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Special Interest Tourism

UNIT 1:
INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM

Chapter objectives
• Explore the overview of special interest tourism, and outline the tourist and tourism system
• Identify and discuss the factors which led to the development of special interest tourism:
the evolution of transport, development of winter sports, increase in paid holidays, long
haul travel, opening up of global destinations, and current development

Special interest tourism overview

Special interest tourism refers to tourists, usually in small group tours, who are traveling to learn
about and experience particular specific features related to an area. Special interest tourism can
focus on a wide range of features from cultural manifestations of dance, music, fine arts, handicraft,
architecture, and traditional ways of life, unusual economic activities, archaeology and history, as
well as aspects of nature to those related to the tourists’ professional interests.

Special interest tourism does not require large-scale or even greatly expensive development of
facilities and infrastructure. However, careful organization, knowledgeable guide services, some
integrated transportation facilities and services, and at least basic accommodation and catering
facilities are essential.

Definition

Also known as serious leisure ~ leisure where participants are able to find personal fulfillment,
enhance their identity and express themselves, as opposed to casual or un-serious leisure

“A form of tourism which involves consumers whose holiday choice is inspired by specific
motivations and whose level of satisfaction is determined by the experience they pursue”
(www.download-it.org/)

“Travel for people who are going somewhere because they have a particular interest that can be
pursued in a particular region or at a particular destination”
(S. E. Read, 1980)

Definition by World Tourism Organization (WTO), 1985

“Specialized tourism involving group or individual tours by people who wish to develop certain
interests and visits sites and places connected with a specific subject. Generally speaking, the
people concerned exercise the same profession or have a common hobby”.

The tourist and the tourism system

Definition of tourist ~ “temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in the country visited and the
purpose of whose journey can be classified as: leisure, business, family, mission and meeting”.
While visitor is “any person visiting a country other than that in which he has his usual place of
residence, for any reason other following an occupation remunerated from within the country
visited”.

©2012 World-Point Academy of Tourism Sdn. Bhd. All Rights Reserved.


• International visitor – persons who travel for a period not exceeding 12 months to a country
other than the one in which they generally reside
• Internal visitor – persons who travel to a destination within their own country, that is outside
their usual environment, for a period not exceeding 12 months

Excursionists can be defined as temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours in the destination
visited and not making an overnight stay

Tourism classification

1. International tourism
• Inbound tourism – visits to a country by nonresidents
• Outbound tourism – visits by residents of a country to another country
2. Internal tourism
• Visits by residents of a country to their own country
3. Domestic tourism
• Internal tourism plus inbound tourism (the tourism market of accommodation facilities
and attractions within a country)
4. National tourism
• Internal tourism plus outbound tourism (the residents tourism markets for travel agents
and airlines)

Tourism system

Tourism system should be viewed as a single system comprised of interrelated parts. A system, it
can be defined, analyzed, planned and managed in an integrated manner.

Gunn further specifies the influencing factors on the functioning of the tourism as: natural
resources, cultural resources, entrepreneurship, finance, labor, competition, community,
government policies and organization/leadership.

Mill and Morrison identify the four (4) major parts of the tourism system as being:
 The market (tourists)
 Travel (transportation)
 Destination (attractions, facilities and services)
 Marketing (information and promotion)

Reasons for special interest tourism development



Evolution of transport

Transport is the most critical element in the promotion of the growth of domestic and international
tourism. At a simple level, transport links the tourist from the origin area with the destination area.
It enables the tourist (the holiday maker, business traveler and other categories of traveler) to
consume the products and experiences they have purchased, because it links the supply chain
together.

The transport sector is entering into strategic alliances where different operators will seek to offer
seamless transport experience to travelers. All embracing role of transport to:
 Facilitate the tourist trip to the destination
 Enable tourist travel within the destination

Evolution of transport:



Evolution of transport Explanation
Stagecoach travel Coaches were invented in Hungary in the 15th
century and provided regular service there on
prescribed routes. By the 19th century, stagecoach
travel had become quite popular, especially in Great
Britain. The development of the famous English
tavern was brought by the need for overnight lodging
by stagecoach passengers.
Water travel Market boats picked up passengers as well as goods
on ship canals in England as early as 1772. by 1815,
steamboats were plying the Clyde, the Avon and the
Thames. By 1841, steamship excursions on the
Thames were well established.
Rail travel Railways were first built in England in 1825 and
carried passengers beginning in 1830. Because the
fares were much lower than stagecoach fares, rail
travel became widely accepted even for those with
low incomes. Between 1826 and 1840, the first
railroads were built in the United States.
Automobile/motorcoach travel Automobiles entered the travel scene in the United
State when Henry Ford introduced his famous Model
T in 1908. By 1920, a road network became
available, leading to the automobile’s current
dominance of the travel industry. Motorcoaches also
came into use soon after the popularization of the
automobile and remain a major mode of
transportation.
Air travel Nearly 16 years after the airplane’s first flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903, regularly
scheduled air service began in Germany. Because of
its speed, comfort and safety, air travel is the leading
mode of public transportation today, as measured in
revenue passenger miles.

The role of transport in tourist travel:



Tourists leave
Transport link
home area
Airport shuttle/taxi/public
transport/private car
Departure
airport
Flight to destination
Destination
airport
Airport shuttle to a hotel

Hotel

Scenic train Local tours by
Car hire Local cruise Cycle hire
journey coach

Development of winter sport

Winter sport commonly played during winter. Main winter sports; ice hockey, figure skating,
sledding events (luge, skeleton and bobsleigh), skiing and snowboarding.

Example:
• Apline Winter Sport Resort
• Winter Olympic Games
• Alps Mountain, Swirtzerland

Traveling for winter sports is very common now and insurance has been created specifically for
coverage on incidence during the tourists’ trip fro winter sports like the Winter Sports Policy
provided by the AA Winter Sports Insurance. With this kind of accessibility and convenience,
people tend to be more prone into traveling just for winter sports because it is simplified by the
information technology at the same time. Online bookings can be made to book winter sports
equipment.

As for Winter Olympic Games, with young athletes attracted to new sports, the International
Olympic Committee, in trying to avoid an increasingly geriatric audience, has added sports that are
popular with today’s youth. This goes on to show how influential winter sports can be and with this
increase in popularity of winter sports, more tourists would travel for that purpose specifically.

Increase in paid holidays

The introduction of annual paid holiday is very largely of English origin and this has important
repercussions on development of mass tourism. The annual paid holiday was established during the
inter-War years for a considerable number of working population and led to greater mobility of the
population and broadened the horizon of millions of people.



Increase in paid holidays also can be associated with development of modern mass tourism. Paid
holidays are now established all over the world, and in most countries a minimum duration of one to
three weeks is specified by law or by collective agreements, between the employers and the workers
Today, the right to paid holidays has universal recognition.

Presently, the main potential for tourism market is made up of wage-earners and their families. The
concept of paid holidays, which originated with the advent of industrialization in the west, has
given modern tourism a tremendous boost.

Positive impact of increase in paid holidays:
 More leisure time
 Increased in wealth material
 Changes in mental attitudes towards pleasure travel
 Improvement in transportation system

Long-haul travel

Journeys typically made by wide-body aircraft that involve long distances, typically beyond six and
a half hours in length, and often are non-stop flights. On some long-haul flights, jet airliners refuel
in order to reach the destination.

