The keas showed immediate interest in pulling up a string to access food. Four keas completed the first trial within seconds by efficiently pulling up the string and holding loops on the perch with their feet, showing goal-directed behavior without needing improvement. A fledgling struggled more, demonstrating the importance of beak-foot coordination. Further tests examined the keas' understanding of the functional connection between strings and food rewards under different conditions.
1) The study tested whether three species of monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) showed evidence of association learning by recording how long it took them to locate food over repeated trials.
2) Results showed that the time to locate food decreased with the number of trials for two of the three species, providing evidence of association learning.
3) The study suggests that an active foraging lifestyle may place greater cognitive demands on monitor lizards and help explain their ability to learn associations through experience.
This study tested whether bottlenose dolphins could integrate information about human movements received through echolocation with their previous visual experiences of the same movements. Three dolphins were trained to respond to specific human movements they could see above water. They were then tested underwater and unable to see, to determine if they could identify movements based on echolocation alone. The dolphins quickly learned to correctly respond to underwater movements they could not see visually, demonstrating an ability to relate visual and echolocation representations of actions.
I: Evolution
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
-- Sir Isaac Newton
1
Theories in Science
In the context of scientific inquiry, a theory is:
A conceptual framework supported by a large body of evidence
Broader in scope than a hypothesis. A theory ties information together and leads to specific testable hypotheses
In other words, a theory is a big deal in science, NOT a synonym for guessing
2
2
3
(This used to be a joke, but I’m not laughing anymore.)
3
Historical Overview
What can explain both the unity and diversity of life on Earth?
Organic evolution: genetically based change over time. It acts on individuals in the present, but only manifests in the population over generations.
Natural Selection: mechanism causing the match between organisms and their environment (adaptive evolution = adaptation)
4
4
Traditional views involved unchanging and perfect species inhabiting a young Earth (Old Testament, Linnaeus, etc.)
The emergence of paleontology and geology helped lay the groundwork for Darwin’s contributions
Other areas of research also influenced his thinking, including studies on human population growth
6
6
Fig. 22-2
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1900
1850
1800
1750
1795
1809
1798
1830
1831–1836
1837
1859
1837
1844
1858
The Origin of Species is published.
Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
Darwin begins his notebooks.
Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
Linnaeus (classification)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Malthus (population limits)
Lamarck (species can change)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
7
7
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Layers of deposited
sediment
Older stratum
with older fossils
8
8
Several 18th century naturalists (including Erasmus Darwin) suggested life evolves as environments change
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and subsequent inheritance of acquired characteristics
This mechanism is unsupported by evidence (e.g., even if you and your mate lost the same finger, your children would still be born with all ten), but it did refocus subsequent research
Lamarck’s Hypothesis
9
9
10
The miniature phenotype of Bonsai trees is caused by manipulations of a bonsai master, not genetics. Would the next generation still be stunted if we planted their seeds and allowed them to grow naturally?
11
12
After first studying medicine, then theology at Cambridge, Darwin took an unpaid position as naturalist for a 5-year voyage around the world
During his travels on HMS Beagle, he collected thousa ...
Alternatives To Animal Dissection In School Science ClassesClaudia Acosta
This document discusses alternatives to animal dissection in school science classes. It notes that while dissection was a common practice, objections have grown in recent decades. Concerns include inhumane treatment of supply animals, depletion of wild populations, and students being turned off from biology. The document examines whether dissection meets curricular goals and reviews alternatives like computer simulations, models, and butchers' parts. It provides guidelines from teaching organizations on respecting life and using alternatives when possible. Overall alternatives allow students to learn at their own pace while reducing safety and ethical concerns.
The Burgess Shale was discovered in 1909 in Canada and contains fossils over 500 million years old. It is one of the most important fossil formations because it preserves not just hard body parts but also soft tissues and organs, providing evidence that soft-bodied creatures lived at that time. Similar formations have been found around the world.
The document summarizes an experiment that tested the long-term and short-term memory abilities of domestic rabbits. For the long-term memory test, rabbits were run through a multiple T-maze over three weeks to see if they could remember the maze pattern. Their times decreased significantly from week to week. For the short-term memory test, rabbits were exposed to novel objects but showed no response, making the results inconclusive. Limitations included small sample sizes and challenges with the maze design and handling of rabbits. Future research could improve on these aspects to better understand rabbit memory abilities.
The video discusses evidence that Neanderthals were not brutish or unintelligent, as popular myths suggest, but rather were a strong, intelligent, and adaptive human species. They developed weapons and tools, communicated within their clans, and mastered their environment, enabling them to survive for thousands of years. Specifically, the video notes Neanderthals created advanced stone tools and weapons, engaged in complex social behaviors within family groups, and adapted well to the cold climates they inhabited, surviving for over 300,000 years before ultimately going extinct.
