This was my final project for my sedimentary geology class. The task was to come up with an original research project that was based on a topic relevant to the environment.

1. Hofstra University : GEOL140: Paleoclimatology VOL. 21 doi:1029/2011GEOL1406873, 2011
Proposing the use of a global probe based network of durable
marine “laboratories” to quantify the global flux of
dimethylsulfide across the sea/air interface
S. LeoneA
A
Hofstra University Geology Department, Hempstead New York, USA
Abstract
As it stands now there are <1500 quality scientific papers written regarding the CLAW hypothesis,
many of which confirm the hypothesis. The hypothesis was conceived by four scientists: R.J. Charlson, J.
E. Lovelock, M. O. Andreae & S. G. Warren in a 1987 paper in Nature. The four last names of the
scientists make the acronym CLAW. This hypothesis provides a fascinating concept that there is a
complex interaction between marine organisms and the atmosphere that work together to oppose change in
a particular system through a series of feedback loops. Phytoplankton in the ocean produces
dymethylsulfide and dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMS/DMSP). These substances act as cloud
condensation nuclei (CCN). When there is an input of sunlight and an output of excessive phytoplankton,
the DMS/DMSP is released into the atmosphere and facilitates the formation of clouds. The clouds
increase albedo and cool the system. There is currently no consistent and unified global network of
sensors to provide real time data regarding the production of DMS/DMSP. Most of the data collected
regarding the concentrations and production of DMS/DMSP are from the Global Surface Sea water DMS
database (http://saga.pmel.noaa.gov/dms), other databases, satellite information, and measurements made
by individual researchers. The current collection of data is fairly accurate and is fit to be used in scientific
writing. The general consensus though among climate scientists specializing in research pertaining to
CLAW is that there needs to be a better data collection protocol and it needs to be implemented in a way
that will facilitate quick and accurate data collection. For this reason I propose that there be a global
network of renewably powered, remotely controlled “DMS laboratories” present in the ocean. The probes
will utilize CalTech’s “lab on a chip” technology to gain accurate real-time data that will quantify the
seawater DMS/DMSP distribution and its global flux across the sea/air interface.
Background attacked his views. The Gaia hypothesis is a
fairly controversial theory and its main critics
Other planets in this solar system may purport that it verges on being a quasi religious
have cores, and low-density atmospheres, but to belief and that it did not follow the reductionist
the best of our knowledge, Earth is the only approach of modern science. Over the past 20
planet that demonstrates such complex years the theory has begun to gain much wider
interactions between the living organisms and acceptance among the scientific community
their inorganic surroundings. This complex (Spowers 2000). Too lovelock though, it made
interaction creates sets of self-regulating perfect sense, especially in light of the fact that
phenomenon that sustain the life on Earth. he worked with NASA to find life on other
Similar beliefs have been held by various planets. The stark contrast drawn between the
indigenous cultures around the world throughout surface of planets like Venus and Mars
history. The first western scientific model to compared to the surface of the earth allowed him
describe this phenomenon was suggested by to realize just how incredible and unique our
James Lovelock. His theory that identifies and planet actually is.
attempts to quantify this global phenomenon is In a 2000 interview, Lovelock states that
known as the Gaia Hypothesis (GH). other planets seemed to be in a state of
Lovelock’s theory was inspired by his work with equilibrium. The atmospheres of planets like
NASA developing technology to detect life on Mars and Venus are composed entirely of
other planets. When he published his first paper carbon dioxide. This indicates a lifeless state.
on the topic in 1979, the scientific community Lovelock compares earths atmosphere to the gas

2. you put in your car. The rich mixture of oxygen into the atmosphere, oxidizes to form a sulfate
and hydrocarbons is akin to the fuel going into aerosol. This substance acts as a CCN. The
the intake manifold of a motor vehicle. The reflectance or albedo of clouds is responsive to
atmosphere on Mars though is composed of CCN density. Thus in turn the earth’s radiation
gasses akin to the exhaust of a car. From this he budget is sensitive to the presence of DMS due
believes life on mars and Venus exhausted itself to its impact on cloud formation. Regulation of
(Spowers 2000). This lead to the conclusion that the climate can be achieved by the feedback that
the onset of global warming is a huge problem, occurs through the effects of temperature and
in fact, in Lovelock’s opinion everything else is sunlight on the populations of phytoplankton
secondary to the problems of rising levels of and the production of DMS.