OR
Self-challengers ~ have a drive to challenge themselves, passionate travelers and embrace the idea
of exploring and immersing themselves in the culture and lifestyle of the destination. They seek
destinations that are as different from the home as possible and they don’t mind roughing it a bit.
Example: outback Australia

The segment motivation reflects a personal drive to challenge them and the reward is intensely
personal experiences. When traveling abroad, this segment appreciates immersion in the local
culture, lifestyle and environment. They definitely perceives themselves as travelers, not tourists,
and are focused on experiencing destinations before they become part of a heavily commercialized
tourist trail.

Self-challengers are focused on self-discovery through challenging experiences and want to get
‘under the skin’ of a destination.

Opening up of global destinations

Backpackers are arguable in setting new travel trends, opening up new destinations and developing
new markets; for example in developing destinations. Today, there is greater understanding of the
needs of tourists and their expectations of tourist destination than in the early phase of development
of the tourism industry.

By the 1980s, with increasing recognition of various forms of ‘special interest’ tourism and their
potential economic benefits, awareness of the deteriorating environmental quality and the
relationship between the tourists and residents in many destinations, attention began to focus on
these types of tourist, who might avoid the problems of mass tourism.

More destinations to explore; example:
• Bird watchers at Utah, Idaho and Nevada
• Ardent mountain climbers at Taman Negara Kinabalu, Sabah; Nepal and Pakistan



In the current development in the tourism industry, like mass tourism and the increase in packaged
holidays, special interest tourism is growing because tourists tend to seek something outside of the
ordinary to pursue their interest. For example, one of the most recent trends that can be seen in
Malaysia is the love for Korean series amongst the youngsters or young adult who can be contribute
to the increase in Malaysian traveling to Korea to visit the places in which those drama series has
been filmed in.

Current developments

There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism industry over the last few decades, especially in
Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common. The terms tourism and travel are
sometimes used interchangeably – in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but
implies a more purposeful journey.

There is now a demand for a better quality product, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass
market for beach vacations; people want more specialized version, quieter resorts, family-oriented
holidays or niche market-targeted destinations hotels.

There have been a few setbacks in tourism:
• September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations
• Tsunami
• SARS outbreak
Contemporary special interest tourism trends:
• Tourists have a high level of disposable income, considerable leisure time, are well-educated
and have sophisticated tastes
• Development in technology and transport infrastructure
• Changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism
• Some sites offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made
package requested by the customer impulse

Emergences of new type of tourism destinations:

Types Explanation
Sustainable tourism Envisage as leading to management of all resources in such a way that
economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining
cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity
and life support systems (WTO).
Implies meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
Ecotourism Also known as ecological tourism is responsible travel to fragile,
pristine and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and
(often) small scale.
It helps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly
benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local
communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and for human
rights.



Pro-poor tourism The potential tourism has to help the very poorest in developing
countries has been receiving increasing attention by those involved in
development and the issue has been addressed either through small
scale projects in local communities or by Ministries of Tourism
attempting to attract huge numbers of tourists.
For tourism to successfully reach the poor efforts must be made for
tourists to use local currency, for locals to develop relevant skills and
to ensure that exclusive contracts do not dominate the sector.
Recession tourism Travel trend which evolved by way of the world economic crisis.
Defined by low-cost, high value experiences taking place of once-
popular generic retreats.
Various recession tourism hotspots have seen business boom during the
recession thanks to comparatively low-cost of living and a slow world
job market suggesting travelers are elongating trips where their money
travels further.
Medical tourism When there is a significant price difference between countries for a
given medical procedure, particularly in Southeast Asia, India, Eastern
Europe and where there are different regulatory regimes, in relation to
particular medical procedures (i.e. dentistry), traveling to take
advantage of the price or regulatory differences is often referred to as
‘medical tourism’.
Educational tourism Educational tourism developed, because of the growing popularity of
teaching and learning of knowledge and the enhancing of technical
competency outside of the classroom environment.
In educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity
includes visiting another country to learn about the culture; or to work
and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different
environment.
Creative tourism Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the
early beginning of tourism itself.
‘Grand Tour’ – which saw the sons of the aristocratic families traveling
for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences
Can also be defined as tourism related to active participation of
travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive
workshops and informal learning experiences.
The concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile
organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities
Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic
experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific
cultural features of a place.
Dark tourism Involves visits to ‘dark’ sites such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific
crimes or acts of genocide.
A small niche market, driven by varied motivations, such as mourning,
remembrance, macabre curiosity or even entertainment.
Its early origin rooted in fairgrounds and medieval fairs.



UNIT 2:
TYPES OF SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Identify and discuss the different types of special interest tourism: outdoor pursuits,
adventure activities, cultural events, archeological tours, educational trips, sports
competition, spiritual interests, and etc.

Types of special interest tourism

The development of the special interest tourism which includes;
• Outdoor pursuits
• Adventure activities
• Cultural events
• Archaeological tours
• Educational trips
• Sports competition
• Spiritual interests

There is one unlisted type that increasingly becoming a form of tourism that is attracting interest
from academic researchers and the industry: the “dark tourism”

Dark tourism

Dark tourism also known as “black tourism” or “grief tourism” - Involving travel to sites associated
with death and suffering. This includes:



• Castles and battlefields
• Sites of disasters (natural or man-made)
• Prisons now open to the public
• Purpose built centers
• Sites of human atrocities and genocide

The dark tourism spectrums

 Dark Fun Factories: These are commercially oriented, entertainment centers offering
attractions and tours based on actual or fictional death and macabre incidents. Examples of
dark fun factories include such family-friendly tourist attractions as the London Dungeon,
Tower of London and Jack the Ripper tours.

 Dark Exhibitions: Tourism products that encourage educational reflection on death,
suffering or the macabre. They also tend still to have a commercial focus, but are more
aimed at commemorating the dark events on exhibition, than entertaining customers.
Examples include the Smithsonian Museum of American History exhibit 'September 11:
Bearing Witness to History', which contains very few artifacts (only 45 in total). The exhibit
doesn't even show images of the airliners approaching and crashing into the Twin Towers.
The museum prefers to use photographs of eyewitnesses to tell the story.

 Dark Dungeons: These are sites that mix entertainment with education ('edu-tainment') as
they reveal sites of crime and punishment systems from history. The Galleries of Justice in
Nottingham is an example of this type of tourism product, which has been promoted as 'the
only site where you could be arrested, sentenced and executed'. Here the emphasis is more
on entertainment, which contrasts with Robben Island, South Africa, where Nelson
Mandela, among many other freedom fighters criminalized by the 'apartheid' system, were
incarcerated.