1) The document describes experiments measuring boldness and foraging behaviors in two species of crayfish, O. rusticus and O. propinquus.
2) Three measures of boldness were taken for each crayfish - aggression towards a novel object, latency to exit a refuge in a novel environment, and giving-up density in foraging.
3) The experiments aimed to determine if behaviors were consistent within individuals over time and across contexts, and how individual variation related to foraging behaviors.
1) The study tested whether three species of monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) showed evidence of association learning by recording how long it took them to locate food over repeated trials.
2) Results showed that the time to locate food decreased with the number of trials for two of the three species, providing evidence of association learning.
3) The study suggests that an active foraging lifestyle may place greater cognitive demands on monitor lizards and help explain their ability to learn associations through experience.
This study tested whether bottlenose dolphins could integrate information about human movements received through echolocation with their previous visual experiences of the same movements. Three dolphins were trained to respond to specific human movements they could see above water. They were then tested underwater and unable to see, to determine if they could identify movements based on echolocation alone. The dolphins quickly learned to correctly respond to underwater movements they could not see visually, demonstrating an ability to relate visual and echolocation representations of actions.
I: Evolution
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
-- Sir Isaac Newton
1
Theories in Science
In the context of scientific inquiry, a theory is:
A conceptual framework supported by a large body of evidence
Broader in scope than a hypothesis. A theory ties information together and leads to specific testable hypotheses
In other words, a theory is a big deal in science, NOT a synonym for guessing
2
2
3
(This used to be a joke, but I’m not laughing anymore.)
3
Historical Overview
What can explain both the unity and diversity of life on Earth?
Organic evolution: genetically based change over time. It acts on individuals in the present, but only manifests in the population over generations.
Natural Selection: mechanism causing the match between organisms and their environment (adaptive evolution = adaptation)
4
4
Traditional views involved unchanging and perfect species inhabiting a young Earth (Old Testament, Linnaeus, etc.)
The emergence of paleontology and geology helped lay the groundwork for Darwin’s contributions
Other areas of research also influenced his thinking, including studies on human population growth
6
6
Fig. 22-2
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1900
1850
1800
1750
1795
1809
1798
1830
1831–1836
1837
1859
1837
1844
1858
The Origin of Species is published.
Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
Darwin begins his notebooks.
Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
Linnaeus (classification)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Malthus (population limits)
Lamarck (species can change)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
7
7
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Layers of deposited
sediment
Older stratum
with older fossils
8
8
Several 18th century naturalists (including Erasmus Darwin) suggested life evolves as environments change
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and subsequent inheritance of acquired characteristics
This mechanism is unsupported by evidence (e.g., even if you and your mate lost the same finger, your children would still be born with all ten), but it did refocus subsequent research
Lamarck’s Hypothesis
9
9
10
The miniature phenotype of Bonsai trees is caused by manipulations of a bonsai master, not genetics. Would the next generation still be stunted if we planted their seeds and allowed them to grow naturally?
11
12
After first studying medicine, then theology at Cambridge, Darwin took an unpaid position as naturalist for a 5-year voyage around the world
During his travels on HMS Beagle, he collected thousa ...
Alternatives To Animal Dissection In School Science ClassesClaudia Acosta
This document discusses alternatives to animal dissection in school science classes. It notes that while dissection was a common practice, objections have grown in recent decades. Concerns include inhumane treatment of supply animals, depletion of wild populations, and students being turned off from biology. The document examines whether dissection meets curricular goals and reviews alternatives like computer simulations, models, and butchers' parts. It provides guidelines from teaching organizations on respecting life and using alternatives when possible. Overall alternatives allow students to learn at their own pace while reducing safety and ethical concerns.
The Burgess Shale was discovered in 1909 in Canada and contains fossils over 500 million years old. It is one of the most important fossil formations because it preserves not just hard body parts but also soft tissues and organs, providing evidence that soft-bodied creatures lived at that time. Similar formations have been found around the world.
The document summarizes an experiment that tested the long-term and short-term memory abilities of domestic rabbits. For the long-term memory test, rabbits were run through a multiple T-maze over three weeks to see if they could remember the maze pattern. Their times decreased significantly from week to week. For the short-term memory test, rabbits were exposed to novel objects but showed no response, making the results inconclusive. Limitations included small sample sizes and challenges with the maze design and handling of rabbits. Future research could improve on these aspects to better understand rabbit memory abilities.
The video discusses evidence that Neanderthals were not brutish or unintelligent, as popular myths suggest, but rather were a strong, intelligent, and adaptive human species. They developed weapons and tools, communicated within their clans, and mastered their environment, enabling them to survive for thousands of years. Specifically, the video notes Neanderthals created advanced stone tools and weapons, engaged in complex social behaviors within family groups, and adapted well to the cold climates they inhabited, surviving for over 300,000 years before ultimately going extinct.