greenhouse gasses. He asserts that we are now Oceanic phytoplankton, if pushed to
in a state of “positive feedback” and that instead either extreme of their tolerance levels i.e. too
of mitigating the harm that is being done, the hot and sunny or too cold and dim, will respond
system is “actually increasing so that as it by varying their DMS emissions. This way they
warms, the systems are wiped out and the can increase or decrease the insolation hitting
process speeds up.”(Spowers 2000). In essence, the ocean surface by influencing the marine
treating this planet as a machine has gotten cloud reflectivity. By doing this, phytoplankton
humans into a lot of trouble. The Gaia effectively drive the system back towards their
hypothesis helps us to see that nature can indeed tolerance levels.
be seen as sacred and that there is still a lot we
don’t know. What we do know, though, is that
it’s important to assess the factors contributing
not only to the Gaia hypothesis but the entire
issue of climate change.
Lovelock’s theory of Gaia is quite broad.
One of the main terrestrial phenomenons that
Lovelock and many others have studied in depth
that contributes great insight into Gaia is the
“CLAW Hypothesis.” The letters that spell the
word “CLAW” are taken from the names of the
scientists that wrote a 1987 article in Nature
(Lovelock et. al. 1987). Before the CLAW
hypothesis can be fully explored, it is important
to examine the role of clouds in the atmosphere.
The way that clouds affect the warming and
cooling of the earth is hard enough to quantify.
Understanding the way that clouds affect the
warming and cooling of the earth in a warming
world is an even bigger uncertainty. One of the
main forcing on cloud properties is the existence
and concentration of a cloud condensation nuclei
(CCN). A CCN is a tiny particle present in the (Ayers et. al. 2007)
atmosphere that serves as a medium for the
nucleation of a water droplet that makes up a DMS in the atmosphere comes from the
cloud. ocean. When DMS is present in the ocean it is the
The basis of the CLAW hypothesis is the direct result of biological activity.
prospect that there are oceanic and atmospheric Dymethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) is the
systems that are coupled in such a way that precursor compound to DMS. DMSP is
opposes changes in climate. In the ocean there synthesized by phytoplankton and the amount of
are several thousand species of phytoplankton. DMSP present depends on the species of
These phytoplankton produce a substance called phytoplankton present. So far, direct emission of
dimethylsulfide (DMS). DMS, once released DMS from phytoplankton has been observed in a
laboratory setting. It has not, however, been
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3. observed in the oceans. It is also likely that the Once the DMSP is in the water, there are
action of grazing zooplankton and viruses have an several processes that convert the substance into
affect on the phytoplankton community that yields DMS. The complexity of the process is what is
substantial levels of DMSP in the water. It is important to note for the purposes of this paper.
typical that the higher levels of DMSP and DMS The early work in understanding the processes
usually correlate with the onset of a plankton was based in physics and utilized different
bloom. variables pertaining to wind speed, solubility of
In light of the fact that there has been no DMS and other factors. Fully understanding the
direct observation of DMS/DMSP production in complexities of the sea-air interface, knowing
phytoplankton in the oceans, it is important to what we already know poses a significant
implement a system that will allow real time challenge. A major difficulty in obtaining DMS
quantification of the levels of DMS/DMSP, the measurements from the water is the wind speed
presence of viruses, the grazing zooplankton, the associated with oceans experiencing large blooms.
temperature and sunlight concentration in a The safety of scientists and observation platforms
particular location. A. Lana et. al. in their 2011 is a main concern and so until Ayers et. al. in
paper utilized state of the art climatological 1995 determined certain micrometeorological
records and interpolation/extrapolation techniques techniques to gain a better understanding of this
to carry out their research. They identified several flux. Still, the techniques are only predictions
significant issues with the current state of the based on proxies of eddy accumulation and eddy
databases and individual measurements used for covariance.
