Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater.[1] A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances.
Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states.[2] Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater.[3] Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide.[4]
Use of groundwater has related environmental issues. For example, polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Additionally, groundwater is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like Bangkok)) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California). These issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other changes caused by climate changes which will affect the water cycle.
The document discusses freshwater systems and distribution, explaining that only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater and most of that is frozen. It then covers topics like human reliance on freshwater sources, water scarcity around the world, watersheds and river basins, the water cycle, groundwater systems, and factors that affect water quality. Videos and links are provided throughout to supplement the textual information on various freshwater topics.
Chapter 4 water and its management [autosaved]Lunz70
Water is essential for life but its distribution and management poses challenges. Most water (97%) is saline and found in oceans, while only 3% is freshwater. Much of this is frozen in ice caps and glaciers, leaving less than 1% accessible for human use. Water scarcity varies globally, with some regions and countries having more than enough while others lack access to even basic supplies. Proper sanitation and water treatment are needed to provide safe drinking water and prevent water-borne diseases worldwide. Dams can support water storage and uses like hydroelectric power but also have environmental and social impacts requiring careful planning and management.
This document provides information about water quality and issues affecting the Yadkin River watershed. It discusses how human activities like urbanization, agriculture, and industry introduce pollution into surface and groundwater sources. Specific issues impacting the Yadkin River watershed include high levels of nutrients and turbidity, toxic levels of mercury in fish, and coal ash spills from Duke Energy power plants contaminating the river. Maintaining water quality requires addressing both point source pollution from facilities and non-point source pollution from activities like construction and failing septic systems.
Chapter 1.pptx:INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGYmulugeta48
For knowing the sources of water in an area.
For knowing quality and quantity of water in an area.
For distribution of river water for full filling of different
area`s forming needs.
Tremendous importance is given to the hydrology all over
the world in the development and management of water
resources for irrigation, water supply, flood control, waterlogging
and salinity control, Hydro power and navigation.
The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site
and its frequency; this is required for the safe design of
drains and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and other
flood control structures.
is fundamental to the functioning of the Earth as it recycles water, and has a role in modifying and regulating the Earth's climate.
This document provides an introduction to a course on environmental issues related to the textile industry. It covers various topics related to water pollution, including unusual properties of water, the hydrologic cycle, stocks of water on Earth, water usage, and types of water pollutants such as pathogens, oxygen demanding wastes, and nutrients. The course modules will address issues like air, water, and noise pollution from different textile industry processes; environmental management systems; eco-labeling; cleaner production technologies; effluent treatment; and occupational health and safety.
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERINGCtKamariahMdSaat
This document provides an overview of a course on hydrology and water resources engineering. It includes a 3-paragraph summary of the course content, which introduces principles of surface water hydrology and applications in water resources engineering. It also covers hydrologic analysis and frequency analysis for water management design. Applications include irrigation, reservoir design, and flood management. The document further outlines 4 course outcomes relating to analyzing hydrologic cycles, assessing hydrological data, designing solutions to hydrology problems, and using hydrologic analysis techniques. It concludes by listing the course assessment breakdown and textbooks for the course.
The document discusses freshwater systems and distribution, explaining that only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater and most of that is frozen. It then covers topics like human reliance on freshwater sources, water scarcity around the world, watersheds and river basins, the water cycle, groundwater systems, and factors that affect water quality. Videos and links are provided throughout to supplement the textual information on various freshwater topics.
Chapter 4 water and its management [autosaved]Lunz70
Water is essential for life but its distribution and management poses challenges. Most water (97%) is saline and found in oceans, while only 3% is freshwater. Much of this is frozen in ice caps and glaciers, leaving less than 1% accessible for human use. Water scarcity varies globally, with some regions and countries having more than enough while others lack access to even basic supplies. Proper sanitation and water treatment are needed to provide safe drinking water and prevent water-borne diseases worldwide. Dams can support water storage and uses like hydroelectric power but also have environmental and social impacts requiring careful planning and management.
This document provides information about water quality and issues affecting the Yadkin River watershed. It discusses how human activities like urbanization, agriculture, and industry introduce pollution into surface and groundwater sources. Specific issues impacting the Yadkin River watershed include high levels of nutrients and turbidity, toxic levels of mercury in fish, and coal ash spills from Duke Energy power plants contaminating the river. Maintaining water quality requires addressing both point source pollution from facilities and non-point source pollution from activities like construction and failing septic systems.
Chapter 1.pptx:INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGYmulugeta48
For knowing the sources of water in an area.
For knowing quality and quantity of water in an area.
For distribution of river water for full filling of different
area`s forming needs.
Tremendous importance is given to the hydrology all over
the world in the development and management of water
resources for irrigation, water supply, flood control, waterlogging
and salinity control, Hydro power and navigation.
The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site
and its frequency; this is required for the safe design of
drains and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and other
flood control structures.
is fundamental to the functioning of the Earth as it recycles water, and has a role in modifying and regulating the Earth's climate.
This document provides an introduction to a course on environmental issues related to the textile industry. It covers various topics related to water pollution, including unusual properties of water, the hydrologic cycle, stocks of water on Earth, water usage, and types of water pollutants such as pathogens, oxygen demanding wastes, and nutrients. The course modules will address issues like air, water, and noise pollution from different textile industry processes; environmental management systems; eco-labeling; cleaner production technologies; effluent treatment; and occupational health and safety.
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERINGCtKamariahMdSaat
This document provides an overview of a course on hydrology and water resources engineering. It includes a 3-paragraph summary of the course content, which introduces principles of surface water hydrology and applications in water resources engineering. It also covers hydrologic analysis and frequency analysis for water management design. Applications include irrigation, reservoir design, and flood management. The document further outlines 4 course outcomes relating to analyzing hydrologic cycles, assessing hydrological data, designing solutions to hydrology problems, and using hydrologic analysis techniques. It concludes by listing the course assessment breakdown and textbooks for the course.
The document provides a review of key concepts covered in Modules 9 through 16 of an Earth and Environmental Science course in preparation for a final exam. It includes the following topics: ocean currents, water density and salinity, beach erosion, upwelling, fresh water resources, the water cycle, atmospheric gases, climate and biomes, air pollution, meteorology, planetary motion, and the sun's energy. Diagrams, images, and brief explanations are provided for each topic. The review is intended to refresh students' memories on important concepts from multiple modules in preparation for the comprehensive final exam.
This document provides an outline for a chapter on water resources and pollution. It begins by listing learning outcomes related to water sources and usage, shortages, conservation, pollution sources and effects, and pollution control. It then covers topics like where water comes from, major water stores, availability and human usage, causes of shortages like drought and overuse. It discusses pollution from biological, chemical and physical sources, and methods to reduce pollution through improved infrastructure and regulations.
