Guest lecture to students at University of Limerick in Limerick Ireland in March 2008.

1. Information Architecture For Technical Communicators:
What Does One Need to Know?
Christopher S. LaRoche, Adjunct Lecturer
School of Professional & Continuing Education (SPCS)
Northeastern University
March 2008
Copyright © 2008 - Christopher S. LaRoche & Northeastern University

2. Welcome
• CSL Background
- Technical Writer - 13 years
- Taught technology the past time - 8 years
• Evolution of this lecture
- Involved in information architecture as writer
- Saw connections between IA in writing/usability
- Teach a class in information architecture at Northeastern
- Seemed good to try and bring all this information
together in a lecture

3. Abstract
Abstract
This lecture includes an overview of the concept of
information architecture, including the origins and working
definition of the topic. The four main information
architecture topics discussed here are information
organization, navigation, labeling, and search systems.
This lecture focuses on online content and information, but
is applicable to hard-copy technical documentation as well.

4. Introduction
Introduction
• Although information architecture is relevant to many
different products, we will tend to focus more on Web sites
in this lecture. But good information architecture ideas and
thoughts are relevant to any group of complex information
that needs organization. This is part of our daily job as
technical communicators.
• With the advent of the Web explosion the last decade, the
needs and usefulness of information architects has become
not only more important, but people now are creating and
building careers specifically as information architects.

5. Introduction
Introduction
• Information Architecture is ??. Many varied definitions and
understandings of information architecture.
• Richard Saul Wurman is considered the creator of the term
information architect – he was a graphic designer and
architect by training. He created the term as a response to
the massive amounts of information created with
haphazard structures and/or little or no organization.
• Wurman coined the phrase “information architect” to try
and describe someone who organized and presented the
information in a logical order.

6. Definition
Wurman’s Definition
“The information architect is:
1) the individual who organizes the patterns inherent in data
making the complex clear.
2) a person who creates the structure or map of information
which allows others to find their personal paths to
knowledge.
3) The emerging 21st century professional occupation
addressing the needs of the age focused upon clarity,
human understanding, and the science of the organization
of information.”
(Richard Saul Wurman, 1976)

7. Definition
Wurman’s Additional Definition
”The key to making things understandable is to
understand what it’s like not to understand.”
(Richard Saul Wurman, Information Anxiety 2,
Indianapolis: Que 2001, p 23)

8. Taxonomy
Taxonomy
• The word taxonomy is another term used often and
frequently incorrectly when discussing anything related to
information architecture!
• According to Morville and Rosenfeld: “The foundation of
almost all good information architectures is a well-designed
hierarchy or taxonomy.” (p. 69)
• Taxonomy can be used as synonym of hierarchy. Basically,
good information architects are always striving to build a
well designed taxonomy (hierarchy).

9. Big Points
Information Architecture - Big Points
• These four topics are the main points of agreement on what
information architecture should and does do. These are the
topics discussed in this lecture:
– Information Organization and Organization Systems
– Navigation Systems
– Labeling Systems
– Search Systems

10. Defining and Prioritizing
Defining and Prioritizing
• As technical writers, we have been doing types of
information architecture our entire career when we outline,
organize, and manage technical content.
• Librarians have a unique advantage in this field, as much of
their work involves categorizing and organizing massive
amounts of information.
• The concept of an information architect has become a
“stand-alone” specific profession over the last 5-8 years,
mostly due to the explosion of the Web and so much
additional information being available and needing to be
accessible.

11. Defining and Prioritizing
Defining and Prioritizing
• As technical writers, we often focus on flavors of
information architecture to organize our own content: be it
for hard-copy or online books, online help, Web sites.
• Various IA specialties are completed by most technical
writers: organizing, labeling, and navigation of our content.
• Some writers and editors focus on nomenclature and
vocabulary to produce standardized wording/vocabulary
and Style Guides.
• Some writers focus on more tools and technical aspects
Increasingly, using a Content Management System (CMS) is
part of this process – and IA is crucial in this endeavor.

12. Innies vs. Outies
Innies vs. Outies
• Having someone (an “Outie”) not familiar with the internal
organization who can look at your documentation or Web
site and is invaluable to review your information. Natural to
actually become part of your organization vocabulary and
culture within a few months of working in that environment.
Great for documentation reviews.
• At the same time, having someone (an “Innie”) who knows
how politics and how things work within your internal
company will allow you to realistically discover what you
can and cannot accomplish within your company. [Morvile &
Rosenfeld, 21]

13. Organization Systems
Organization Systems
• Conceptual Models – since humans are pattern seekers,
our minds are always searching for patterns and models.
This helps our own mental model on how to structure
information that can be easily used and recalled.
• While we have the biological aspects of wanting to find
patterns, much of our own systems we classify reflect our
own cultural and social views and perspectives. [Morville &
Rosenfeld, 53]
• Humans seek pattern and organization on many levels
hundreds of times per day. Understanding this is part of the
entire IA process.