 Dark Resting Places: Where a cemetery is seen as a potential tourism product. Tours,
special interest groups and the spread of the Internet have led to growth in interest in these
sites, where the living can feel literally 'close to the dead'. Seen as occupying the 'middle
ground' of dark tourism, cemeteries such as Père-Lachaise in Paris are used to commemorate
the (often very famous) dead, such as Jim Morrison and Isadora Duncan. Other cemeteries
also offer open space for recreational activities, exercise and relaxation. Dark resting places
can also become the subject of battles between land owners and local people over the right
to access the site, such as in the case of Arnos Vale in Bristol

 Dark Shrines: Based on the act of remembrance for the recently deceased. Dark shrines are
often located close to or at the scene of a death, and usually within a short period after the
incident which led to the death. Roadside tributes of flowers laid to commemorate death
through traffic accidents have become increasingly popular in this country. Media-reported
deaths of significance for people can also lead to similar informal tributes, as in the death of
Diana, Princess of Wales.

 Dark Conflict Sites: War and battlefields fit into this category and their use as tourism sites
have been known about for centuries. Tourists are recorded as having visited the scene of
the Battle of Waterloo even as it was being fought in 1815. The battlefields of the First
World War were also first visited soon after hostilities ended and are now well established
tourism venues, but their purpose is more about remembrance than celebration.



 Dark Camps of Genocide: Seen as occupying the darkest edges of the dark tourism
spectrum, death camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, Dachau and Buchenwald attract
thousands of visitors each year

Outdoor activities

Outdoor activities dedicated to the promotion of physical activities, wellness and a deeper meaning
and understanding of nature through experience-based outdoor, adventure and environmental
education. Generally non-mechanized, outdoor recreation activities done in areas remote from the
amenities of telephone, emergency help and urban comforts.

There are also often means activities done in nature away from civilization such as hiking, hunting,
backpacking and canoeing. Outdoor activities, as well as meant for a broader group activities such
as water sports and snow sports

This mission fostered through:
• Environmental awareness and minimum impact travel
• Service learning and conservation efforts
• Skill development and personal challenge
• Positive group dynamic
• Having a great time

Outdoor pursuit requires people to:
• Learn through experience
• Gaining direct awareness of their limitations in various areas of activities
• Seeking to overcome them in the context of group interaction

Types of Outdoor Activities

Mountain Forest Beach & sea Fresh Aero
Desert Family Cultural
activities activities activities water activities
activities activities &
activities historical
activities
Trekking Wildlife Snorkeling Angling Gliding Camel Theme Museum
safari safari park
Rock climbing Camping Scuba diving Canoeing Ballooning Desert
jeep safari
Mountain Bird Parasailing White Sand
cycling watching water surfing
rafting
Motorbike Elephant Deep sea
expedition safari fishing
Skiing Tree Windsurfing
climbing
Snowboarding Water sports
Ice climbing
Canyoning

Adventure tourism



Definition:

“Any adventure trip close to nature that is undertaken by someone who depart from known
surroundings to encounter unfamiliar places and people, with the purpose of exploration, study,
business, communication, recreation, sport or sightseeing and tourism”
(Addison, 1999)

Generally an outdoor activity of sport, which involves elements of daring and risks. Physical fitness
is generally a pre-condition to participate in adventure sport activities. The core characteristics of
adventure tourism are:
• Uncertain outcomes
• Danger and risks
• Challenge
• Absorption and focus
• Contrasting emotion
• Escapism and separation
• Exploration and discovery

Can be divided into three (3) sub-categories

Aerial Adventure

Example:
• Parachuting
• Skydiving
• Hand-gliding
• Parasailing
• Bungee jumping

Water Adventure Sport



Almost all is white water oriented. White water ~ a fast flowing water which due to some
obstructions in its path is turbulent at those places which give it a white water appearances due to
surf produced.
• White water rafting
• White water kayaking
Flat water is mainly sea based or a very large lake:
• Water skiing
• Wind surfing
• Surfing

Land-based Sports

Most of the popular land-based sports are mountain oriented. Example:
• Trekking
• Skiing
• Mountaineering
• Rock climbing

Cultural tourism

Definition:

“The practice of travelling to experience historic and cultural attractions to learn about a
community’s heritage in an enjoyable and educational way”
(Heritage Tourism Program)
“The movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with
the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy needs”

“The subset of tourism concerned with a country or region's culture, specifically the lifestyle of the
people in those geographical areas, the history of those peoples, their art, architecture, religion(s),
and other elements that helped shape their way of life”

Cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their
cultural facilities such as museums and theatres. Can also include tourism in rural areas showcasing
the traditions of indigenous cultural communities (i.e. festivals, rituals), and their values and
lifestyle.

Indigenous communities can be defined as ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to
one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of
which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory. Other cultural tourism
appeals are:
• Music and dance
• Foods and drinks
• Government
• Fine arts
• Architectural etc.

Trends in influencing the market place for cultural tourism:
• Rising education level
• Aging population



• Increasing economic role of women
• Emerging trends to maximize the power of cultural tourism
• Dramatic increase in short, get-away trips where by people are trying to pack more activities
into more frequent trips of shorter duration
• People are searching for meaning where by many will find it in nature, heritage and culture
• The success of theme parks has created high expectations for cultural tourism
• Sustainability of communities and the natural environment
• The increasing impact of Internet (*virtual tourism)

Virtual tourism – “a process of online browse and provision of travel information”. As a means to
give tourists access to remote, inaccessible, fragile or closed cultural and natural heritage sites.
Virtual reality – improve the presentation and interpretation of cultural sites and to extend the
carrying capacity of heavily visited sites. Virtual reality technology could be used to give virtual
access to endangered heritage sites and regulate visitation to an acceptable level, and still satisfy
tourists and tourism needs.

Five (5) distinct types of cultural tourism by McKercher and Du Cros (2002):
• The purposeful cultural tourists (high centrality/deep experience)
• The sightseeing cultural tourists (high centrality/shallow experience)
• The casual cultural tourists (modest centrality/shallow experience)
• The incidental cultural tourists (low centrality/shallow experience)
• The serendipitous cultural tourists (low centrality/deep experience)

Archaeological tourism

Archaeological tourism is an alternative form of cultural tourism, which aims to promote the
passion for historical-archaeology and the conservation of historical sites. Promoted to encourage
the development of cultural associations, and companies and cooperatives can be found that
dedicate themselves to offer this type of service.

Include all types of products associated with public archaeological promotion; example:
• Visit to archaeological sites
• Reenactment of historical occurrence
• Archaeological tourism is ideal for which:
• They look for a higher knowledge and sublimate
• Tie to the meditation and the relaxation
• Integration with the Mother Nature

The objectives of archaeological tourism are:
• To offer a wonderful and unforgettable experiences
• An intensive course and of introduction to each of these manifestations of the human
knowledge

Archaeological sites, particularly those with spectacular ruins or monumental art, have drawn
tourists for centuries, as they drew explorers and adventures in even earlier times. Several countries
have for years had programs resembling the main points of archaeological tourism for economic
income, including Egypt, Mexico and Peru. Archaeological preservation can be enhance by better


public understanding of archaeological interpretation and the nature of archaeological resources,
including in many cases, their fragility.

Public participation activities that tourists can take advantage of range from:
• Visits to sites with good quality interpretation;
• To visit the excavations in progress; and
• The opportunities to participate in excavations

Educational tourism

Definition

“Reserved for language studies abroad or generally for any kind of trips associated with systematic
learning”

“Tourists activities undertaken by those who are undertaking an overnight vacation and those who
are undertaking an excursion for whom education and learning is a primary secondary part of their
trip”

Educational tourism may consist of:
• General travel for education (“Edu-Tourism”)
• University/college students’ and schools tourism

Can be independently or formally organized and can be undertaken in a variety of natural or man-
made setting. Developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge
and the enhancing of technology.