Hydrology is the study of water on Earth through its distribution and circulation in different states as part of the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through various stages including precipitation, runoff, infiltration, storage, evaporation, and reprecipitation. Hydrology concerns itself with three forms of water: atmospheric water or precipitation above land, surface water or runoff on land, and ground water or percolation below land. The major components of the hydrologic cycle that drive this continuous movement of water are precipitation, interception, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, percolation, runoff, and moisture storage. Hydrology has many applications including designing
This document discusses various topics related to freshwater resources including the hydrologic cycle, major water compartments, water use, freshwater shortages, dams and diversions, water management strategies for businesses, and potential alternative water supply options. It notes that only 0.5% of the world's water is available as freshwater with the majority located in oceans, glaciers, wetlands and the atmosphere. Growing shortages are exacerbated by climate change impacts and increasing water demands, posing risks to businesses reliant on water supplies. Strategies like measuring water footprints, risk assessment, stakeholder engagement and disclosure are recommended for sustainable water management.
This document provides an overview of water quality and sources. It discusses the water cycle, surface water features like rivers and watersheds, and groundwater systems like aquifers. It then covers topics like water monitoring, pollution sources, and current issues affecting the Yadkin River watershed like urbanization, coal ash spills, and emerging contaminants like GenX. Videos and links are provided for additional information.
- 96.5% of Earth's total water is stored in the oceans. The volume of the oceans changes over time due to glacial and interglacial periods which cause sea levels to rise and fall.
- Evaporation and transpiration are the two processes that change liquid water into vapor that can rise into the atmosphere, with 90% from evaporation and 10% from transpiration.
- Only 0.001% of Earth's total water volume is stored in the atmosphere, with the vast majority found in the oceans, glaciers, ice caps, and groundwater.
The Indian Point Nuclear Power Plant uses over 2 billion gallons of water per day from the Hudson River to cool its reactors. The water is returned to the river at a temperature 20-30 degrees hotter, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. It provides up to 30% of New York City's electricity but its license expires in 2013. Over $100 billion will be spent to clean up radioactive waste at the Hanford Site in Washington, where plutonium was produced for nuclear weapons from 1943 to 1987 and over 50 million gallons of waste remains. Earth's atmosphere helps regulate temperatures and the ozone layer protects the surface from harmful radiation.
Hydrological Cycle give knowledge about how water evaporate transpiration and precipitate in atmosphere...It is also give ratios and percentage of water stored in different region how we can utilize it from this cycle, It is complete study of Water cycle travelling in earths surface and sub-surface.
The document provides information about World Water Day, which is celebrated annually on March 22nd to raise awareness about the importance of fresh water. It discusses the current issues around global water scarcity, highlighting that over 1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water. 21 ways to conserve water at home are suggested, such as taking shorter showers, fixing leaks, and using water-wise plants in landscaping. The document also examines past water conflicts and predicts increased tensions over water resources in the future if issues of scarcity, pollution, and sustainability are not adequately addressed.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
This document summarizes key points about water quality and sources. It describes the hydrological cycle and sources of potable water including surface water and ground water. It discusses water treatment processes used to make water safe for consumption and potential contaminants in water including chemicals, pathogens, and pollution. Waterborne diseases like cryptosporidiosis and cholera are explained. Issues around water scarcity, coastal pollution, and ensuring access to safe drinking water are also summarized.
Water Matters , Episode II 1-29-2016 Prof Sarah Meyland on Managing Long Isl...Save The Great South Bay
Long Island relies solely on groundwater stored in three aquifers for its drinking water supply. Groundwater is recharged through rainfall but over-pumping has caused quantity issues like saltwater intrusion in some areas. Human activities and pollution also threaten water quality. A Long Island Aquifer Management Compact is proposed to oversee groundwater use, develop management plans, study the aquifer systems, and protect this critical resource from overuse and contamination. The Compact would monitor conditions, educate the public, and represent Long Island's water interests.
This document discusses access to freshwater around the world. Only a small percentage of Earth's total water is freshwater, and its distribution is inequitable with many less economically developed countries lacking access. The turnover time, or time it takes for water to cycle from one part of the hydrologic cycle to another, varies significantly from 10,000 years for ice caps to just 12 days for rivers and the atmosphere. Increasing water usage in many areas is threatening sustainability as populations rise without adequate conservation efforts. The case study of Mexico City illustrates some of these challenges as groundwater is overexploited and wastewater is increasingly reused to try and meet the needs of the large population.
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
This document provides an overview of hydrology and water resources in Ethiopia. It defines hydrology and the hydrologic cycle. It describes the components of a catchment or drainage basin including area, stream order, drainage density, stream density, watershed length and shape factors. It discusses Ethiopia's water resources including its 12 river basins, annual rainfall distribution, groundwater resources and major catchments. Key points are that Ethiopia has abundant surface and groundwater resources, 80-90% of surface water is generated in the western and southwestern basins, and high fluoride concentrations are common in the Rift Valley.
Hydrology is the study of water flow across and through near-surface environments. The document discusses key aspects of the hydrologic cycle including precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, runoff processes, factors affecting water movement in soils, groundwater flow, and human impacts. It provides explanations and examples of different types of precipitation, runoff, and groundwater mechanisms. Dams and their various structures are also described along with issues like leakages and safety considerations in seismic areas.
This document discusses the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) capabilities needed to support future exploration beyond the International Space Station. It provides an overview of current ECLSS capabilities on the ISS and describes additional capabilities needed for longer duration missions with transit times of 1-3 years. These include improved atmosphere management, water recycling, waste management, and monitoring systems. The document outlines ECLSS development plans and projects using the ISS as a testbed and highlights ways ECLSS technologies have benefited communities on Earth through water purification and disaster relief efforts.
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. The three main stages are evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration move water from oceans and plants into the atmosphere, where water vapor condenses and falls as precipitation. Precipitation provides the primary mechanism for delivering atmospheric water to the Earth's surface, where it runs off into streams and rivers or infiltrates into soils and groundwater. The hydrologic cycle is powered by energy from the sun and is crucial for sustaining life on Earth.
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Most of the Earth's water (96.5%) is stored in oceans. A small fraction of water is present in the atmosphere, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and glaciers at any given time. The hydrologic cycle involves the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, streamflow, and runoff that redistribute water throughout the planet.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
The document provides a review of key concepts covered in Modules 9 through 16 of an Earth and Environmental Science course in preparation for a final exam. It includes the following topics: ocean currents, water density and salinity, beach erosion, upwelling, fresh water resources, the water cycle, atmospheric gases, climate and biomes, air pollution, meteorology, planetary motion, and the sun's energy. Diagrams, images, and brief explanations are provided for each topic. The review is intended to refresh students' memories on important concepts from multiple modules in preparation for the comprehensive final exam.
