment(HGVs
aretargetvehiclesformethanolin
theUK)
Furthermore,theairquality
benefitsandCO2benefitsarenot
unclear
IfusedforUKtransport,highblend
methanolwilllikelybebunkered
(notatforecourts)
UKwouldneedtodevelopcodesof
practiseforstorageandhandlingof
methanolaswellasplanning
guidance;inputfromindustry
playersandcountriesfamiliarwith
methanolwillbevaluable
LiquidAir(LAIR)
Existingliquidnitrogen(LIN)production
willbeusedfirst,beforededicated
liquidairproductionisstarted
LIN/LAIRwillbeusedmostlyforcooling
and/orforhybridapplications,as
opposedtobecomingaprimemover
ItisexpectedLAIRwillbeused
exclusivelybyfleetswithdepot
refuelling
Specialistskilledworkerswillbe
neededforliquidairdistribution(e.g.
cryogenicengineersandtechnicians)
Skill-setoverlapwithothersectorsmust
beinvestigatedandconsistenttraining
programmesdevelopedasrequired
ProductionofLIN/LAIRrequire
electricitybuttheenergyvectorcan
alsobeusedasaformofenergystorage
E85
Consultedindustry
stakeholdersaredoubtfulof
thepotentialofE85,onthe
basisofthelackofvehicle
supply,barrierstoadoption
ofnewgradeatinland
terminalsandforecourtsand
lowenergycontent(adding
issuetoconsumer
acceptanceandfuelduty
issueifpriceparitywith
E5/E10(perkm)mustbe
supported)
AdoptionofE85couldnot
bepossibleifE20isadopted
(limittonumberofgrades)
Distributionwouldbeasfor
E10:blendedatinland
terminalsandtransportedby
truckstoforecourts
Liquidairhasthehighestpotentialanddevelopingadistribution
infrastructurefortransportmightrequireinvestmentinUKskills

42. 42
Contents
−Introductionandcontext
−Backgroundandstatusquo
−Futurerefuelinginfrastructurerequirementsand
barrierstodeployment
−Thecaseofniche/futurefuels
−Summaryroadmapandrecommendations
−Appendix

43. 43
References
−AEAforDfT,Modes3study,2011
−BPStatisticalEnergyReview,2014
−BrombergandCheng,MethanolasanalternativetransportationfuelintheUS,2010
−DearmanEngineCompanywebsite,2015
−DECC,EnergyconsumptionintheUK,2014
−DfT,RoadlengthsinGreatBritain,2013
−DfT,RTFOBiofuelStatistics,2014
−DUKESChapter3/4/5,2015
−Ecofys,UKBiofuelIndustryoverview,2013
−ElementEnergyforBirminghamCityCouncil,ACityBluePrintforLowCarbonFuelRefuellingInfrastructure,2015
−ElementEnergyforDfT,Ultralowemissionvanstudy,2012
−ElementEnergyforLowCVP,ScenariosfortheimplementationofthetransportelementoftheREDto2020,2013
−ElementEnergy,OptionsandrecommendationstomeettheREDtransporttarget,2014
−ERTRAC,EnergyCarriersforPowertrains,2014
−ETI,AnaffordabletransitiontosustainableandsecureenergyforlightvehiclesintheUK,2013
−EuropeanParliamentandCouncil,Directive2009/30/EC,2009
−IEA-ETSAPandIRENA,ProductionofBio-methanol,TechnologyBrief,2013
−JRC,WTTanalysisoffutureautomotivefuelsandpowertrainsintheEuropeancontext,2014
−LiquidAirEnergyNetwork,LiquidAirontheHighway,2014
−MethanolInstituteBlog,2014
−RicardoAEA,AssessmentoftheexistingUKinfrastructurecapacityandvehiclefleetcapabilityfortheuseofbiofuels,2011
−UKPIA,StatisticalReview,2014