their research. There doesn’t seem to be any
quality control in the database and a lack of Motivation:
unification of the DMS measurement protocol. The anthropogenic influence on the atmosphere
This is troubling to many for it retards any is predicted to lead to significant changes global
research attempts regarding oceanic DMS/DMSP climatic conditions. Roughly half of the current carbon
concentrations. dioxide emissions are being absorbed by the ocean and
by land ecosystems. This absorption is sensitive to
In addition to a lack of a unified measurement
climate as well as to atmospheric carbon dioxide
protocol, the role of DMSP or DMS in plankton concentrations. This creates a feedback loop. (Cox et.
physiology is still unclear (Ayers et. al. 2007). It al. 2000) The CLAW hypothesis though, has a
is hypothesized that the conversion of DMSP to counterpart: the Anti-CLAW hypothesis. Lovelock
DMS may have something to do with relieving contends that the constituents of the CLAW hypothesis
oxidative stress following exposure to UV will reverse from their current state of negative feedback
radiation, nutrient limitation, or changes in and wind up acting as a positive feedback loop
surface temperature. It has also been suggested (Lovelock 2007). Considering the evidence of increased
that DMSP has osmoregulative properties or is a atmospheric carbon presented by Cox et.al. and the fact
carrier in organic sulfur cycling. (S. M. Vallina that as of now, there is a predicted increase in global
et. al. 2007) temperature, it is likely that world oceans may
The fact that the role of DMSP and DMS in stratify.
(Lovelock 2007)
plankton is unclear makes it difficult to
understand how the emission of DMSP or DMS
from plankton would change as the surface water
environment changed in response to climate
change. It would be important to know if
changing certain oceanic conditions would alter
the plankton community in such a way that would
promote species of plankton that were higher
emitters of DMSP or DMS. In addition it would
be of note to determine the extent to which
increasing acidity would have on phytoplankton
communities and their emission of DMSP, for
deformed plankton have been observed. (Norris
2003)
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4. This would reduce the supply of nutrients that up energy back as outgoing long-wave (infrared)
well from the deep. These nutrients are key for the radiation, also known as terrestrial radiation.
proper functioning of phytoplankton in its euphotic Albedo is an important factor in the radiation
zone. In a CLAW hypothesis reversal, this would balance, and clouds have the major effect on
lead to a decline in phytoplankton activity and thus albedo. The optical properties of a cloud are a key
less DMS production. If there is less DMS present issue to understanding and therefore predicting
in the atmosphere there will be less cloud global climate change. A cloud's optical properties
formation and so less albedo. The problem with are related to the size distribution and number of its
this is that the lack of cloud cover will potentially droplets. The more cloud condensation nuclei, the
lead to further climate warming. This in turn, will smaller the size of its water droplets and the higher
continue to reduce the global production of DMS. the density of water droplets since the same
amount of water vapor is distributed among a
greater number of CCN. This affects the radiative
properties (reflectance, transmittance and
absorbance) of the cloud. Because of the vast
amount of atmosphere between the sea and space,
there is a lot of room for cloud activity. When the
clouds are low and thick, they act as shields,
blocking and reflecting insolation into space. This
in turn cools the planet. When clouds are high up,
they can also trap the outgoing heat, which is in the
form of longwave radiation. This warms the
planet. On the whole, data suggests that clouds
have a general net cooling effect on the planet
(Norris 2003).