This document provides an outline for a chapter on water resources and pollution. It begins by listing learning outcomes related to water sources and usage, shortages, conservation, pollution sources and effects, and pollution control. It then covers topics like where water comes from, major water stores, availability and human usage, causes of shortages like drought and overuse. It discusses pollution from biological, chemical and physical sources, and methods to reduce pollution through improved infrastructure and regulations.
Hydrology is the study of water on Earth through its distribution and circulation in different states as part of the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through various stages including precipitation, runoff, infiltration, storage, evaporation, and reprecipitation. Hydrology concerns itself with three forms of water: atmospheric water or precipitation above land, surface water or runoff on land, and ground water or percolation below land. The major components of the hydrologic cycle that drive this continuous movement of water are precipitation, interception, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, percolation, runoff, and moisture storage. Hydrology has many applications including designing
This document discusses various topics related to freshwater resources including the hydrologic cycle, major water compartments, water use, freshwater shortages, dams and diversions, water management strategies for businesses, and potential alternative water supply options. It notes that only 0.5% of the world's water is available as freshwater with the majority located in oceans, glaciers, wetlands and the atmosphere. Growing shortages are exacerbated by climate change impacts and increasing water demands, posing risks to businesses reliant on water supplies. Strategies like measuring water footprints, risk assessment, stakeholder engagement and disclosure are recommended for sustainable water management.
This document provides an overview of water quality and sources. It discusses the water cycle, surface water features like rivers and watersheds, and groundwater systems like aquifers. It then covers topics like water monitoring, pollution sources, and current issues affecting the Yadkin River watershed like urbanization, coal ash spills, and emerging contaminants like GenX. Videos and links are provided for additional information.
- 96.5% of Earth's total water is stored in the oceans. The volume of the oceans changes over time due to glacial and interglacial periods which cause sea levels to rise and fall.
- Evaporation and transpiration are the two processes that change liquid water into vapor that can rise into the atmosphere, with 90% from evaporation and 10% from transpiration.
- Only 0.001% of Earth's total water volume is stored in the atmosphere, with the vast majority found in the oceans, glaciers, ice caps, and groundwater.
The Indian Point Nuclear Power Plant uses over 2 billion gallons of water per day from the Hudson River to cool its reactors. The water is returned to the river at a temperature 20-30 degrees hotter, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. It provides up to 30% of New York City's electricity but its license expires in 2013. Over $100 billion will be spent to clean up radioactive waste at the Hanford Site in Washington, where plutonium was produced for nuclear weapons from 1943 to 1987 and over 50 million gallons of waste remains. Earth's atmosphere helps regulate temperatures and the ozone layer protects the surface from harmful radiation.
Hydrological Cycle give knowledge about how water evaporate transpiration and precipitate in atmosphere...It is also give ratios and percentage of water stored in different region how we can utilize it from this cycle, It is complete study of Water cycle travelling in earths surface and sub-surface.
The document provides information about World Water Day, which is celebrated annually on March 22nd to raise awareness about the importance of fresh water. It discusses the current issues around global water scarcity, highlighting that over 1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water. 21 ways to conserve water at home are suggested, such as taking shorter showers, fixing leaks, and using water-wise plants in landscaping. The document also examines past water conflicts and predicts increased tensions over water resources in the future if issues of scarcity, pollution, and sustainability are not adequately addressed.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
This document summarizes key points about water quality and sources. It describes the hydrological cycle and sources of potable water including surface water and ground water. It discusses water treatment processes used to make water safe for consumption and potential contaminants in water including chemicals, pathogens, and pollution. Waterborne diseases like cryptosporidiosis and cholera are explained. Issues around water scarcity, coastal pollution, and ensuring access to safe drinking water are also summarized.
Water Matters , Episode II 1-29-2016 Prof Sarah Meyland on Managing Long Isl...Save The Great South Bay
Long Island relies solely on groundwater stored in three aquifers for its drinking water supply. Groundwater is recharged through rainfall but over-pumping has caused quantity issues like saltwater intrusion in some areas. Human activities and pollution also threaten water quality. A Long Island Aquifer Management Compact is proposed to oversee groundwater use, develop management plans, study the aquifer systems, and protect this critical resource from overuse and contamination. The Compact would monitor conditions, educate the public, and represent Long Island's water interests.
This document discusses access to freshwater around the world. Only a small percentage of Earth's total water is freshwater, and its distribution is inequitable with many less economically developed countries lacking access. The turnover time, or time it takes for water to cycle from one part of the hydrologic cycle to another, varies significantly from 10,000 years for ice caps to just 12 days for rivers and the atmosphere. Increasing water usage in many areas is threatening sustainability as populations rise without adequate conservation efforts. The case study of Mexico City illustrates some of these challenges as groundwater is overexploited and wastewater is increasingly reused to try and meet the needs of the large population.
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
This document provides an overview of hydrology and water resources in Ethiopia. It defines hydrology and the hydrologic cycle. It describes the components of a catchment or drainage basin including area, stream order, drainage density, stream density, watershed length and shape factors. It discusses Ethiopia's water resources including its 12 river basins, annual rainfall distribution, groundwater resources and major catchments. Key points are that Ethiopia has abundant surface and groundwater resources, 80-90% of surface water is generated in the western and southwestern basins, and high fluoride concentrations are common in the Rift Valley.
Hydrology is the study of water flow across and through near-surface environments. The document discusses key aspects of the hydrologic cycle including precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, runoff processes, factors affecting water movement in soils, groundwater flow, and human impacts. It provides explanations and examples of different types of precipitation, runoff, and groundwater mechanisms. Dams and their various structures are also described along with issues like leakages and safety considerations in seismic areas.
This document discusses the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) capabilities needed to support future exploration beyond the International Space Station. It provides an overview of current ECLSS capabilities on the ISS and describes additional capabilities needed for longer duration missions with transit times of 1-3 years. These include improved atmosphere management, water recycling, waste management, and monitoring systems. The document outlines ECLSS development plans and projects using the ISS as a testbed and highlights ways ECLSS technologies have benefited communities on Earth through water purification and disaster relief efforts.
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. The three main stages are evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration move water from oceans and plants into the atmosphere, where water vapor condenses and falls as precipitation. Precipitation provides the primary mechanism for delivering atmospheric water to the Earth's surface, where it runs off into streams and rivers or infiltrates into soils and groundwater. The hydrologic cycle is powered by energy from the sun and is crucial for sustaining life on Earth.