The main focus:
• Visiting another culture (i.e. student exchange and study tours)
• To work and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different environment (i.e.
international practicum training program)

Language Education

The teaching and learning of language. This includes:
• Improving a learner’s mastery of her or his native language
• Second language acquisition

There are three principals’ views:
• The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code
meaning (i.e. grammar)
• The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function,
such as requesting something
• The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and the maintenance of
social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in
conversational exchanges

Sport tourism

Sport tourism is a multi-billion dollar business, one of the fastest growing areas of the global travel
and tourism industry. Sport tourism can be defined as:



“All forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity, participated in casually or in an
organized way for non-commercial or business/commercial reasons, that necessitate travel away
from home or work locality”

“Travel for the sake of either viewing or participating in a sporting event staying apart from their
usual environment”

Sport tourism is now a tool to achieve many things, make money, create thousands of new jobs and
even help change cultural perceptions. In some instances, sports have been used to advance cultural
and political interests.

Potential for growth:
• Increased media exposure
• Increasing number of sport fans want to experience live events
• Low-cost regional airlines

There are three (3) principal types of sport tourism, including:
• Active sport tourists – those who actively participate in a sporting experience as a tourist
• Event sport tourists – those who attend the event to be a spectator
• Nostalgic sport tourists – those who visit a lace to pay homage to sport (such as iconic
stadium or hall of fame)

Sports Competition

There are some major international sporting events, which have given great impetus to sport
tourism. These events generate millions of tourist worldwide and the host nation benefit a great deal
from these events.
• Olympic Games (Summer)
• Olympic Games (Winter)
• World Cup (Football, Cricket, Rugby, etc)
• Asian Games
• Regional Games
• National Games

The above events are held regularly but not necessarily in the same country each time

Major advantages:
• Augmentation of infrastructure of the host country in the form of accommodation,
transportation, wayside facilities, built especially for the event in hope it will trigger off new
tourist demand
• Providing host city and country with a unique opportunity to sell/market itself, its culture
and its attractions directly to a wide international audience .i.e.
o Opening ceremony of Olympic Games in Beijing, China
o Asian Games in Delhi, India
o etc



• Boost in tourism activity during the event as also post event period. It accelerates the growth
of international tourism .i.e.
o F1 Grand Prix
o World Cup Rugby in New Zealand
o SEA Games in Indonesia
o etc
• Spread tourist demand by way of attracting additional tourists over and above those who
visit specifically for the event itself
• Brings in economic uplift to the local area and host community

Spiritual interest/pilgrimage

In religion and spirituality, a pilgrimage is long journey or search of great moral significance.
Sometimes, it is a journey to a shrine of importance to a person’s beliefs and faith.

Examples:
• Muslim pilgrimage at Makkah
• Buddha’s birthplace at Lumbini, Nepal
• Christianity at Vatican City
• Judaism at Jerusalem, Israel

However, now religion is being seen more and more as a privatized and pluralized experience
where the “spiritual” and the “religious” are separate. This is where by, emerge the personality cults
cultivated by communist leaders. i.e.
• A visit to Lenin’s Mausoleum in Red Square, Moscow
• Visits of homage to Mao Zedong, Kim Il Sung and Ho Chi Minh

Other types of special interest tourism

Nature-based tourism

Nature in tourism involves experiencing natural places, typically through outdoor activities that are
sustainable in terms of their impact on the environment. Nature-based tourism encompasses many
leading and rapidly growing tourism subsets including – soft and hard adventure activities, beach



tourism, wildlife tourism, scenic driving and sightseeing, eco-tourism and garden tourism. Nature
tourism may be crucial to the experience or may simply enhance the experience. It is also includes
the benefits of nature such as relaxation and enriching the spirit.

Aboriginal tourism

Aboriginal tourism is defined as:
• Aboriginal tourism experiences that are Aboriginal-owned
• Aboriginal tourism businesses where Aboriginal people and/or community benefit by
gaining employment and income
• Aboriginal tourism experiences that provide consenting contact with Aboriginal people,
cultural heritage or land

The following principles underpin the Aboriginal Tourism Development Plan:
• Aboriginal involvement in tourism is not restricted to cultural tourism.
• For Aboriginal tourism to be effective and meaningful, it must involve and benefit the
Aboriginal community.
• To ensure successful outcomes, Aboriginal tourism enterprises will be based on sound
business planning and identified customer needs.
• Aboriginal tourism operations are part of the mainstream tourism industry network.

Urban tourism

Takes place in large cities where tourism not a primary activity of the urban area and serve both
holidays and businesses travelers. Location - relate to the transportation system and major attraction
features. Special problems of urban tourism planning:
• Competing demands for development of certain prime sites
• Traffic congestion in central areas
• Over-use of primary tourist attractions
Advantages:
• Generating income and employment
• Support urban facilities and services
• Justify and paying for historic preservation and infrastructure improvements
• Vital force for inner-city redevelopment and revitalization

Food and wine tourism

Wine and food is one of the five iconic experiences identified as a major draw card for tourists to
the state and includes wine tasting, vineyards, wine education, indulgence and romantic escapes,
complemented by fine food produced with fresh, local ingredients and opportunities to wine and
dine in natural settings.

Wine tourism encompasses a wide range of experiences built around tourist visitation to wineries
and wine regions. This includes wine tasting, enjoyment of wine and food, the exploration of
regional environments and the experience of a range of cultural, nature based and lifestyle activities

The main motivations for visiting a particular winery include recommendations from friends,
information obtained at visitor information centers, referrals from colleagues and friends, past
experience with wine from the specific winery visited, awareness of a winery brand, the opportunity



to purchase boutique wines that are not available in city wine outlets, proximity to the winery or
region and the physical appearance of the winery from the roadside when driving past.

Cruises tourism

A cruise is, according to the Collins English Dictionary, 2008, a trip by sea on a liner for leisure,
unusually docking at various ports during its journey. A cruise ship tourist is one who travels
around on such a ship.

The cruise industry is growing at a rapid speed and is one of the major areas of tourism growth at
the beginning of the new millennium. There are few specific features that are appealing to travelers
to cruise traveling:
• Passengers have the opportunity to visit many places in a short period of time without issues
pertaining other modes of transport;
• The ships are self-contained;
• Cruise ships have a cruise director and staff whose only function is to make sure passengers
have an pleasant time;
• High quality food is served in a stylish manner and
• Everyone begins and ends their vacation on the same day (Dowling R.K 2006:3).

UNIT 3:
SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM INTERACTIVE SYSTEM
Chapter objectives
• Explore and discuss special interest tourism interactive system: the tourism-product
supply, special interest tourism demand and image creation/media
• Identify and explore the roles and responsibilities of special interest tourism stakeholders:
government, service provider, host/local communities, as well as tourists’/visitors’
awareness

Special interest tourism interactive system



SIT, it is suggested, should be viewed as part of a system, an interdisciplinary system, which
comprises the overall environment (local to global), the tourist demand system, the tourism industry
supply system with the media being conceptualized as a major influencer on tourism in the 21st
century, (see Fig. 1).