Climate scientists have realized that
current models had a poor ability to accurately
reproduce the effect of clouds. For this reason,
scientists have made it a priority to measure and
understand more about clouds physical properties
and radiative fluxes. Programs like CERES, and
the IRI/LDEO Climate Data Library are observing
clouds from space in order to more accurately
quantify cloud properties and their respective effect
on albedo. If a more accurate model of cloud
physics can be expressed, scientists will be able to
construct more accurate simulations of climate
budget and projections of change. Based on what
we have learned over the years in regard to the
CLAW hypothesis, it is likely that DMS has an
Having a global network of biosensors can influence on the global heat budget and the
help keep scientists savvy to the changes occurring hydrological cycle due to its impact on cloud
in real time. The radiation balance has a formation. In order to understand how any CLAW
fundamental effect on Earth's climate. About one related feedback mechanism (positive or negative)
third of the solar radiation that reaches the Earth is between the plankton population and the
reflected back into space by clouds and from earth atmosphere might operate, it is vital that the
surfaces, such as ice and snow. The atmosphere biological role of DMS/DMSP within the cells of
absorbs some solar energy, but most of the other plankton is clarified. The reason for this is because
two thirds is absorbed by the land and oceans, the biological role of DMS/DMSP in plankton is
which are warmed by the sunlight (Norris 2003). inextricably tied to how the feedback between
The sun's energy is converted into heat, and the biology and atmosphere may respond to
land and oceans then radiate a portion of this environmental changes. It seems that an
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5. understanding of this feedback process in the There will be an onboard computer with
CLAW hypothesis remains elusive (Ayers et. al. power efficient processors capable of dynamically
2007). Being able to accurately quantify the adjusting their frequencies to reduce energy
amount of DMS being produced in real time all consumption. These chips will likely be akin to the
across the globe will be a vital contribution to the A5 processing chips at the heart of Apple’s iPad’s
climate science community. and iPhones. Because accurate location
Currently, some of the most recent quantification will be necessary, the units will be
research in the field has come from data contained equipped with onboard GPS chips in order to
in the Global Surface Sea water DMS Database. convey precise global coordinates at any time.
Simo et. Al. states that there is no quality control in The super computer used for this research
the database. This was worth stressing because will be a Cray XT system. Similar systems have
there doesn’t seem to be unification of the DMS been installed at several operational meteorological
measurement protocol, and very few and hydrological services and leading climate
intercalibration exercises have been conducted in research centers worldwide. Examples include but
the last 30 years. Furthermore, a number of are not limited too, NOAA, NCAR, Korea
sampling and analytical issues have been reported Meteorological Administration (KMA), Brazilian
in recent years. For this reason it is important to National Institute for Space Research (INPE) and
have a definitive, reliable, and long lasting network Center for Weather Forecasts and Climate Studies
of instruments that provide real time analysis of the (CPTEC), Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI),
DMS/DMSP sea and air measurements. This will and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
help to assess health of the planet based on the (NAVO). (Nyberg 2010)
progression of cloud formation and earths radiation In order for the unit to be able to
balance. In addition it will continue to support communicate with the central data collection server
James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis. it will utilize very low frequency (VLF)
transmission to land based towers, which will then
Proposal for new research be able to route the data to a server linked to a
Using modified “lab on a chip” technology super computer to analyze the collected data. The
developed by CalTech (Liu et. al. 2009) to reason VLF transmissions were chosen as the
effectively create a network of interconnected, transmission medium is because they are often
centrally linked “microlabs” to measure levels of used in Integrated Communication Systems (ICS)
DMS and DMSP in phytoplankton on a global for naval vessels and HF ground-to-air
scale. The labs will be encapsulated in a specific applications. The technology will likely come from
vessel designed for durability and ease of Hagenuk Marinekommunikation (HMK). The
maintenance and potential retrofitting. The vessel company has provided solutions for more than 25
will also be equipped with a propulsion system, navies throughout the world who now rely on the
which draws energy from solar power, tidal high level of technical expertise of HMK. Over
currents, or both. The unit will not only be able to 540 systems have been delivered for all classes of
run real time collection and transmission of DMS ships, including 117 submarine systems.
and DMSP data, it will be able to determine the Moreover, HMK provides a full service package
effects of CO2 concentrations, sunlight, grazing including feasibility studies, system engineering,
zooplankton, temperature and viral lysis on the hardware and software design, production, system
production, dissemination and oxidation of DMS integration and setting to work as well as
and DMSP. integrated logistics combined with comprehensive
In order to accomplish this, the unit will be after sales services over the whole product life
equipped with several sensors, including but not cycle. Lastly, the technology that allows user
limited too, a PH sensor, a thermometer, a interface with the VLF system can be a single
photometer, a salt refractometer, a current speed workstation that is expandable to a networking
sensor, and a heavy metal sensor. The unit will multi-console client/server configuration that,
also be able to rise to the surface and extend a according to the contractor, provides sophisticated
probe into the atmosphere in order to collect data automated communications support for naval
regarding the concentrations of DMS/DMSP in the applications. The solutions offered by HMK
air directly above a particular system. posses the reliability of a company providing for
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6. the United States navy, and the customizability one phenomenon out of the trillions that exist on
necessary for such a specific application. this planet, it is a step in the right direction.