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Most of the Earth's water (96.5%) is stored in oceans. A small fraction of water is present in the atmosphere, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and glaciers at any given time. The hydrologic cycle involves the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, streamflow, and runoff that redistribute water throughout the planet.
Similaire à [3-1] Lee&Schwartz lecture files.pdf (20)
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as t...vijaykumar292010
RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as the Directive 2002/95/EC. It includes the restrictions for the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. RoHS is a WEEE (Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment).
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
5. 5
Personal Issues
• Water and health
- poor quality water has health implications
- agrochemicals, trace pharmaceuticals
- standing water, mosquitoes West Nile virus:
water-born disease
• Water and safety
- floods can kill
- storm surge with hurricanes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RE7OK9sMDvo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fFdDTxlQ3Jc
6. 6
• Water and Money
- choice of a house
- choice of recreational
property
- insurance coverage
- basement flooding
Minn. Public
Radio
7. 7
Water and Business
• Site Development
- formerly used sites contaminated
- costs of flooding, droughts
- industrial processes need reliable water, shut
down in drought
• Risky Sites
- disrupted transportation
- flooded sites
8. 8
Water More Generally
• Water and politics: Water Conflicts
- continuous fights over water everywhere
- whose water will be grabbed how much $$
- Endangered Species Act (ESA) protects critically
endangered species from extinction – FWS, NOAA
- Clean Water Act (CWA) protects quality of
receiving water body through NPDES permit - EPA
• Water and poverty
- people many countries in world suffer from
inadequate water supplies
9. 9
Water Resources
• Why know about water?
• Water availability
• Water issues around the world
• Hydrologic or water cycle
10. 10
Occurrence of water
• Total volume of water: 323 million mi3
• 97% in the ocean
• 3% fresh water
– 68.7% fresh water (~ 9 million mi3) in glaciers and icecaps
– 30.1% fresh water (~2 million mi3) as groundwater
– 0.3% (~45,000 mi3) fresh water as surface water in lakes, rivers,
soils
• Most water unavailable for use
(1 mi3 = 1.1 trillion gallon)
11. 11
Water Resources
• Why know about water?
• Water availability
• Water issues around the world
• Hydrologic or water cycle
12. 12
Water Issues Around the World
• Diversion of rivers for many reasons
• Urbanization
• Water pollution
13. Marsh Arab
Sumerian and modern Iraqi
reed houses (Mudhif)
Photos from:
ANTHROCIVITIAS.NET
@ 2900 BC
14. 14
Vanishing Marsh Arabs…and the 5,000
years old Civilization
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_er85Rs8cMA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-QJyX8nxOc /
15. 15
Vanishing Marsh Arabs…and the 5,000
years old Civilization
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_er85Rs8cMA
http://www.birdlife.org/middle-east/news/miracle-marshes-iraq /
16. 16
Vanishing Marsh Arabs…and the 5,000
years old Civilization
- Since 1970s dams upstream in
Turkey, Syria, Iraq have reduced
the flow of the rivers into Iraq
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_er85Rs8cMA
http://www.birdlife.org/middle-east/news/miracle-marshes-iraq /
17. 17
Vanishing Marsh Arabs…and the 5,000
years old Civilization
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_er85Rs8cMA
http://www.birdlife.org/middle-east/news/miracle-marshes-iraq /
18. 18
Urbanization
- impervious
surfaces, all kinds
of pollutants in
urban runoff
- http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=BYwZiiORYG8&feature=r
elmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ft7s7y-f8Q8
19. 19
Urbanization
- impervious
surfaces, all kinds
of pollutants in
urban runoff
- http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=BYwZiiORYG8&feature=r
elmfu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ft7s7y-f8Q8
20. Water Pollution: Groundwater
• Contamination of groundwater not
uncommon
• A leukemia cluster (8 victims)
identified in Woburn, MA
• Woburn's drinking water supply wells
were contaminated by local
businesses, Riley Tannery (Beatrice
Foods), W.R. Grace, Unifirst
• The families of leukemia victims sued
• TCE, PCE contamination
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7AJLHOnti8&feature=related
- Beatrice foods: altoids, avis, dannon, hunts, samsonite, krispy kreme,
swiss miss, tropicana….
21. Wells G & H Superfund site, Woburn MA
• Wells installed in 1964.
• Ann Anderson’s son, born in 1968, diagnosed with
leukemia in 1974, and died in 1981.
• Wells found to be contaminated by TCE and PCE in
1979.
• Wells were not used for water supply since then
• Law suits filed against two companies, Beatrice Foods,
and W.R. Grace in 1982 by Schlichtman representing
Ann Anderson et al.
21
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/hydrogeo/activities/10688.html
22. Wells G & H Superfund site, Woburn MA
• 5 Contaminated Sites
– New England Plastics
– Riley Tannery (Beatrice Foods, Inc.
– Hemingway Trucking (Olympia Nominee Trust)
– UniFirst
– Cryovac (W. R. Grace & Co.)
• Beatrice dismissed, Grace settled with $8 million,
22
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/hydrogeo/activities/10688.html
23. 23
Water Resources
• Why know about water?
• Water availability
• Water issues around the world
• Hydrologic cycle
24. 24
Hydrologic Cycle
• What is hydrologic cycle?
– Water circulates on Earth from the oceans to the
atmosphere to land and back to the oceans.
– Hydrologic cycle describes the existence and
movement of water on, in, and above the Earth.
• Where does Earth’s water come from?
– Water set free by magma began to cool down the
Earth’s atmosphere, until it could stay on the surface
as a liquid.
– Volcanic activity kept and still keeps introducing water
in the atmosphere.
26. 26
The Hydrologic Cycle - Simplified
• Movement of water
between oceans,
atmosphere, and land
• Water exists as liquid,
vapor, and solid
• Energy needed to power
the cycle is supplied by
___ and ______
28. 28
Precipitation - World
• Water in atmosphere returning to Earth in liquid or solid
form (as rain, snow, sleet)
• Most precip result of evaporation over oceans
• Extreme variability in precipitation around world
0 10 50 100 200 500 1000 2500 mm/year
29. Vapor Pressure
• All liquids and solids have a tendency to
evaporate into a gaseous form, and all gases
have a tendency to condense back to their liquid
or solid form.
• Vapor pressure tendency of particles to escape
from the liquid (or a solid )
• _______ liquids have _____ vapor pressure at
normal temperatures.
• Increases with increasing temperature
30. 30
Precipitation
Three steps to form precipitation:
1. cooling of air to approximately the dew-point temperature:
Warm air holds more vapor.