It is the merging of all these components that make up SIT. The overall system is representative of
political, economical, ecological, technological, and socio-economical and socio-cultural concerns,
at local to global level. The tourism industry supply system is made up of tourism
places/destinations, the travel and tourism organizers/operators, travel agents, accommodation
businesses, transport, and SIT facilities and infrastructure.

The tourist demand system consists of the individual’s financial situation, possession or access to
necessary tourism activity equipment, the cognitive determinants (perception, awareness and
learning), activating determinants (emotions, needs, motives, attitudes, images), and personal
characteristics (involvement, perceived risk, values) (Dreyer, 1995). The demand side is sub-
divided into intra- and inter-personal components that recognize the internal and external
motivational determinants for demand, including the desire to gain insight, and to use the resultant
‘‘self-image’’ for peer approval.

This includes guides and tourism operators, as the very media that help shape the demand for a
product also help shape the design, presentation and representation of the product by those who
supply it. They too are part of a closed system that fuses representation of places and action with the
production and reproduction of tourism experiences.

The tourism product - supply

SIT was seen as a ‘‘prime force in the expansion of tourism’’ by Read in 1980 with the product
range having expanded from that of a boutique product to a mainstream offering. Initially SIT



organizations were perceived to have focused on rather homogeneously considered groups of
customers such as in adventure tourism, eco-tourism, sport tourism and cultural tourism for tourists
seeking the ‘‘hard or specialized’’ end of the market, being ‘‘serious leisure participants’’.

However, it is now apparent that operators have diversified their offerings to attract the large market
segment of the ‘‘soft’’ or ‘‘novice’’ end of the spectrum, and intervening stages, either based on
their own expertise within the field of special interest or their awareness of the growing latent and
salient consumer demand. A constant reciprocal exchange between supply and demand influences
the evolvement, growth and access to new leisure and tourism experiences.

Technology, time squeeze, space contraction, affluence and increased availability of leisure
equipment and travel products have impacted on leisure and travel trends and diversified activities
and destinations from the ‘‘old’’ to the ‘‘new’’. Consequently, it becomes possible to ‘‘re-package’’
in ways within which, an environment may contain the appropriate mix of new or old activities
done in a new way to be optimally arousing, with the individual believing that:
• she/he has enough ability to succeed at the task and
• Possessing a positive role in sustaining the quality of one’s life and promote personal
growth.

In short, to repeat, experiences are sold on the premise of being life enhancing.

Special tourism interest demand

According to the World Tourism Organization, tourism consumption patterns reflect the increasing
diversity of interests of the late-modern leisure society with ‘‘SIT’’ having emerged, reflecting the
new values which include ‘‘increased importance of outdoor activities, awareness of ecological
problems, educational advances, aesthetic judgment and improvement of self and society’’.

Tourism prefixed with specific descriptors, such as ecotourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism
and “SIT’’, serve to indicate qualitative difference from those of mass tourism, thereby ‘‘promoting
socially just forms of tourism’’ that meet tourists’’ needs to engage in modes of behavior that, at
best, again, enhance sense of self, and at worst, may be ‘‘justified’’ as being socially responsible .
Individuals increasingly adjust their needs and desires based on images of societal behavior that
‘‘promises’’ societal acceptance.

The tourist in the 21st century is ‘‘searching for new and exciting forms of travel in defiance of a
mass-produced product’’ yet without ‘‘actually having to involve themselves in any way’’, a
reflection of increasing commoditization and depersonalization within modern and post-modern
society. Commoditization has changed tourism experiences in the 21st century from that of the
traditional search for the totally unknown, the utmost challenging and dangerous to that of safety
and comfort, to that of “gaze’’ but also embodiment beyond individual’s onsite experience.

However, the tourist also brings with him/her images and myths associations as portrayed in the
multiplicity of media and other sources which transform and individualize the tourist experience.
Adventure tourism for instance is regarded by Cater (2000) as commoditization of ‘‘embodied
human experiences’’ that are marketed and managed to cater for a spectrum of consumers within a
framework of myth and dramatic story line

Image creation/media

Increased exposure of high-risk leisure in the media may indeed stimulate involvement in an
activity such as mountaineering, which can evolve into a leisure or tourism career. Tourism



brochures, magazines, books, film and television, all are media for the creation of images that
fashion desires, wants and needs, creating anticipation and a way for tourists to envisage themselves
in place and action.

Media pervades every intimate human space and thus can influence value creation, beliefs and
attitudes. It generates a possible cognitive and affective response—knowledge of, and familiarity
with the activity and places within which it occurs, and an emotive response to those activities.

The tourist comes to the tourism location with pre-conceived images within which they have
allocated a role to him or herself. The tourist tries to understand and relive these images by
mirroring the representations during their holidays.

Thus, tourism provides for a ritual or sacred journey to be performed at places with meanings
imbued by the tourism industry and the wider media. Representation of places are collages of
images, of experiences and metaphors, depicting a range of similes not only born of authenticity but
enriched by ‘‘irrelevant’’ stimuli through entertainment and spectacle, with the spectacle becoming
more spectacular, thrills more thrilling and the magic of nature more magical.

Tourism places no longer only present continuity in time and space with historical and biographical
meaning but are instilled with physical and emotional sensations of a consumption-oriented society
Images are interpreted and re-interpreted and generate perceived authenticity of place and action.

Special interest tourism stakeholders

Many different interests may effect whether in a positive or negative way from special interest
tourism development:
1. Governments plays a leading role in encouraging the private sector, tourists and other
stakeholders in building a proper special interest tourism development
2. Tourism enterprises, while seeking long term profitability, should be concerned about their
corporate image, the relationship with their staff, and their impact on the global environment
and that immediately around them.
3. Local communities are seeking increased prosperity but without exploitation or damage to
their quality of life.
4. Environmentalists are concerned about the harmful impacts of tourism but also see it as a
valuable source of income for conservation.
5. Tourists are seeking a high quality experience in safe and attractive environments; they are
becoming more aware of the impacts of their traveling.
Government plays a leading role

This can best be achieved by establishing and implementing a set of policies for tourism
development and management, drawn up in concert with others that place sustainability at its
centre. Governments have a crucial role to play in the development and management of special
interest tourism. The level of government engagement in tourism varies considerably across the
world.

Contacts with governments on sustainability nevertheless reveal that most are, at least nominally,
seeking to pursue special interest tourism. This applies equally to developed and developing
countries, though the emphasis may be different. Whatever the motivation of governments, their
role relates only partly to their own actions.

Tourism is primarily an activity carried out by private sector enterprises, and it is their actions,
together with those of tourists, that are responsible for most impacts, positive and negative. A



primary function of government in fostering more special interest tourism is therefore to create an
environment that enables or influences the private sector to operate more sustainably, and
influences patterns of visitor flows and behavior so as to maximize the benefits and minimize the
negative impacts of tourism.

The key reasons for the importance of the role of government are as follows:
• Much of the sustainability agenda is about areas of public rather than private concern.
• Although the private sector is beginning to recognize its responsibility, it cannot, on its own,
be expected to take a lead on these issues.