The communication ability of the units
will boast two way transmission capabilities for References
the obvious purpose of relaying collected
information back to the server, and the less "Hagenuk Marinekommunikation - Naval VLF and SHF Radio
obvious ability to receive remote course and Equipment." Naval Technology. Hagenuk
Marinekommunikation. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.<http://www.naval-
speed commands from a controlling computer. technology.com/contractors/navigation/hagenuk/>.
This system would ideally be composed of
several hundred of these units to create a global Greg p. Ayers, Jill M. Cainey (2007) “The CLAW hypothesis: a review of
network. Ideally a climate scientist would be the major developments”, Research Front, 4, 366-374
able to identify one singular, or several units in
Lana, A, G Bell, R Simo, M Vallina, and L Bopp 2011"An updated
one of the many strategically placed locations climatology of surface dimethlysulfide concentrations and
and have full control over the device(s). This emission fluxes in the global ocean” Global Biogeochemical
will allow for a level of accurate, real time Cycles. 25. 1-17.
climatic data collection never before achieved. Lovelock, James (2007). The Revenge of Gaia. Penguin.
The reason each unit has its own ISBN 0141025972.
propulsion system, whether it be a set of Mike Liu et. al. (2009) “Field Operational Sensor and Lab-on-a-Chip
propellers or a series of pumps and jets is so the System for Marine Environmental Monitoring and Analysis”
units can maintain one fixed position in the sea, CENS 1-3
or move about the sea for however long a certain Norris, Katina B. "Dimethylsulfide Emission: Climate Control by Marine
experiment or research project dictates. Algae." CSA. ProQuest, Nov. 2003. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.
An example of the novel application of <http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/dimethyl/overview.php>.
this technology is the fact that so far there is no Per Nyberg (2010) “Cray Supercomputers in Climate”, Weather and
system of interconnected, un-tethered, real time Ocean Modeling Cray 1-6
data collecting mechanisms of this scale. There Peter M. Cox, Richard A. Betts, Chris D. Jones, Steven A. Spall, & Ian J.
have been global collaborations of many Totterdell (2000) “Acceleration of global warming due to
different scientists and instrumental records, but carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model” Nature, 408,
184-187
the ingenuity behind this concept is to have one
place for scientists to go to analyze the real time R. J. Charlson, J. E. Lovelock, M. O. Andreae & S. G. Warren (1987)
data of the DMS/DMSP concentrations and a “Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and
climate”, Nature, 326: 655-661
other measurable factors in the marine climate
system. The information can easily be archived Rory Spowers (2000) “Interview: Living Planet” Geographical 25-27
and made public for all scientists and individuals S.M. Vallina, R. Simo, S. Gasso, C. de Boyer-Montegut et. al. (2007)
who may not have the means to get to the “Analysis of a potential “solar radiation dose-dimethylsulfide-
supercomputer that all the units are linked to. cloud condensation nuclei” link from globally mapped seasonal
correlations” Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 21, 1-16
Furthermore, the main goal of this global
network is to have the ability to monitor the Vallina, M, and R Simo. "What controls CCN seasonality in the Southern
health of the planet. The possibility of the Ocean? A statistical analysis based on satellite-derived
chlorophyll and CCN and model-estimated OH radical and
oceanic feedback loop reversing and creating rainfall." Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 20. 1-13.
another system that subjects this planet to
unnecessary temperature increases is very real.
James Lovelock is not the only scientist who is
concerned with the future of our climate system.
Although any scientist knows that the planet will
survive long after humans are extinct, the focus
of preventing climate change is to ensure the
prosperity of humans and all other organic life
alike. It is not farfetched that at some point the
earth may shrug humans off its proverbial
shoulder. This is why this proposal is so
important. Although it is serving to quantify but
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