1) The document describes experiments measuring boldness and foraging behaviors in two species of crayfish, O. rusticus and O. propinquus.
2) Three measures of boldness were taken for each crayfish - aggression towards a novel object, latency to exit a refuge in a novel environment, and giving-up density in foraging.
3) The experiments aimed to determine if behaviors were consistent within individuals over time and across contexts, and how individual variation related to foraging behaviors.
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior in natural conditions and how behavior evolved to be adaptive. Key developments include identifying fixed action patterns and studying imprinting. Ethology examines behavior across many species to understand evolution, while comparative psychology focuses more on learning in artificial settings using few species. Important behaviors studied in ethology include habituation, associative learning, social behaviors like group living, communication, parental care, and mating rituals. Studying animal behavior provides insights into cognition, social learning, and the costs and benefits of group living.
Some references are coming from the internet, i just copied it.. credits to the owner. some information are not mine as well as the slide i just download it from the internet. My report in my Masters.
This document is a literature review summarizing research on the social behavior of various parrot species. Studies have found that parrots exhibit social behaviors like cooperating with mated partners, communicating vocally through learned dialects, and defending nesting territories, while also being negatively impacted by solitary housing. Research indicates parrots have intelligence and problem-solving abilities, though more research is needed due to the challenges of studying wild parrot populations and keeping exotic birds in captivity.
Edited by Jessica E. Fultz for the Department of Biology.U.docxjack60216
Edited by Jessica E. Fultz for the Department of Biology.
Updated January 10, 2014
Concepts in Biology
Laboratory
Biol 1100L
Spring 2014
Please note that this manual is a work in progress and was compiled specifically for the ISU Biology
department. It changes each semester/session depending on the interests of the instructors. It is
a free and unpublished manual that has not seen reviewers or editors; there are errors.
The first step in the acquisition of wisdom is silence,
the second listening, the third memory, the fourth practice,
the fifth teaching others.
~Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021 -1058 AD)
1-1
Biol 1100L Ecology1 Lab 1
1. Define hypothesis using your textbook.
Name:_______________________________ Section:____
In lab this week you will gather observational data about arthropod distributions and ecol-
ogy, describe their niches in terrariums, construct a hypothesis, make a prediction, and
calculate the diversity (Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index) for each niche type.
Arthropods are a major component of all terrestrial ecosystems and their behavior has been
the object of many famous ecological studies. All arthropod species are in the Kingdom
Animalia and Phylum Arthropoda but they are in many different classes, orders, and
families. A large proportion of arthropods are plant detritivores, i.e. organisms that feed on
dead and decaying plant material. These organisms hasten the conversion of biomass to
soil, speed up rates of nutrient cycling, and as a result, increase the productivity of ecosys-
tems.
In this lab you will learn about three very important ecological concepts: diversity, niche and
the competitive exclusion principle. Diversity can be measured in a number of different
ways, and you will use the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. The niche is a set of environ-
mental factors necessary to the continued existence of a species. The niche describes
anything you might be able to think of that an organism requires. This includes what it eats,
where it eats, when it eats, when it sleeps etc. The competitive exclusion principle states
that two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely (Gausse 1934). It makes
sense that species that coexist will have different niches. If they didn’t they would either be
in the process of going extinct or driving their competitor into extinction. The way species
subdivide niche space has been called niche partitioning.
Figure 1-1. Diagram of an arthropod terrarium.
Part 1. Defining Niches
One of the members of your group will obtain
a terrarium and poking / digging tools from the
west end of the lab. Do not do anything to the
terrarium yet. Note the overall structure of the
terrarium ecosystem (Fig. 1-1).
As a group talk about the different ...
Scientists Through History provides a timeline of famous scientists and their accomplishments, including:
- Aristotle established the foundations of taxonomy and defined nature's scale.
- Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy extensively and tried to recreate bird flight.
- Antony van Leeuwenhoek invented the simple microscope and was the first to observe bacteria and other microorganisms.
- Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" after observing cork under the microscope and made other advances in physics.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing a mechanism by which species evolved over generations.