In all countries, the special interest tourism sector is fragmented into many thousands of businesses,
mainly micro or small enterprises. Collectively their actions can make a difference, while
individually they cannot, so coordination is needed. Furthermore, very small businesses often need
external support and advice if they are to change their operations successfully to meet a new agenda
Governments are responsible for many functions that are fundamentally important to the sustainable
development of tourism, such as land use planning, labor and environmental regulations, and the
provision of infrastructure and social and environmental services.

Many governments are already actively engaged in supporting tourism through marketing,
information services, education and in other ways, often through joint public-private frameworks.
These arguments and functions are applicable at both national and local government levels.

In many countries, many of the objectives and actions that governments are pursuing can be said to
be in line with sustainability, and there is considerable recent interest in relating special interest
tourism policies to wider sustainable development or poverty reduction strategies.

However, as has already been pointed out, the understanding of what the sustainable development
of tourism entails, and even the terminology, is not consistent between governments. A more
systematic approach to link sustainability aims and principles to policies and tools are needed.

Services provider

Tour operators are businesses that combine two or more travel services (e.g. transport,
accommodation, catering, entertainment, and sightseeing) and sell them through travel agencies or
directly to final consumers as a single product.

A tour operator is thus a crucial link in the distribution chain, representing the central connection
between customers and providers of tourism services, and thus has the power to influence both the
demand and the supply side. The product that a tour operator sells to customers is the 'package tour',
i.e. the packaged combination of transport, accommodation and services.

Due to bulk-buying the tour operator is able to offer this package at a cheaper price than the
customer would have been able to achieve dealing directly with individual suppliers. This package
is distributed to the customer either directly (e.g. via direct sell, internet) or via a ‘middleman’ (the
travel agent) who arranges the sale of the package for commission, usually 10% of the retail price.

The role of the tour operator in the distribution chain:



Tourism Distribution Channels

The tourism channel of distribution is an operating structure, system or linkage of various
combinations of organizations through which a producer of travel products describes, sells, or
confirms travel arrangement to the buyer.

SUPPLIERS:
Transportation providers, accommodations, food services, resorts,
recreation, entertainment, Etc.
Host Specialty
Tour
Direct Retail Specialty Specialty Channeler
Whole-
Via Travel Channeler Channeler
Retail Tour saler
Internet Agent Specialty Tour
Travel Whole-
Telephone Channeler Whole-
Agent saler
Suppliers Home-based saler
Retail Retail Tour
Office Travel Retail
Travel Travel Whole-
Agent Travel
Agent Agent saler
Agent

CUSTOMERS:
Individuals, pleasure groups, business groups, Etc

Travel Agents

What is a Travel Agency?
Travel agency – (a middleman) a business or person selling the travel industry’s individual parts or
a combination of the parts to the consumer. In marketing term: an agent middleman, acting on
behalf of the client, making arrangements with suppliers of travel (airlines, hotels, tour operators)
and receiving a commission from the suppliers and/or a fee from the client

Other tourism distribution members:
• Internet service provider
• Consolidators
• Tour wholesaler
• Specialty channeler

Distribution members Explanation



Internet service provider Companies that provide domain space for others on computer
servers they own, companies that provide travel information that
they develop, and companies that provide a combination of the two
Consolidators A travel firm that makes available airplane tickets and sometimes
other travel products at discount prices. These are usually sold to
retail travel agencies but also sometimes sold directly to the public.
Tour wholesaler A company that plans markets and (usually) operates tours.
Marketing is always through intermediaries such as retail travel
agents, an association, a club or a tour organizer – never directly to
the public as is sometimes done by tour operators.
Specialty channeler Include such organizations as incentive travel firms, business
meeting and convention planners, corporate travel offices,
association executives, hotel representatives, travel consultants and
supplier sales offices. They have considerable power to influence
when, where and how people travel

Host/local communities

Community-based tourism ventures should be used to distinguish those initiatives which are
environmentally sensitive, but which also aim to ensure that members of local communities have a
high degree of control over the activities taking place, and a significant proportion of the benefits
accrue to them (Liu, 1994; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996).

This is in contrast to tourism ventures which are controlled wholly by outside operators, and it is
also distinct from contexts in which most of the economic benefits of tourism accrue to the
government (Akama, 1996). A community-based approach to ecotourism recognizes the need to
promote both the quality of life of people and the conservation of resources.

It is now recognized in parts of Africa, for example, that local people should be compensated for the
loss of access to resources they suffer when wildlife parks are created. While tourism rhetoric
suggests that there is much support for community-based tourism ventures, it is difficult to find
successful cases of this in practice.

A useful way to discern responsible community-based tourism is to approach it from a development
perspective, which considers social, environmental and economic goals, and questions how
ecotourism can “. . . Meet the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards
both in the short and long term” (Cater, 1993). Community-based approaches to tourism therefore
need to acknowledge the importance of social dimensions of the tourism experience, rather than
primarily focusing on environmental or economic impacts.

Frameworks for determining the Impacts of Special Interest Tourism Initiatives on Local
Communities

Signs of empowerment Signs of disempowerment
Economic empowerment Ecotourism brings lasting economicEcotourism merely results in small,
gains to a local community. Cashspasmodic cash gains for a local
earned is shared between manycommunity. Most profits go to local
households in the community. Thereelites, outside operators, government
are visible signs of improvementsagencies, etc. Only a few individuals
from the cash that is earned (e.g.or families gain direct financial
improved water systems, housesbenefits from ecotourism, while
made of more permanent materials). others cannot find a way to share in


these economic benefits because they
lack capital and/or appropriate skills.

Psychological Self-esteem of many communityMany people have not shared in the
empowerment members is enhanced because ofbenefits of tourism, yet they may face
outside recognition of thehardships because of reduced access
uniqueness and value of theirto the resources of a protected area.
culture, their natural resources andThey are thus confused, frustrated,
their traditional knowledge.disinterested or disillusioned with the
Increasing confidence of communityinitiative.
members leads them to seek out
further education and training
opportunities. Access to
employment and cash leads to an
increase in status for traditionally
low-status sectors of society e.g.
women, youths.

Social empowerment Tourism maintains or enhances theDisharmony and social decay. Many
local community’s equilibrium.in the community take on outside
Community cohesion is improved asvalues and lose respect for traditional
individuals and families workculture and for elders. Disadvantaged
together to build a successfulgroups (e.g. women) bear the brunt of
ecotourism venture. Some fundsproblems associated with the tourism
raised are used for communityinitiative and fail to share equitably
development purposes, e.g. to buildin its benefits. Rather than
schools or improve roads. cooperating, individuals, families,
ethnic or socio-economic groups
compete with each other for the
perceived benefits of ecotourism.
Resentment and jealousy are
commonplace.
Political empowerment The community’s political structure,The community has an autocratic
which fairly represents the needsand/or self-interested leadership.
and interests of all communityAgencies initiating or implementing
groups, provides a forum throughthe tourism venture treat
which people can raise questionscommunities as passive beneficiaries,
relating to the ecotourism venturefailing to involve them in decision-
and have their concerns dealt with.making. Thus the majority of
Agencies initiating or implementingcommunity members feel they have
the ecotourism venture seek out thelittle or no say over whether the
opinions of community groupsecotourism initiative operates or the
(including special interest groups ofway in which it operates.
women, youths and other socially
disadvantaged groups) and provide
opportunities for them to be
represented on decision-making
bodies e.g. the Wildlife Park Board.