2. condensation of water vapor into liquid water: cooling +
nuclei (dust, ice or water particles)
3. growth of droplets or crystals into raindrops: collision
Cooling can occur when
(i) air rises over mountains,
(ii) warm air masses rise
above cooler air masses
at front.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bymT5AcV-
C4&feature=related
31. 31
- Collector funnel (8-in)
- Measuring tube: 20 in-long,
collects 2 in rain
- Overflow can (20-in long)
Supporter:
10-12 in long
Standard US precipitation gage:
ID = 8 inch (20.3 cm),
L = 30 in (76.2 cm)
Precipitation - Measurements
32. 32
Doppler Weather Radar
– Produces continuous space/time estimates of
weather variables including precipitation
– Intensity of precipitation is represented by the
color, then calibrated into highly resolved
estimates of precipitation amounts
– Can get weather data from areas where
conventional gages can not be used. – mountains
etc
34. 34
Evaporation
• Process converting water
to water vapor
• Evaporating surfaces
include ocean, lakes,
rivers, pavement, soil,
and wet vegetation
• Evaporation very
important contributor to
water loss in arid regions
• Water levels in lakes near the
Colorado River can drop between
2-4 feet every year due to
evaporation
• 70% of Georgia’s 50 in. of rain
are lost directly to evaporation
Photos from USGS
35. 35
Evaporation
• Net evaporation occurs when the rate of evaporation
exceeds the rate of condensation.
– In equilibrium when air humidity is 100%
• Evaporation from ocean drives Hydrologic Cycle by
providing ~90 % of the moisture in the atmosphere.
• Affected by air temperature, humidity, and movement
– Increases when air temperature is low (T or F)
– Increases when air humidity is high (T or F)
– Increases when air movement is strong (T or F)
36. 36
Transpiration and Evapotranspiration
• Transpiration vaporization
of water found in plant
tissue with removal to
atmosphere
• Evapotranspiration sum of
evaporation from soil
surface and transpiration
from plants From Kansas State University
37. 37
Evapotranspiration (ET)
• Evaporation + transpiration (from plant leaves).
• Provides 10% of the moisture in the atmosphere.
• An acre of corn gives off ~3,500 gallons (13,000 L) of
water each day
• Potential evapotranspiration: Max ET assuming water is
there to evaporate.
– Potential ET in Sahara Desert _____ in Daejeon
– Actual ET in desert = ____
• Factors affecting transpiration:
– temperature, humidity, wind, soil moisture, plant type
38. Tomato leaf stomate, photo from Wikipedia
-Cools down
-Mass flow of water from roots to the leaves
41. 41
• Evaporation: US Weather Service Class A pan:
– OD x L = 4 ft (1.22 m) x 10 in (25.4 cm)
– The pan rests on a leveled, wooden base
– Enclosed by a chain link fence
– Measure water depth, max/min temperature for 24 hours
(pan filled to exactly two inches (5 cm) from the pan top)
– At the end of 24 hours, the amount of water to
refill the pan to exactly two inches from its
top is measured.
– Need rain gage
– Values in a pan > or < (?) Values in a lake
– Pan coefficient : 0.58 – 0.78 (varies with
months)
Evapo-transpiration - Measurements
Photo: Wikipedia
42. • Evapotranspiration: Lysimeter
– Soil-filled tank on which plants are grown.
– Rate of
– Measure quantity of water added through
precipitation, lost through drainage, storage
changes in tank, runoff
RO
S
Q
P
ET o
Evapotranspiration - Measurements
ETH, Zurich, Swiss
1. container; 2. concrete
wall; 3. cellar; 4. soil;
5. filter (sand and gravel);
6. electronic scales; 7.
drainage outlet; 8.
moisture sensor; 9.
temperature sensor; 10.
grass
43. Weighing Lysimeters
• Instrument measure
pieces water budget
∆S = P - ET - RO - Qo
P: rain gage
∆S: weigh column [B]
Qo: collect drainage [C]
RO: collect runoff [D]
(source: USDA Texas; Wikimedia Commons)
ET = P - ∆S - RO – Qo
–Lysimeter data usually
unavailable empirical
methods are used
∆S
Qo
RO
44. Soil moisture and evaporation
• Heat conductivity of water >> air
– Heat flux / temperature gradient
• Wetter soils have _______ thermal conductivity than drier
soils
• Would wet soils warm up faster than dryer soils in the sun?
• Evaporation removes ‘warm’ water
45. Evaporative (Swamp) Cooler
45
- Many in Middle East, SW US
- Invented in Persia, 9 million in Iran
- Hot dry outside air used to evaporate water
- Produce cool moist air
USGS
Wikepidia
46. 46
Runoff
• Surface Runoff: Water flowing
across the land surface as
streams, rivers, and drains after
rain storm or from melting snow
• Subsurface (Groundwater)
Runoff: Water flowing beneath
land surface through sediments
and rock
47. 47
Infiltration
• Process of downward water entry into the soil
• Rate of infiltration sensitive to
– Rain: intensity, duration
– Near-surface condition, previous water content of soil
– Soil type: clays vs. sands
– Topography: plains vs. mountains
– Land use: vegetation vs. impervious surface
48. 48
Surface Runoff
• Surface streams, rivers, drains,
sewers
• Factors affecting runoff
– Type of precipitation (rain, snow)
– Rainfall intensity, amount,
duration, frequency, distribution
over the watersheds
– Land use, vegetation, soil type
– Basin shape, slope, topography
– Ponds, lakes, reservoirs reduce
runoff
– Urbanization
49. Subsurface Runoff
• Water flows underground through open spaces in soils
and rocks
• Interflow: temporary flow after rain in shallow soil zone
• Groundwater flow: flow of water stored in deeper zone of
water saturation
50. 50
Water Storage
• Water collected in naturally
occurring or manmade
bodies along hydrologic
cycle
• Storage bodies include:
- lakes, reservoirs, wetlands,
aquifers, ice caps
51. Watersheds or Drainage Basin
- extent of land where water from rain drains downhill
into water storage bodies such as river, lake, or wetlands
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUYWb8XTo58
52. 52
52
Watersheds and Streams
• River + tributaries
drain a watershed
• Watershed (drainage
basin) land area that
contributes water to a
stream system
from www.kidsgeo.com
53. Watersheds and Basins
• Watershed or basin is area where all water that is
under it or drains off of it goes to same place
• Watersheds are smaller areas and basins are bigger
(source USGS)
54.
55. Exercise 1: Defining Watersheds
• Shaded relief map of Mad
River area
• Reds, browns greys hills
• Green and dark green valley
(1) Are labeled dots in Mad River
watershed?