14. Organization Systems
Organization Systems - Challenges
• The amount of information available, particularly via the
Web, increases exponentially every year. Regrettably, with
all the information, there is not a corresponding amount of
classification or information architects used to classify and
organize this information.
• A view of “put the information out there and people will find
it” is still too prevalent – and no regard to how people think
or how information is best classified is realized.
• Ambiguity – how we communicate (primarily words) often
have different meanings/connotations to people. Concepts
and terms that are not concrete can be interpreted widely.

15. Organization Systems
Exact Organization Schemes
• Exact organization of very well-defined and concrete
information. Assuming users will have some knowledge and
background in that they want and little room for ambiguity.
– Alphabetical – quite common, especially in dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and bookstores. Most indexes in this format.
– Chronological – various types of information is best displayed this
way, such as history books & press releases.
– Geographical – often a good way to “chunk” information, specifically
in larger entities. Logical to organize information this way for big
companies – such as listing benefits offered by geography [Morville &
Rosenfeld, 60-61]

16. Organization Systems
Ambiguous Organization Schemes
• Ambiguous organization is for users who have a vague
understanding of what they need, but do not have defined
and concrete goals. This scheme is often more useful for
finding information that is not exact or when people are
unsure of end goal. Although more messy and subjective,
often the end-result is more satisfying to the user.
- Topic – quite common for specific areas, such as finding specific areas
like jobs or news.
- Task– pretty specific in a user is trying to perform a specific task and
Amazon and ebay are the best known types here. If you are creating
online help (help file or Web based help) – this is almost always the
type of scheme you will use since you are attempting to answer user
questions.

17. Organization Systems
Ambiguous Organization Schemes
– Metaphor – also quite common to use. The computer desktop is the
most obvious (Windows Explorer, for example). Be careful of this since
it can cause problems and is very cultural specific!
– Hybrids – this most common option can be the most problematic!
Can have either shallow hybrids or deep hybrids – and are fine as long
as excessive content and tasks don’t get put together too much.
Be careful of having too many conflicting schemes come
together. Often this is difficult since many groups within
a company control different parts of the Web site, but
try to stay with one scheme once your site is
complicated! [Morville & Rosenfeld, 66-68]

18. Organization Systems
Organizing Navigation Systems – Broad and Shallow
• Broad and Shallow – this site is often more flat and
somewhat linear. This could have too many options at the
top level. It would look similar to this structure type:

19. Organization Systems
Organizing Navigation Savings – Narrow and Deep
• Narrow and Deep – this site is often deeper with several
levels. This could have too deep a structure. It would look
similar to this structure type:

20. Organization Systems
Language Issues
• Though this is a base of technical writing, understanding
the vocabulary of your users is crucial.
• Within the information architecture field, having a
controlled vocabulary (a fancy word for strict editorial
standards) is crucial. If agreed up on terms are used –
when people use them it will have similar meaning!
• Make sure your controlled vocabulary is actually the
terminology and way your user community uses the
terms. Avoid having internal company jargon
permeate into this area or you will be in trouble!

21. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems - Overview
• Analogy of house building is useful here: “Structure and
organization are about building rooms. Navigation design is
about adding doors and windows.” (Morville & Rosenfeld,
115).
• A solid idea of your audience will help with creating an
efficient navigation system for your product. Since the
audience level may be fairly narrow, you may sometimes
customize navigation as appropriate to the product.
• At the same time, like much of information architecture,
there is a certain level of ambiguity in this entire process.

22. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Browser Issues
• Within you navigation, exploit your browser’s potential, do
not cripple it.
Do not ever do the following:
– Modifying the visited/unvisited link without excellent reasons
(keep it underlined if a link and unvisited should be blue and
visited should be magenta/red/purple)
– Disabling the browser’s Back and Forward button
– Disabling/limiting the bookmark ability
(Morville & Rosenfeld, 118)

23. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems - Context
• Always attempt to provide a context in the Web site so that
if a user arrived into the middle of a rather deep Web site,
he/she can navigate to a higher level or get out of the site
easily.
• The flexibility of hyperlinks allows folks to arrive anywhere
within a Web site, but with that flexibility the navigation
and design must respond to that.
• For example, there should always be an indication on every
page showing where you are within the navigational
structure of the Web site.

24. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Mental Model
• With showing where you are on a site that you randomly
locate, helps to show the user the mental model of the
organization/navigational scheme of the Web site.
• Again, knowing your audience will help with trying to
construct the mental model of the site’s users, though that
is always on some level a bit ambiguous since you will not
always have defined every user.
• Refer to Keith Instone’s site to test this idea:
http://instone.org/navstress

25. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Global Navigation
• Global System – assumed and usually on every page of a
Web site. Often the highest level of navigation.
• The tab metaphor across the top of the page is the most
common, usable, and excellent method of consistency.
• Unsurprisingly, the Apple and Amazon Web site are the best
of this style and have used it well. Also note the highlight of
the page you are on (slightly darker):

26. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Supplemental Navigation
• Not as crucial on smaller sites with less pages and/or
hierarchy, but still a very good thing to include as part of
building solid navigational systems on Web site.
• Types of supplemental navigation systems include the
following:
– Sitemap
– Site Index
– Breadcrumbs
– Search

27. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems - Future
• Social networking – the great “what if” and stay tuned!
• Become more defined the last few years, specifically sites
such as Friendster, Bebo, Facebook, and MySpace.
• Where will this type of social networking go – will likely
expand but in what permutation and how that does affect
navigation remains to be seen.

28. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Company Politics
• How and who designs and controls your Web site is a HUGE
issue in how the navigational systems are implemented and
used.
• Within an organization, often have many players who
control portions of Web site and hence the navigational
structure can vary and lack consistency.
• If at all possible, attempt to have control over your site in
either a centralized way so one group retains control of the
site. If not, having at a minimum a global embedded
navigational system is great so the user can always
“escape” from a point in the site if need to.

29. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Tips and Tricks
• It is always safe and more usable to have your navigation
use text instead of graphics for navigation.
• If you do use graphics, include ALT tags as a text
alternative in case the graphics do not work.
• Never disable the browser Back and Forward buttons. They
are there for a reason! Use them to your advantage.
• Keep hyperlinks blue (unvisited) and red/magenta/purple
(visited) and underline (yes still).
• Never use click here.

30. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Tips and Tricks
• Having navigation at the top of each page (global) and on
the left-hand side (local/sub sites) often works best and is
now a well-accepted standard.
• Include the navigation at the top of each page (global) on
every page in the Web site – regardless of the site’s size.
• Try to make site map to how a user would use the site, not
how the hierarchy of the site is set up – often subtle but
distinctive difference! Map to the user’s mental model.
• Redundancy is not evil. If it helps the user understand and
navigate the site, redundancy is ok!

31. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Tips and Tricks
• Avoid having pages open in a new browser window – unless
you have good reason and note accordingly to the user.
• Navigational systems provide good visual queues to users.
• Remember some users might be on old systems with dial
up – don’t make things too image heavy or difficult to use.
• Remember to test on several browsers (IE, Mozilla, and
Safari) unless you have the luxury of an intranet or know
your users only using one specific browser.

32. Navigation Systems
Navigation Systems – Tips and Tricks
• Just avoid the headache – DON’T USE FRAMES. Ever!
• If you can, create a set of templates for your HTML pages.
Even having a template for global and local/sub site pages
makes thing much easier for the user and helps solidify the
navigation systems.

33. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems - Overview
• Many different ways to create a Labeling system well, as
well as not so well!
• Although the basis of solid labeling is crucial, the idea of
having a solid idea of your audience will help with creating
an efficient labeling system for your product, much like
navigation. Since the audience level may be fairly narrow,
you may sometimes customize labeling as appropriate.
• Labeling never will be 100% accurate, since language is by
its nature ambiguous, multi-meaning, and fluid.

34. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Mental Model
• Content developers are almost always creating labels when
developing content in books, help files, and Web sites.
• Again, knowing your audience will help with trying to
construct the mental model of the site’s users, though you
will not always be able to define your every user.
• Still, the main/home/index page is often a good queue to
see if labeling is effective or not in the Web site –
transparent is often best! These questions can help and
figure out a label’s effectiveness (or in-effectiveness):
 Do labels stand out? If so, why?
 If new or unfamiliar term, it is obvious from the term or info?
 Do you have to go deeper into the site to learn about label on higher
navigation level? (Morville & Rosenfeld, 83)

35. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Usefulness
• Several quick methods to see if labels are useful:
– Are they representative of what user would expect on page?
– Does each label clearly differentiate itself?
– Are labels user focused, or are they internal “company speak”?
– Do labels re enforce or reduce the user’s impression of the company or
product. (Morville & Rosenfeld, 85-86)

36. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Label Types
• Contextual Links
• Headings
• Terms

37. Labeling Systems
Label Types – Contextual Links
• Basic hyperlinks that exist throughout the entire Web.
• Contextual links are often beyond the control of the
information architect since the content specialists are often
creating these links.
• In this situation, best to have suggested guidelines through
editorial standards or style guide so there will be a level of
consistency in these type of links.

38. Labeling Systems
Label Types – Headings
• Headings detail the content within a page or chunk, and
also act as a very subtle hierarchy.
• The hierarchical nature and/or relationship in or between
headings is reinforced through various characters such as
“numbers, font sizes, colors and styles, white space and
indentation.” (Morville & Rosenfeld, 90).
• Even if not a conscious pattern acknowledgement, how we
see the relationship of the hierarchy (parent, child, or
sibling) reinforces our understanding of the relationship. We
then make inferences about the label as well. (Morville &
Rosenfeld, 90). Be consistent with headings!

39. Labeling Systems
Label Types – Labels Within Navigation Systems
• Tied into the discussion about navigation systems. This
type of label system is also a navigation bar and must be
applied consistently throughout the Web site.
• With this type of label, consistency is even more important.
Also have terms that are meaningful to the user. Worst
situation would be having a consistent term that is just not
applicable to the user, so balancing good term with
consistency throughout the site is a dual goal since either
one incorrect makes it ineffective.

40. Labeling Systems
Label Types – Terms
• With maturing of Web, some terms are becoming standards
and are pretty safe to use – and understood by most users:
– Home
– Search, Browse
– Site Map, Index, Contents
– Help, FAQs, Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
– News, Events, News & Events
– About, About Us, Announcements (Morville & Rosenfeld, 93)
– Jobs, Careers

41. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Designing Labels
• Be careful of many terms that have so many different
understandings in different cultures. Can be dangerous and
is just the nature of the ambiguity of language, and the
English language makes it more difficult with its unique
flexibility.
• Only a very few labels are universally understood – such as
a stop sign (due to same color and shape).

42. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Company Politics
• How and who designs and controls your Web site is a large
issue in how Labeling Systems are implemented and used.
• For example, with contextual links, having a set of
standards helps with having consistency.
• If at all possible, attempt to have control over your site in
either a centralized way so one group retains control of the
site. If not, having at a minimum a global embedded
navigation system (the Apple example shown earlier) with
clear labels is great so the user can always “escape” from a
point in the site if need to.

43. Labeling Systems
Labeling Systems – Tips and Tricks
• Keep labels and term short – to one or two words.
• Don’t forget META, TITLE, and ALT tags within your Web
pages.
• Consistency and standards can really help with ease of use
and mental models being understood – as long as the labels
actually are what the user understands.

44. Search Systems
Search Systems – Overview
• Search – show tie into writing with Books – think searching
in a PDF file and good index. With online help/Web browser,
a well designed nav/lab system as well as a Search.
• Without a doubt, Google has so changed the landscape of
the entire search “mental model”. The transformation has
happened from making search a bunch of cryptic characters
to one where you use natural language speaking terms to
search for information.
• Even with Google making the search concept so much more
accessible and straightforward, the downside is that the
level of expectation of search retrieval has also increased
exponentially. So consider yourself forewarned!

45. Search Systems
Search Systems – Considerations
• Before implementing search on your Web site, you must
decide if it is needed, and consider the following:
- Is your site big or “deep” enough to justify a search engine within
the site? There are no rigid rules for this, but anything under 25 or so
pages realistically does not need search – either solid navigation
and/or site map/index should suffice.
- If your site invests in search – will it divert from other resources? A
really well-developed navigation is still more crucial than search –
“search engines become Band-Aids for sites with poorly
designed navigation systems.” (Morville & Rosenfeld, 146)

46. Search Systems
Search Systems – Considerations
• Do you plan to optimize the search system for your site?
With search becoming so much better, this is an increasing
expectation of users. If you are not going to do this –
reconsider implementing search. (Morville & Rosenfeld,
146)
• Consider alternatives to search – depending on the size and
budget, a site index/site map can work just as well.
(Morville & Rosenfeld, 146-147)