44. 44
Acronyms
AFVAlternativeFuelVehicle
ASUAirSeparationUnit
BtLBiomass-to-Liquids
CCCCommitteeonClimateChange
CHPCombinedHeatandPower
COMAHControlofMajorAccidentHazard
DECCDepartmentofEnergy&ClimateChange
DfTDepartmentforTransport
DUKESDigestofUnitedKingdomEnergyStatistics
ECEuropeanCommission
EEElementEnergy
ETBEEthylTertiaryButylEther
ETIEnergyTechnologiesInstitute
EUEuropeanUnion
FAMEFattyAcidMethylEsters
FLTForkLiftTruck
HGVHeavyGoodsVehicle
HSEHealthandSafetyExecutive
ICEInternalCombustionEngine
LCNLowCarbonNetwork
LINLiquidNitrogen
LPGLiquefiedPetroleumGas
MTBEMethyltert-butylether
MtMilliontonnes
NGNationalGrid
OEMOriginalEquipmentManufacturer
OLEVOfficeforLowEmissionVehicles
PMParticulateMatter
R&DResearchandDevelopment
REDRenewableEnergyDirective
RTFORenewableTransportFuelObligation
TEN-TTrans-EuropeanTransportNetworks
TRUTransportRefrigerationUnit
TSBTechnologyStrategyBoard
TTWTank-to-Wheel
UCOUsedCookingOil
ULEVUltra-LowEmissionsVehicle
WTTWell-to-Tank
WTWWell-to-Wheel

45. 45
TotalUKvehiclestock(millionvehicles)
Futurevehicleprojectionsusefigures
providedbyDfT:
−Carsstocktoincreasefromc.30
millionto39millionandc.550billion
vehiclekmtravelledby2050
−Vansstocktoincreasefromc.
3.5millionto7millionby2050
−HGVsstocktoincreasefromc.500
thousandstodaytoc.630thousand
by2050
−Busesstockandvehiclekmtravelled
tostaybroadlyconstantataround
170thousandunitsand5billion
vehiclekmtravelled
Overallfleetandkmincreaseofc.40%
between2015and2050
ThemodellingofthefutureUKfleetisbasedonDfTtrafficandpark
sizeprojections
7
5
4
4
30
39
20302020
37
32
2015
34
+37%
2050
47
41
35
CarsVansHGVsBuses
103
142
82
72
413
449
+43%
2015
517
5
512556
27
2050
738
2030
305
5
528
650
2020
35
564
Totalvehiclekmtravelled(billionkm)
Source:DfTRoadtransportforecasts(availableonline)aswellasdirectsupplyofNationalTravel
Modeloutputsforthecaseofcars

46. 46
Thepowertrain/fueluptakescenariosunderpinningthe
InfrastructureRoadmaparepolicyled
Uptakescenariosfocusonalternativefuels
Thescenariosusedarenotintendedtocoverallpossibleoutcomesbutinsteadfocuson
caseswithambitiousuptakeofalternativefuels
Scenariosarepolicyled,typicallybasedontargetssetbytheCommitteeonClimateChange
(sourcesshownnext);theyareillustrativeratherthanbasedondetailedofnewmodelling
technologycostsandcustomerdecisionmakingbehaviour
Thereforetheuptakescenariosrepresentpossiblefutureswherelowandultralowemission
powertrainsaresuccessfullydeployed
FocusisintendedtoprovidethemostinterestinginputsfortheanalysisoftheInfrastructure
Roadmap–e.g.a‘businessasusual’casewherepetrolanddieselcontinuetoprovideover
98%ofroadtransportenergywouldnotrequirenewrefuelling/recharginginfrastructure
InaccordancewiththeFuelRoadmap,blendshigherthanB7arenotconsideredforthe
mainstreamfuelsandE20isconsideredonlyfromthe2030s
Scenarioshaveenabledfutureinfrastructurerequirementstobequantifiedandupfrontcosts
capitalcostsforpublicinfrastructurehavebeenestimated.Costofsettingnewfuel
productionassets,distribution/logisticscostsandgeneralinfrastructureoperatingcostshave
notbeenconsidered.Costsofotherincentivesthatmightberequiredtoachievetheuptake
scenarios(e.g.vehiclegrants)havennotbeenestimatedinthisstudy