Environmental activities

WTTC concern:
• Political instability or increased competition for land could lead to loss of potential tourism
destinations and degradation of existing destinations
• Loss of landscape and wildlife could cause a decrease in customer satisfaction hence lower
propensity to travel
• Higher fuel prices could lead to operational price increases and corresponding decreases in
the number of travelers in this price-sensitive market

WTTC subsequently proceeds to examine the key environmental issues under five headings:
• Global warming
• Depletion of the ozone layer
• Acid rain
• Depletion and pollution of land resources
• Depletion and pollution of water resources

WTTC presents a positive vision of tourism and environment:
• Travel and tourism is an integral aspect of modern societies
• Global awareness of environmental damage is developing rapidly
• The resources of the world’s largest industry can and must be harnessed to achieve
environmental goals
• The industry has the potential to influence billions of customers per year and to use its
leverage to achieve beneficial environmental effects
• The customer challenge will exert a growing pressure to achieve environmental
improvements
• Environmental lobbies will add pressure to develop good environmental practice
• Self-regulation must be developed rapidly and effectively and used to influence the
development of appropriate and workable regulations
• Corporate environmental mission statements are a vital first step toward self-regulation
• Environmental leadership must come from the major international companies

Sustainable Development

Definition:
“The ability of a destination to maintain the quality of its physical, social, cultural and
environmental resources while it competes in the marketplace”

In discussing the responsibility for sustainable development in the field of special interest tourism -
the four main areas needs to be addressed:
• The premises on which sustainable development policy in tourism should be based
• The most critical areas of sustainable development as applied to special interest tourism
• How responsibility for sustainable development in tourism should be allocated
• An agenda of suggested sustainable development actions for the tourism sector

Agenda to support a sustainable development program:
• Maximum total visitation levels to a community/region
• An obligatory tax to support tourism infrastructure planning, development and maintenance
• Community-supported legislation to protect and preserve unique resources and heritage sites



• Community and industry consensus concerning architectural and signage standards
• Support for standards and certification programs that encourage staff development and the
delivery of high-quality service

Ecotourism

Definition:
“Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of
local people”

Should adhere to the following principles:
• Minimize impact
• Built environmental and cultural awareness and respect
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts
• Provide direct financial benefits for conservation
• Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people
• Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental and social climate
• Support international human rights and labor agreements

Benefits and importance of ecotourism:
• Provides job and income for local people
• Makes possible funds for purchasing and improving protected or natural areas to attract
more eco-tourists in the future
• Provides environmental education for visitors
• Encourage heritage and environmental preservation and enhancement

Dangers and limitations of ecotourism:
• Tourism may consume and over consume the resources that used by local people
• The local population and the tourists may competing for scarce natural resources
• Scientific knowledge of visitor impacts on remote areas
• Tourism is multifaceted industry and almost impossible to control

Tourists/visitors awareness

Influencing travel choices and visitor flows

Influencing travel choices and visitor flows means influencing the nature of trips taken. Key factors
relevant to sustainability include:
• When trips are taken: as already mentioned, travel out of season may often be more
sustainable.
• Places visited: strategic decisions should be taken about the level of visitation to be
encouraged in different areas. For example, visits to protected areas may be encouraged
because of the revenue they bring to conservation or, alternatively, they may need to be
discouraged because of the ecological sensitivity of the area.
• Transport used: the significantly greater environmental impact of travel by private car or air
compared with other forms of transport has already been mentioned.
• Operators and enterprises selected: encouraging visitors to select operators that follow
sustainability principles will make consumption more sustainable.



• Group size: in many places, larger volumes of people arriving at the same time can be more
disruptive to environments and communities.
• Length of stay: in general, longer trips may bring more benefits to host communities and be
more sustainable than short trips.

Influencing visitor behavior and awareness

Visitors should be encouraged to:
• Respect host communities and avoid all forms of disruptive behavior.
• Find out about the natural and historic heritage and culture of the area.
• Purchase local products.
• Reduce personal environmental impact—e.g. using water and energy sparingly, recycling
waste and not leaving litter.
• Follow good practice with respect to outdoor activities, including wildlife watching.
• Support conservation and social projects, financially or in other ways.

Code of Ethics for Tourists

 Enjoy our diverse natural and cultural heritage and help us to preserve it
 Assists us in conservation efforts through the efficient use of resources, including energy
and water
 Experience the friendliness of our people and the welcoming spirit of our communities. Help
us to preserve this attributes by respecting our traditions, customs and local regulations
 Avoid activities that threaten wildlife or plant populations or that may be potentially
damaging to our natural environment
 Select tourism products and services that demonstrate social, cultural and environmental
sensitivity

UNIT 4:



PARTICIPATION IN SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Examine and explore the factors that affect participation in special interest tourism:
demographic and market segmentation, socio-economics factors, social change and trends,
consumer behavior, increased disposable income and political stability
• Discuss on destination marketing, as well as the destination mix: attractions, facilities,
infrastructures, transportations and hospitality resources

Market segmentation

Market segmentation is a concept in economics and marketing. The strategy of market segmentation
recognizes that few vacation destination areas are universally acceptable and desired.

Therefore, rather than dissipate promotion resources by trying to please all travelers, specialist
providers should aim the promotional efforts specifically to the wants and needs of likely prospects.
An effective market strategy will determine exactly what the target markets will be and attempt to
reach only those markets.

Marketing researchers typically have two (2) objectives in this regard:
• To determine what segments or subgroups exist in the overall population
• To create a clear and complete picture of the characteristics of a typical member of each of
these segments

The target market is that segment of a total potential market to which the tourism attraction would
be most salable. A market segment is a sub-set of a market made up of people or organizations
sharing one or more characteristics that cause them to demand similar product and/or services based
on qualities of those products such as price or function.

A true market segment meets all the following criteria:
• It is distinct from other segments (different segments have different needs)
• It is homogenous within the segment (exhibit common needs)
• It respond similarly to a market stimulus
• It can be reached by a market intervention

Market segmentation can be defined as “the process of dividing a market into distinct groups of
buyers who might require separate products and/or marketing mixes”

Market segmentation analysis is typically based on the four factors of:

Factors Explanation
Socio-economic or Demographic Categorizes tourists based on their socio-economic characteristics
such as age, education, and income levels
Product-led segmentation Which relates to the types of tourists to the particular tourism
products such as attractions and facilities that the area has to offer
or can potentially offer
Psychographic Which involves grouping tourists by their attitudes, interest,
lifestyles and travel motivation
Geographic Which groups tourists by location of origin as related to the time-
distance and cost of traveling to the tourist destination, and also



considers the environmental and cultural contrast and similarities
between the origin and destination

Requirements for effective segmentation

1. Measurability - The degree to which the segment’s size and purchasing power can be
measured
2. Accessibility - Segments can be accessed and served
3. Substantiality - Segments are large or profitable enough to serve as markets
4. Actionability - Effective programs can be designed for attracting and serving segments
5. Differential - Segment must respond differently to different marketing mix elements and
programs

Market segmentation determinants in special interest tourism

Demographics

Demographics are the characteristics of a human population as used in the government, marketing
or opinion research. Commonly used data are sex, race, age, income, disabilities, mobility (in terms
of travel time to work or number of vehicles available), educational attainment, home ownership,
employment status and even location.