(a) (b) (c)
(2) Sketch in the boundaries of
the watershed.
a
b
c
57. 57
Water Budget
• Volume water transferred in hydrologic cycle
• Water budget developed for a hydrologic system
e.g., watershed or where water stored e.g.,
surface or ground water
• Calculation involves a direct accounting for the
inflows and outflows of water
58. 58
Water Budget Equation
• Written for control volume
• Watershed, groundwater
(Source USGS)
Input – Output = ∆Storage
P + Qi - ET - Qo= ∆S
- P is precipitation
- Qi is surface and groundwater
water inflow
- ET is transpiration,
- Q0 is surface and groundwater
outflow
59. Weighing Lysimeters
• Instrument measure
pieces water budget
∆S = P - ET - RO - Qo
P: rain gage
∆S: weigh column [B]
Qo: collect drainage [C]
RO: collect runoff [D]
(source: USDA Texas; Wikimedia Commons)
ET = P - ∆S - RO – Qo
–Lysimeter data usually
unavailable empirical
methods are used
∆S
Qo
RO
60. 60
Water Budget Small Watershed
• Beaverdam Creek, Delmarva Peninsula of
Maryland - USGS
• Description
- 50.5 km2
- sand/silt 21 m thick
- shallow water table
- precipitation 109 cm/yr
(Source USGS)
62. 62
Results as cm/inches over Watershed
• P = 211 cm per 2 yr depth x watershed area = volume
• ET = 127 cm
• D = 79 cm
• ΔS = 5 cm
211 = 127 + 79 + 5
P = ET + D + ΔS
(Source USGS)
63. Exercise 2: Estimating runoff ratio
• In an average year (water year Oct 1 to Sept.
30) the Mill Creek drainage basin (166.2 mi2)
in OH receives 700 mm of precipitation.
• A stream gauge recorder at the southern end
of the basin records an average stream
discharge of 2.2 m3s-1. (1 mile = 1.61 km).
• Conservation equation for a watershed:
P – Rs – ET = 0
63
64. Exercise 2: Estimating runoff ratio
(a) What is the volume of water (in m3) evapotranspired
for the year (assume no change in water stored in the
catchment)?
(b) What is the depth of water (in mm) evapotranspired
for the year (assume no change in water stored in the
catchment)?
(c) What is the runoff ratio (Rs/P) for the catchment?
64
65. 65
Safe Yield and Sustainability
• Historical concerns on quantity of water that
could be pumped from watershed
• Concept of ‘Safe Yield’
“The limit to the quantity of water which can
be withdrawn regularly and permanently
without dangerous depletion of the storage
reserve”. [Lee, 1915]
66. 66
• Definition expanded through the years
- Meinzer [1923]: economic aspect
- Conkling [1946]: conditions for safe yield
- Banks [1953]: protection water rights
• ‘Safe Yield’ no unique or constant value
- idea good but implementation difficult
Moving from Safe Yield to Sustainability
67. 67
Sustainability
• Limit groundwater use to levels that can be
sustained over longer term
• Also ambiguous, difficult to define
• Broader than safe yield concepts - considers
role of groundwater in streams, rivers, wetlands
…development and use…that can be maintained
for indefinite time without unacceptable
environmental, social, economic consequences
68. 68
GW/SW Connections
• Concept of safe yield
obsolete because
groundwater and
surface waters
connected
• Depletion gw causes
depletion sw
(Source USGS)
69. 69
Effects of Pumping
[A] Natural system with gw
discharge to stream
[B] Moderate pumping
causes reduced inflow
to stream
[C] Heavy pumping
induces flow from
stream
- streamflow reduced
(Source USGS)
S
Q
Q
ET
R p
o
70. 70
Case Study – High Plains Aquifer
• High Plains 450,000 km2
- extends from South Dakota to Texas
• Farming late 1800’s difficult - modest rainfall
• Irrigation water from High Plains aquifer
Center-pivot field near Elkhart, Kansas (photos from USGS)
71. 71
High Plains Aquifer
• Tremendous quantity
of water stored
- 3.3 billion acre-feet (1
acre-foot = 1235 m3
• “Old” water recharged
15,000 years ago with
wetter climate
• Pumping caused major
declines in ground-
water levels
(Source USGS)
72. 72
Exercise 3: Water Budget
• Conceptual Model
• Before/After
development
• Flows (x106 ft3/d)
(x2.83x104 m3/d)
(Source USGS)
(Source USGS)
73. Exercise
(1) Write water balance equations for the aquifer
- Use QNR as natural recharge, QND as natural
discharge, QP as pumpage, and QNR+IR as recharge
and irrigation return flow, as storage change
- Before Development
- After Development
0
S
Q
Q ND
NR
S
Q
Q
Q P
ND
IR
NR
S
0
24
24
330
830
10
510
74. 74
(2) The figure below shows perennial streams
(flow continually) in Kansas. Why the loss?
75. 75
• Being depleted at a rate of 12
bcm/yr, total depletion to date 325
bcm ~ annual flow of 18 Colorado
Rivers, watering 20% of US
irrigated land.
• Will depleted within decades if
not managed
TAKE HOME POINT
(from USGS)
- aquifers like bank
accounts take out water
faster than put in
- go dry!
78. • Many people believe in water dowsing
• Underground ‘lakes’, ‘underground
streams’
• Scientific view of water below ground!
– how much?
– Of what quality?
– At what rate can it be withdrawn?
– For how long and with what impact on other wells
and on nearby streams?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7R8ul7vABM
79. • All you need to know about ground water
Ground Water
80. 80
Ground-Water Occurrence
• pores in unsaturated zone some water - moist
• in saturated zone, water completely fills pores
• saturated / unsaturated zones separated by water
table
(from USGS)
81. 81
• Ultimate source of
water is rain
• Infiltrates into soil
added to
unsaturated zone
- used by plants
- some evaporates
• Excess water
moves down to
ground water
(from USGS)
Where Ground Water Comes From
82. 82
Where Ground Water Goes
• Water moves slowly – 1 foot per day in
permeable deposits
• Flow moves from hills to valleys – “downhill”
to rivers
(from USGS)
http://www.traileraddict.com/trailer/a-river-runs-through-it/trailer
83. 83
Darcy’s Law
• When water flowing,
gradient exists in
hydraulic head
• Flux (q) depends on
gradient and hydraulic
conductivity K
• Water flows from
places where head is
high to places where
head is low
84. 84
Henry Darcy
• Near end of engineering career in France, Henry
Darcy returned hometown of Dijon. During his
earlier work with water flow in pipes (Darcy,
1837), interested in developing an equation for
flow of water through sand.
• Work concerned filtering of water through sand
to remove suspended solids and potentially
purifying the water. His work also related to
design large-scale artificial recharge lagoons
with water from rivers.