47. 47
Overviewofthepowertrainoptionsconsideredandkeysources
CarsandvansBusesHGVsNRMM
HGV=HeavyGoodsVehicles,NRMM=NonRoadMobileMachinery
ICE:petrol,diesel,
LPG,(gas),(H2in
earlyyears)
EVs:BatteryEVs,
plug-inhybridEVs,
fuelcell(FCEVs)
TheCarbonPlan
andthe
Committeeon
ClimateChange’s
recommendations
H2MobilityPhase
1report,2013
Historictrendsfor
petrol/dieselsplit
ICE:diesel,
(bio)methane
EVs:BEV,PH/RE,
FCEV
(Liquidairfor
cooling/hybrid
power)
Currentand
announced
commercial
availability,policy
drivers
Alternative
Powertrainfor
Urbanbuses,2012
CCC–4thCarbon
BudgetReview
ICE:diesel,
(bio)methane,
(methanol)
EVs-inlighter
segmentsonly
Currentand
announced
commercial
availability
DfTHGVTask
Force
TSB-DfTLow
CarbonTruckTrial
CCC–4thCarbon
BudgetReview
ICE:diesel,LPG,
(gas),Liquidairfor
refrigerationunits
(Batteriesand
FuelCells–in
some
applications)
Dataonfuelusage
ofNRMMis
sparse
Morequalitative
approach
suggested
Parenthesesindicatesthepowertrain/fueloptionisexpectedtostaynicheinthe2050horizon RELEVANT
POWERTRAINS /FUELS
KEY SOURCES / INDICATORS

48. 48
Carsandvansareexpectedtotransitiontozeroemissionpowertrains
fortheUKtomeetitsGHGreductiontargets
Source:ElementEnergy
Carsandlightcommercialvehicles(‘vans’)aretreatedtogetherastheyhavethe
sametechnologyoptionsandfallunderthesameelectrificationtargetsinthe
CarbonPlan.
Salesofvansrunningonmethanearenotconsideredinthemodellingonthebasis
ofthelowcommercialavailability(only2modelsonthemarket),lackofpolicy
driversforgrowthandaforementionedelectrificationtargets.Anygasdemand
resultingfromvanswouldbesmallenoughtobeconsiderednegligible,in
comparisontothepotentialgasdemandfromtrucks.
DualfuelvansrunningondieselandhydrogenandRangeExtenderFuelCell
electricvans(beingdeployedcurrentlyintheUKandincontinentalEurope)arenot
modelledexplicitly.Instead,theirhydrogendemandisaccountedforinthe‘FCEV’
heading.Thespecificrequirementsfordualfuelandrange-extenderH2vansare
howeverconsideredintheInfrastructureRoadmap(e.g.dispensingpressure).

49. 49
Sources:ElementEnergy,UKH2MobilityreportPhase1(2013),PathwaystohighpenetrationofEVs,EEfortheCCC(2013),
OptionsandrecommendationstomeettheREDtransporttarget,EEforLowCVP(2014)
2030
60%
30%
2020
100%
2050
100%
3%
2015
9%
Moderateambition
CCCtargets
<1%
MarketshareofEVs(newsales)
50%60%
50%
75%
50%39%35%50%
0%
20302050
10%
15%
2020
15%0%
100%
2050
50%
2015
1%
BEVFCEVPH/REEV
BreakdownofmarketshareofEVs
TwoEVuptakescenarioshave
beenused:
−‘CCCtargets’:EVsreach60%
marketshareby2030andZero
Emissionvehiclesreach100%
ofmarketsharebefore2050
−‘Moderateambition’:the
2030CCCtargetsarenotmet
butEVuptakeisnonetheless
high(30%newsales);by2050
EVsrepresent100%ofsales
butaremainlyPHEVsorRE-
EVs,i.e.stillreliantonliquid
fuels
Scenarios
WestudiedinfrastructurerequirementssetbytheCommitteeonClimate
ChangetargetsaswellasacasewithaslowerEVuptake