A demographic trend describes in a population over time i.e. the average age of a population may
increase or decrease over time. Certain restrictions may be set in place i.e. the one child policy in
China. Marketers typically combine several variables to define a demographic profile.

A demographic profile provides enough information about the typical member of this group to
create a mental picture of this hypothetical aggregate.

Socio-economic Factors

Socio-economics - The study of the relationship between economic activity and social life. In many
cases, socio-economic focus on the social impact of some sort of economic change. Such changes
might include: Closing factory, market manipulation, the signing of international trade treaties, new
natural gas regulation, etc

Examples of socio-economic impacts:
• New technologies such as cars or mobile phone
• Changes in laws



• Changes in the physical environment
• Ecological changes

These may affect patterns of consumption, the distribution of incomes and wealth, the way in which
people behave and the overall quality of life

Social Change and Trends

Sociology – is the study of society (to develop and refine a body of knowledge and theory about
human social activity, often with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of social
welfare).

Social change can be defined as alterations in basic structure of a social group or society. An ever
present phenomenon in social life, but has become especially intense in the modern era. Social
changes came about when individuals or groups choose to go against social norms. The concept of
social change implies measurement of some of the characteristics of a group of individuals.

Social change is a topic of sociology and social work, but also involves political science,
economics, history, anthropology, and many other social sciences.

Some of the social changes that may occur:

 A change in social structure: the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the
social relations of a society, community of people and so on
 When behavior patterns change in large numbers, and this change is visible and sustained:
once there is deviance from culturally-inherited values, rebellion against the established
system may result, resulting in a change in the social order
 Any event or action that affects a group of individuals who have shared values or
characteristics
 Acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a way subjectively perceived as
normatively desirable

Consumer Behavior

Consumer behavior is the when, why, how and where people do or do not buy products (blends
elements of psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics). It main roles:
• Attempts to understand the buyer decision making process, both individually and in groups
• Tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference
groups and society in general

Customer behavior study based on consumer buying behavior, with the customer playing the three
(3) distinct roles of (1) user, (2) payer and (3) buyer. Relationship marketing is an influential asset
for customer behavior analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-discovery of the true meaning of
marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer.

Belch and Belch define consumer behavior as “the process and activities people engage in when
searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services so as
to satisfy their needs and desires.



Below is the Black Box Model of consumer buying behavior.

Marketing Other Buyer’s
Buyer’s black box
Stimuli Stimuli Responses

Product choice
Product Economic
Brand choice
Price Technological
Dealer choice
Place Political Buyer
Buyer
Decision
Characteristics Purchase timing
Promotion Cultural Process
Purchase amount

Below is the buyer decision process:

Need Information Evaluation of Purchase Post-purchase
Recognition Search Alternatives Decision Behavior

1. Problem recognition
The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need
2. Information search
An aroused consumer may or may not search for more information. How much searching a
consumer does will depend on the strength of the drive, the amount of initial information,
the ease of obtaining more information, the value placed on additional information and the
satisfaction one gets from searching
3. Evaluations of alternatives
Unfortunately, there is no simple and single evaluation process used by all consumers or
even by one consumer in all buying situations. There are several evaluation processes:

Attitude of
Others
Purchase
Evaluation of Purchase
Decision
Alternatives Intention
Unexpected
Situational
Factors
4. Purchase decision
In the evaluation stage, the consumer ranks brands in the choice set and forms purchase
intentions. Generally, the consumer will buy the most preferred brand
5. Post-purchase behavior
The marketer’s job does not end when the customer buys a product. Following a purchase,
the consumer will be satisfied and dissatisfied and will engage in post-purchase actions of
significant interest to the marketer.

Below are the personal characteristics that will affect consumer behavior:


Cultural
Social
Personal
Psychological
Age and life-
cycle stage
Culture
Reference Motivation
Groups Occupation
Perception
Economic
Subculture Circumstances Buyer
Family Learning
Lifestyle Beliefs and
Roles and attitudes
Social class Personality and
Status
Self-concept

Cultural factors

• Culture - The most basic determinant of a person’s wants and behavior. It compromises the
basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviors that a person learns continuously in a society.
• Subculture - Each culture contains smaller subcultures, groups of people with shared value
systems based on common experience.
• Social classes - These are relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose
members share similar values, interests and behaviors.

Social factors

 Reference groups - These groups serve as direct (face to face) or direct point of comparison
or reference in the forming of a person’s attitude and behavior.
 Family - Family members have a strong influence on buyer behavior. The family remains
the most important consumer-buying organization in any society.
 Role and status - A role consists of the activities that a person is expected to perform
according to the persons around him or her. Each role carries a status reflecting the general
esteem given to it by society. People often choose products that show their status in society.

Personal factors

 Age and life-cycle stage - The types of goods and services people buy change during their
lifetimes. As people grow older and mature, the products they desire change. The makeup of
the family also affects purchasing behavior.
 Occupation - A person’s occupation affects the goods and services bought.
 Economic situation - A person’s economic situation greatly affects product choice and the
decision to purchase a particular product
 Environment - Many marketers use a concept related to personality: a person’s self-concept
(also called self-image). Each of us has a complex mental self-picture, and our behavior
tends to be consistent with that self-image.



 Lifestyle - Lifestyle profile a person’s whole pattern of acting and interacting in the world.
When used carefully, the lifestyle concept can help the marketer understand changing
consumer values and how they affect buying behavior.
 Personality and self-concept - Each person’s personality influences his or her buying
behavior. By personality we mean distinguishing psychological characteristics that disclose
a person’s relatively individualized, consistent and enduring responses.

Psychological factors

 Motivation - A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity.
Creating a tension state causes a person to act to release the tension.
 Perception - Perception is the process by which a person selects, organizes and interprets
information to create a meaningful picture of the world.
 Learning - Learning describes changes in a person’s behavior arising from experience.
 Beliefs and attitude - A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something.
An attitude describes a person’s relatively consistent evaluation, feelings and tendencies
toward an object or an idea.

Increased Disposable Income

Disposable income – total personal income minus personal current taxes. In national accounts
definition, personal income, minus personal taxes equals disposable personal income – subtracting
personal outlays (which includes the major category or personal/private consumption expenditure)
yields personal/private saving.

The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the fraction of a change in disposable income that is
consumed. Discretionary income is income after subtracting taxes and normal expenses (such as
rent or mortgage, utilities, insurance, medical, transportation, property maintenance and etc) to
maintain a certain standard of living . Commonly, disposable income is the amount of ‘play money’
left to spend or save.

Political Stability

A political system is a system of politics and government – usually compared to the legal system,
economic system, cultural system and other social systems.

There are several definitions of ‘political system’:
• A complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby
groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that
govern their functions (constitution, election law)
• Composed of the members of a social organization (group) who are in power
• A system that necessarily has two properties: (1) a set of interdependent components and (2)
boundaries toward the environment with which it interacts
• A concept in which theoretically regarded as a way of the government makes a policy and
also to make them more organized in their administration
• One that ensures the maintaining of order and sanity in the society and at the same time
makes it possible for some other institutions to also have their grievances and complaints put
across in the course of social existence


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