85. Henry Darcy
Appendix, D, Les Fountaines Publiques de la ville de Dijon, 1856
Photo by
Dr. Scott Bair, OSU From Wikipedia, public domain
- 3m x 0.3m
- 2 Hg manometers
86. 86
Darcy’s Experiment
• Poured water through sediment-packed pipes at
some Q (volume of flow per unit time)
• Cylinder with known A (L2)
filled with sand
• Two manometers, separated
by a distance (L)
• Flow rate, Q (L3/T)
• Measured elevation of water
levels in manometers, h1 and
h2 (L) relative to local datum
l
87. 87
Described by Darcy’s Equation
• Written as
where K is constant of proportionality
termed hydraulic conductivity, (h1-h2)/dl is
hydraulic gradient, and Q/A, flow per unit
area is called specific discharge, q,
- units of velocity (L/T)
- also called Darcy velocity
l
h
h
K
A
Q
q
)
( 2
1
88. 88
• Equation states velocity of flow is proportional to
hydraulic gradient, i:
and Darcy’s equation is
written as
dl
dh
l
h
h
i
)
( 2
1
Ki
q
KiA
Q
89. Directions of Groundwater Flow
• Saw previously groundwater
flows
• Movement implies
differences in energy from
place to place
• More familiar example
- where is energy highest?
- where energy lowest?
(from search-best-cartoons.com)
91. Gradient in Energy
• Gradient is change in energy per unit length
along the path
• gradient = (E1 – E2)/length
• Calculate gradients for left and right slides
E1 = 10
E2 = 0
E1 = 10
E2 = 0
length = 10
length = 20
92. • Obvious that gradient important in determining
how fast kid will go down slide
• There is another factor, however
• Kid on left is going twice as fast as kid on right
with same gradient!
E1 = 10
E2 = 0
length = 10
E1 = 10
E2 = 0
length = 10
93. 93
Darcy’s Velocity vs. Pore Velocity
• Darcy’s law
- macroscopic no information
pores
• Darcy velocity assumes flow
occurs over entire surface areas
of soil column
• Water only flows in pore space
- linear velocity > Darcy velocity
l
h
h
K
A
Q
q
)
( 2
1
94. 94
• Linear or pore velocity defined as volumetric
flow rate per unit interconnected pore space:
where ne effective porosity
• Linear velocity is true velocity of water flow in a
porous medium
e
n
q
v
95. 95
Porosity
• Total porosity:
Vv = volume voids; VT = total
volume sample
• Effective porosity: porosity that is effective in
moving water through the porous medium:
Viv = vol. interconnected voids
• ne ~ nT porous medium; ne << nT fractured
medium
T
v
T V
V
n /
T
iv
e V
V
n /
96. 96
• Well sorted media have
higher porosity than poorly
sorted media
- smaller particles fill void
spaces
• Ranges 0 to 60(%)
• Porosity higher for unlithified
materials than for lithified
materials
• Look at table – what types
deposits are unknown?
Porosity Values
97. 97
Hydraulic Conductivity, K
• Introduced in Darcy’s law as constant of
proportionality relating q to i
• Qualitatively, parameter describes how easily
flow can occur through porous medium
• Large values for permeable units like sand and
gravel and small values for clay or shale
• Units of velocity (L/T), when Q has m3/day,
m/day
l
h
h
K
A
Q
q
)
( 2
1
98. 98
Range K Values
• K amazing parameter
• Varies over more
than 14 orders-of-
magnitude
• Fracturing clay and
till cause 100x
increase in K
99. 99
Directional Properties of K
• Isotropic/anisotropic – describes directional
dependence at point within porous medium
• Homogeneous – K in a given direction is same
from point to point
__________________
_
__________________
_
100. Intrinsic Permeability, k
• K depends on both properties of porous medium
and fluid (density, viscosity) for water,
constant fluid properties
• For groundwater, K useful hydraulic property
• For petroleum, fluid properties vary
• k describes ability of media to transmit fluid
• k independent of fluid
101. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) and
Permeability (ki)
ki = intrinsic permeability,
where N = a factor to account for shape of the passages
(dimensionless); d = mean grain diameter (L)
m = dynamic viscosity (kg-m-1s-1)
– resistance of fluid to flow
– water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while
vegetable oil is "thick" having a higher viscosity.
r = fluid density (M/L3)
g = gravity constant; Here, rg = driving force of fluid
m
rg
k
K i
2
Nd
ki Hubert, 1956 +
Hagen-Poiseuille eq.
102. 102
Hydraulic Head
• Fact that water moves implies an energy
gradient
• Water has greater energy available for flow at
one point than at another
• Energy for flow measured by height of water in
manometer above datum
Called hydraulic head (h)
103. 103
Piezometer
• Piezometer is a device
installed to measure
hydraulic head
• Casing with a perforated
screen
- point of measurement
• Water rises up casing
• Head is elevation of water
surface in casing applied to
measurement point
Elev.
104. Exercise 4: Hydraulic Head
• Elevation of ground surface: 1000 m asl
• Depth to water is 25 m
• Total length of piezometer is 50 m
• Water has density of 1000 kg/m3
• What are (a) elevation h, (b) pressure h, (c) total h?
g
v
g
P
z
h
w 2
2
r
Bernoulli’s eq
106. 106
Water Table Observation Well
• Device is not a piezometer
• Purpose to measure
elevation of water table
• Screen is long so water table
always in screened section
• Measurement applied to
water surface
107. 107
Interpretation
• Collection of heads
shows pattern of flow
• Contour head values to
produce equipotential
lines
• Flow lines drawn
perpendicular
• Assumptions
- isotropic
- no flow in/out section
108. 108
Field Interpretation Darcy Equation
• Darcy equation used to estimate quantities of
flow (Q) and groundwater velocities
• Quantity of flow:
• Darcy Velocity:
• Linear groundwater velocity:
dx
dh
K
q
dx
dh
KA
Q
dx
dh
n
K
v
e
109. 109
Exercise 5: Application of Darcy’s Law
A 5 m thick sand aquifer has K=1.5x10-3 m/s. Calculate:
(1) Quantity of flow through a unit cross-section
(2) Linear ground water velocity, estimating necessary
parameters
(3) Linear velocity assuming aquifer is fractured shale
ne = 0.001
4000 meters
200 m
180 m
110. 110
Estimating Patterns of Flow
• Shown that is possible to measure
hydraulic head and estimate patterns of
groundwater flow
• Alternative approach is to understand
geologic setting and predict hydraulic head
distribution and patterns of flow
• Application of theoretical approaches to
problems of regional flow developed from
1960s onward
113. 113
• Variety of approaches to solve for
hydraulic head distribution within a
domain
• Graphical or flow net theory
• Solution to differential equation for flow
where h is hydraulic head, x and y
coordinates
0
2
2
2
2
y
h
x
h
Theoretical Approaches
114. 114
• First requirement is to find a domain of interest
- region to solve for head distribution
Region of Interest
115. 115
• Second requirement provide boundary
conditions along the edges of domain
- necessary information to define internal head
distribution
- mainly two: no flow, constant head
Boundary Conditions
116. 116
What Are the Boundary Conditions?