50. 50Sources:ElementEnergy,SMMTdatafor2000-2013sales,UKLPGforLPG2013figures
SalesofnewcarswithInternalCombustionEnginevehicles-split
betweenspark-ignition(‘petrol’type)andcompressionignition
engines(‘diesel’type)
37%46%51%50%50%
86%
63%54%49%50%50%
20052000
14%
2020-502013
100%
20102012
CompressionignitionSpark-ignition
PROPOSED
SCENARIO
RiseofdieselStabilisation
2013
5.0%
2030
0.6%
Shareofspark-ignitioncars(ICEandHEV)stockthatrunonLPG
c.112,000units
c.800,000units
Weassumedthatthecurrentsplitof
petrol/dieselenginesfornewcars(50/50)
ismaintainedgoingforward
InlinewiththeFuelsRoadmap,dieselwill
beB7(EN590)withanincreasingamount
ofdrop-inrenewablediesel–i.e.no
compatibilityissuetobeconsideredforthe
distributioninfrastructure
Forpetrolengines,wewillevaluatethe
amountof:
−EthanolneedediftheE10becomes
themaingradeby2020andE20by
2032
−LPGneededforacasewheretherate
ofconversion(orsalesifOEMsupply
isputinplace)acceleratestoreach
5%ofthepetrolcarstock(equivalent
toc.40,000conversionsperyear
until2030)
Allnewvansareassumedtorunondiesel
Scenarios
Weassumedcontinuationoftheobservedpetrol/dieselshareforcars
andmodelledanambitiousLPGuptake
Decreasingstock
post-2030asnonew
conversion/salesare
assumed

51. 51
Source:ElementEnergy,DfTStatisticsTableVEH0601,LowCVPLowCarbonEmissionBusMarketMonitoring(Jan2015),CCC,
4thCarbonbudget,20131-AlternativePowertrainforUrbanbusesstudy(2012)
30%
10%
60%
Singledeckbus/coach
Doubledeckbus/coach
Minibus
UKbusfleet,c.165,000vehicles:
UKlowemissionbuses(allsingleordoubledeck,
nomini-buses)
274
12785
18
2014
1,787
FCEV
BatteryEV
Biomethane
Micro-hybrid
Hybrid
ScenarioCurrentUKbusmarket
Werampedupthealternativefuelmarketsharefrom
2030,inlinewiththeEuropeanstudy1thatsuggeststhat
theTCOofbatteryandFCe-citybuseswillbecome
comparableandcompetitivewithdieselandCNGbusesby
20301
Weassume90%uptakeforZeroEmissionVehiclesby2050
Thisislowerthatthe100%FCEVsassumedintheCCC
projections,toreflectthefactthatdoubledeckerbuses
(andbusesinhighlyruralareas)mightrequiregas
0%
92%
60%
80%
10%
40%
5%
15%
15%5%
2020
100%
2050
50%
20402030
2%
10%
10%
4%
Newbusessalesscenario:
‘Diesel’referstoablendofB7
anddrop-inrenewablediesel,
aspertheFuelsRoadmapDiesel,includeshybridBEV
FCEV(Bio)methane
Buseshavemanypowertrainoptionsbutoverallsmallfuelusesowe
usedonlyonescenario,wherealltechnologiesseehighsales