47. Search Systems
Search Systems – Reasons to Use
• We have just spent the last few pages mentioning how
much you need to consider not using search. The following
are some very good reasons to consider using search or
why it could be so important in your own Web site:
- When you have a huge site, it helps locate information when you have
too much information to browse – this is especially true in sites that
increase in size rather quickly. (Morville & Rosenfeld, 147)
- If you have a fragmented Web site – for whatever reasons – the idea
of search could help tie together the site by using the search as a
“Band Aid” of sorts. Really helps in companies with a “silo” structure
of various departments (and hence Web sites). (Morville & Rosenfeld,
148)

48. Search Systems
Results – How to Display and Show
• The following are various methods to display search results,
with each having its own advantages/disadvantages:
- Sort by alphabet – good general purposes sorting method.
- Sort by chronology – best if time is the crucial factor in search
results.
- Ranking by relevance – bit subjective and depends on the
algorithm – depends on the query terms, frequency of terms,
closeness of terms in appearance, where terms occur, etc.
- Ranking by popularity - how popular and how many links are
tied into the site itself from other links is used in this method.
Tends to marginalize smaller sites with few visitors! (Morville &
Rosenfeld, 167-175)

49. Search Systems
Search – the User Interface
• There was until Google came along a real variety of types of
search interfaces, but simplicity won out thankfully!
• Have a basic search text box you can type in and a Search
or Go button next to it – that is what most users now
expect in a search.
• If you have a search and want/expect users to use it, make
sure it is in a visually obvious place – the upper right corner
of the site is often the safest default.

50. Search Systems
Search Systems – Company Politics
• How and who controls the search design, user interface,
and updates is crucial and often a political football within
companies.
• Thought often difficult to do, try to make sure that the
information architect is involved as much as possible in this
process since it makes things easier for all parties involved
if a search system does really adhere to the user’s mental
models!

51. Future
Future of Information Architecture
• As technical communicators, we have been doing
information architecture as part of our daily job for a very
long time – it just was not recognized as such until
somewhat recently. The way that we create navigation and
label systems and structures is one of the core tasks we do
as writers – and trying to make it match what we think the
user of the documentation would need and want.
• Our expertise and knowledge in this area will only continue
to increase over the next few years, so it is always smart to
“sell” this as one of your many abilities when looking for
employment.

52. Future
Future of Information Architecture
• As an example, witness the explosive growth of
http://www.craigslist.org. In many ways, this site is a
“throw back” to the early days of the Web with almost all
text and links/hypertext.
• The way the site was designed – and focusing on
geographical areas – is ingenious. It also has an incredible
consistency for a site its size (note that in every city you
visit, the information is always located in the same place).
In some ways the emergence of this site is a reaction to so
many huge poorly designed Web sites. For example, you
would not think of using search while at craigslist!

53. Future
Future of Information Architecture
• There has been explosive growth of the field of information
architecture. IA has been discussed greatly since the
advent of the Web, but the last five years - as the amount
of information available has exploded exponentially - the
need for information architecture has become much more.
• The level of information available will continue to increase
for the immediate future. Expect much more of our daily
life interactions and information “pushed” online. For
example, much medical information and how we monitor
and track our own personal health will move online the next
decade (specifically in the US).

54. Conclusion
Conclusion
• Overall, there are many opportunities for technical
communicators to show our information architecture
experience in most of the work environments we are
working in. The explosion of available information the past
decade has dictated this!
• Both the growth of the profession and job opportunities are
healthy signs that this area is one that will not only grow,
but will be around for quite a long time into the future.
• Please feel free to send me email with any questions:
c.laroche@neu.edu.

55. Links
Information Architecture Links
• IA Institute:
http://iainstitute.org/
• Usability Professionals’ Association (UPA):
http://www.upassoc.com/
• ACM SIG CHI:
http://www.sigchi.org/
• Society of Technical Communicators:
http://www.stc.org
• Rosenfeld’s site:
http://louisrosenfeld.com/home/
• Mystery Meat Navigation:
http://www.webpagesthatsuck.com/mysterymeatnavigation.html

56. Links
Information Architecture Links
• Searchtools.com:
http://www.searchtools.com/
• Searchenginewatch.com:
http://searchenginewatch.com/
• Mental Models For Search Emerging:
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20050509.html
• Taxonomy Warehouse:
http://www.taxonomywarehouse.com/
• ThesauriOnline (American Society of Indexers):
http://www.asindexing.org/site/thesonet.shtml