• Chose “natural” set of boundary conditions so
simple
No
Flow
No Flow
Constant Head
117. 117
Flownets
• Graphical solution to Laplace equation
- simple two-dimensional case
- mostly used with simple media
- no layering, isotropic medium
(after Loaiciga & Zekster, 2002)
118. 118
Rules for Flownets
(1) Streamlines perpendicular to equipotential lines
- if contour spacing same, streamlines and
equipotential lines form curvilinear squares
- curved sides, tangent to inscribed circle
(2) Same quantity groundwater flows between
adjacent pairs of flow lines
120. 120
More Suggestions/Rules
(1) In first attempts use only four or five flow tubes
(2) Work holistically on the flownet early, rather
than details
(3) Do simple parts flownet first
(4) Size of the curvilinear squares changes
gradually
(5) No flow boundary is a streamline
Water table streamline when no recharge
121. 121
River
(mean stage 60 ft)
Valley
210 ft 190 170 150 130 110 90 70
200 180 160 140 120 100 80
Flow-Net Concepts
Xsection
Sand
Silty clay
w = 1000 ft
b =
50 ft
• Valley sand with groundwater flow
(Q) to river.
• Create flownet then the flow in
each flow tube (dq) is same.
Q
dq1
dq4
dq2
dq3
Q = dq1 + dq2 + dq3 + dq4
122. 122
Flow-Net Concepts cont’d
ds
dh
dm
A B
C
D
• Designate corners as ABCD with AB = ds
and BC = dm. If the head drop is dh, then
the discharge is dq
dh
dq Kb dm
ds
• Discharge across any vertical plane of aquifer, thickness b
is dq because no water is added or removed from storage
• With inscribed circles, ds = dm and
*
dq Kb dh
• For nf flow tubes, total discharge Q is
* *
f
Q n Kb dh
123. 123
• Draw a flownet for seepage through earthen dam shown here.
Assume homogeneous and isotropic conditions. If the hydraulic
conductivity 0.22 ft/day, what is the seepage per unit width per day?
Assume five flow tubes.
Exercise 6: Flownet
124. Exercise 7: Flownet
• Average discharge due to ground-water
withdrawals from the Patuxent Formation in
Sparrow Point District in 1945 was 1 million ft3/day.
(Bennett and Meyer, 1952)
• Calculate the transmissivity of the formation.
H
T
n
n
Q
d
f
day
ft
ft
day
ft
H
n
Q
n
T
f
d
/
6667
)
30
)(
15
(
)
/
10
)(
3
( 3
3
6
125.
126. Exercise 8: Flownets in Heterogeneous
Media
• If width of stream tube remains constant,
segment length of stream tube in higher T is
longer than in lower T zone.
127. Exercise 8 - Continued
• Calculate the flow rate ( Q) and the length L2.
Assume that
m
L
W
W 10
1
2
1
day
m
m
m
m
m
day
m
L
W
h
T
Q /
5000
)
10
(
)
10
(
)
1
)(
50
)(
/
100
( 3
m
m
m
m
m
day
m
L
T
T
L 20
)
10
(
)
50
)(
100
(
)
50
)(
/
200
(
1
1
2
2
128. 128
Shown on next page hydrogeologic cross-
section showing hydraulic head and water table
elevation measurements
(1) Work in teams of two and on figure draw
water-table and pattern of flow
(2) On the figure, mark recharge and discharge
areas
(3) Explain why flow in the deeper unit is
different than flow in the shallow unit
(4) When discharge occurs at the ground
surface, what forms might it take?
Exercise 9: Hydrogeologic Cross-section
130. 130
• Map of potentiometric surface
- constructed for a single aquifer
- contour heads for piezometers in aquifer
• Designed to show how groundwater is flowing
Potentiometric Surface
Only a map view for single aquifer
131. 131
• Important points when using potentiometric map:
- potentiometric surface only exists for single
aquifer
- map assumes that flow is horizontal
- if aquifer gets thicker in direction of flow,
equipotentials will become ______ spaced
Mapping Flow in Geological Systems
132. 132
Regional Groundwater Flow
• Issues of flow studied at two scales
- local scale response aquifer to pumping
- large scale flow over hundreds of kilometers
• Latter topic is regional groundwater flow
• Basic unit for analysis is groundwater basin
- three-dimensional closed system, which
contains all flow paths followed by water
recharging basin
133. 133
Hubbert’s Classical Figure
• Famous picture in groundwater science
- one or two complete groundwater basins
- basin closed with no flow through left, right,
bottom boundaries
From Hubbert (1940)
134. 134
Definitions
• Water table - top saturated groundwater (gw)
system along which pressure is atmospheric
• Recharge area - region where flow is directed
downward away from water table (wt)
• Discharge area - flow upward toward wt
On the following figure from Freeze and Witherspoon (1967) label recharge and
discharge areas.
136. 136
Water-table and Regional GW Flow
• Toth (1962) extended Hubbert’s theoretical
model by solving Laplace’s Equation analytically
137. 137
Problem Formulation
• Laplace’s equation written as:
• Boundary conditions on three sides
- lower boundary is impervious unit
- lateral boundaries are groundwater divides
• Top boundary
- sinusoidal fluctuation on regional slope
0
2
2
2
2
y
h
x
h
140. 140
1. If local relief is negligible and there is only a
general slope of topography only regional
systems will develop
Important Conclusions of Toth’s work:
141. 141
2. If regional slope negligible only local systems
develop. Greater relief produces deeper local
systems
142. 142
3. Given both local relief and regional slope,
local, intermediate and regional systems will
develop
4. Regional flow systems characterized by
- long paths with slow, deep circulation
- water highly mineralized with elevated
temperature at discharge area
143. 143
5. Local flow systems:
- short flow paths (less mineralized).
- temperature of discharge at mean annual
air temp.
- areas of rapid circulation of groundwater
148. 148
Mapping Regional Groundwater Flow
• Piezometer nests: collection of piezometers at
different depths
• h varies in space/ time
• Measure at same time (snap shot), time element
removed
• We want to represent the 3-D field in 2-D
diagram