52. 52
Source:ElementEnergy,DfTStatistics,BirminghamCityBlueprintforlowcarbonfuelsrefuellinginfrastructure,EEfor
BirminghamCityCouncil(2015),LowEmissionHGVTaskForce(2014),HMRC(2014),CCC,4thCarbonbudget,2013
29%32%
39%
>31tGVW-articulated
>8tto31tGVW-mostlyrigid
>3.5tto8tGVW-rigid
UKHGVfleet,c.460,000vehicles:
UKlowemissiontrucks-estimates
<100
c.1,000
2014
Methane
BatteryEV
94%79%
0%
45%
20%
5%5%
20%
10%1%
2050
0%1%10%
40%
20%15%
2020
1%
2040
100%
10%
25%
2030
Newtrucksalesscenario:
Gastrucksallover18tGVW,mostly
dualfuel(dieselandmethane)
Electrictrucksallunder18tGVW
FCEVlighttrucksatearlydemostage
‘Diesel’referstoablend
ofB7anddrop-in
renewablediesel,asper
theFuelsRoadmap
Diesel,includeshybrid
Methane
BEV
FCEV
DieselLPGdualfuel
ScenarioCurrentUKHeavyGoodsVehiclemarket
WetomodelledaHighAlternativeFuelUptakecasewhere
bothpureelectricandgastrucksreachasignificantsales
levelsintheirrespectivemarkets(lightandheavytrucks)
FCEVsalsocapturealargeshareofthemarket,asperthe
CCC’svisionoftheroleofhydrogen
ForHeavyGoodsVehicles,wetestedahighuptakeofbothelectric
(batteryandfuelcell)andgastrucks

53. 53
Non-RoadMobileMachinerytypicallyrefuelsinprivatedepots/premises
butthecaseofLPG,liquidairandhydrogenwereconsidered
Source:ElementEnergyanalysisbased,onDfTstatisticsrequestedinJan2015andNon-RoadMobileMachineryUsage,
LifeandCorrectionFactorsAEAforDt(2004),industryinputforLPGuseinforklift
10%
7%
23%
17%
42%
Forklifts
Otheroff-roads
Agriculturaltractors
RefrigerationunitsonHGVs
Portablegeneratorsets
Otheroff-roads:TelescopicHandlers,BackhoeLoaders,Excavators,Cranes,Bulldozers,Compressorsetc.
UKNRMMfleetforindustry,constructionand
agriculture,c.700,000unitsin2014:
(CouldtransitiontoLPG,BatteryandFuelCellpacksforsomeuses)
LPG,couldtransitiontoLiquidAir
UseofLPG(alreadyusedbyc.30%offorklifts)andbatteries
couldincrease,couldtransitiontohydrogen
(Limitedoptions,possibly(bio)methaneorhighblendbiodiesel)
Scenario
(LPG,limitedalternativefueloptions)
Beyondtheblendingofrenewabledrop-indieselindiesel,
optionsforcleanerfuelsare:
Wetoconsidered(qualitatively,consideringthe
lackofdisaggregateddataonfueluse)the
infrastructureimpactsof:
−AtransitiontoLiquidAirforHGV
refrigerationunits
−AnincreaseinLPG,batteryandhydrogenuse
forforklifts

54. 54
Appendix–Therearebroadlytwotypesofrefuellinginfrastructure
forliquidfuelsintheUK
Source:ElementEnergy,DfTModes3study(2011)
Largefleetoperatorsincludingpublic
transportoperators,hauliers,logistics
companies,forkliftoperatorstendtooperate
designatedrefuellingdepotssuitedtotheir
‘returntobase’operations
Suchfacilitiestendtobeprivateand
exclusivelyserviceasinglevehicletype
Mostbusesandheavygoodvehiclesrefuel
indepots–shareofdieselsuppliedthrough
depot:
90%forbuses,40%forcoaches
80%articulatedtrucks,45%rigidtrucks
Refuellingatprivatedepots:c.25%fuelsalesRefuellingatpublicforecourts:c.75%fuelsales
Generally,publicvehiclerefuelling(passenger
cars,vans,motorbikes,scooters)isfacilitatedby
oneoftheUK’sc.8,600forecourts
Refuellingforecourtsarepublicallyaccessible
andaregenerallyownedandoperatedbylarge
oilcompanies(e.g.Shell,BP,Esso,etc.),
independentretailersandsupermarketchains