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWSTribute to Tinber.docxdorishigh
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWS
Tribute to Tinbergen: Public Engagement in Ethology
Julie Hecht* & Caren B. Cooper†
* Doctoral Program in Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
† Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA
(Invited Review)
Correspondence
Julie Hecht, Department of Psychology,
Hunter College and The Graduate Center,
City University of New York, 695 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: October 4, 2013
Initial acceptance: October 19, 2013
Final acceptance: November 25, 2013
(M. Hauber)
doi: 10.1111/eth.12199
Keywords: citizen science, data quality,
animal behavior, informal science education
Abstract
Public engagement in research, called citizen science, has led to advances
in a range of fields like astronomy, ornithology, and public health. While
volunteers have been making and sharing observations according to pro-
tocols set by researchers in numerous disciplines, citizen science practices
are less common in the field of animal behavior. We consider how citizen
science might be used to address animal behavior questions at Tinbergen’s
four levels of analysis. We briefly review resources and methods for
addressing technical issues surrounding volunteer participation—such as
data quality—so that citizen science can make long-standing contributions
to the field of animal behavior.
Introduction
‘Citizen science’ describes the various ways that mem-
bers of the public participate in genuine scientific
research (Cooper et al. 2007a; Silvertown 2009; Shirk
et al. 2012). Many citizen science projects arise from
communities with specific concerns (such as long-
term environmental monitoring), and some are
initiated by scientists to address specific research
objectives. Other projects have additional goals to
increase science literacy (Bonney et al. 2009a).
Research via public engagement is possible because
people enjoy making natural history observations and
sharing these observations with professionals and
peers. In addition, Web 2.0 and mobile technologies
facilitate mass participation. Consequently, citizen
science projects have arisen in a myriad of disciplines,
including ecology, phenology, macroecology, public
health, natural resource management, hydrology,
urban planning, meteorology, math, volcanology, and
various taxon-specific fields such as entomology,
ornithology, and herpetology. In recent years, citizen
science has enabled substantial contributions to the
fields of astronomy (Lintott et al. 2008), medicine
(Khatib et al. 2011a,b), and climate change (Morisette
et al. 2009).
Currently, the field of animal behavior is under-
represented among citizen science projects. Animal
behavior research integrates diverse methodological
approaches to investigate a wide array of scientific
questions about the behavior of wild and domesti-
cated animals in natural and captive settings. Public
o.
This study experimentally evaluated attachment behaviors in owned cats using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. 28 cats of different ages, body types, sexes, and reproductive statuses underwent the test. The cats spent more time exploring when with their owner compared to alone or with a stranger. They exhibited alert behaviors more frequently with a stranger. The cats were less active when alone. The results were consistent with attachment behaviors found in children, suggesting cats can form attachments to their owners. Further research is needed to study separation anxiety in cats.
This document summarizes a study comparing the age structure of yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) obtained from live traps and owl pellets. 144 mice were analyzed from traps and 74 additional measurements were made on captive mice. 66 mouse skulls were also analyzed from owl pellets. Younger age classes (I and II) were only present in trapped mice, likely due to fragile skulls of young mice not surviving digestion. The most common age class in pellets was V (164-194 days), reflecting the most active wild mice. While methods provide different samples, the age structures were consistent, suggesting pellet analysis can provide population data before live trapping studies.
Chapter 1 section 4 (how are living things classified) 2011Mr. Motuk
This document provides an overview of biological classification and taxonomy. It discusses the history of classification from Aristotle to the modern system. Aristotle was the first to classify organisms into kingdoms but had problems with some organisms. Carolus Linnaeus improved the system by basing it on body structure. The modern system uses six kingdoms - Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals. Organisms are classified based on traits like cell structure, DNA, and phylogeny into taxonomic groups from kingdom to species.
This document provides an overview of genetics and its history. It begins with definitions of genetics and discusses early understandings from prehistoric times through Aristotle. It then summarizes major developments like Mendel's experiments, Darwin's theory of evolution, the rediscovery of Mendel's work, and discoveries in the 20th century like DNA's structure. The document outlines molecular genetics concepts and concludes with the scope and applications of genetics like biotechnology, disease control, and conservation.
MAC 1105 2015-1 Test 2 Name _________________________________.docxsmile790243
MAC 1105 2015-1 Test 2 Name: _____________________________________
YOU MUST SHOW ALL WORK TO RECEIVE CREDIT.
Determine the intervals over which the function is decreasing, increasing, and constant. WRITE YOUR
ANSWER IN INTERVAL NOTATION.
1)
1
Evaluate the function for the given values of x.
2)
f(x) =
-3x + 3, for x < -1
x2 + 3, for -1 x < 3
2, for x 3
(a) f(-1);
(b) f(4)
Graph the function.
3) f(x) =
-5 - x, x < 1
-2, x 1
2
Graph the given function. Be sure to plot x- and y-intercepts (if they exist).
4) g(x) = x2 - 2
Graph the given function. Be sure to plot x- and y-intercepts (if they exist).
5) g(x) = -x + 5
Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or neither. Justify your answer.
6) f(x) = 3x2 + x4
3
Use the graph to find the indicated function value.
7) y = f(x). Find f(-2)
Determine the domain and range of the function.
8)
Find the domain of the function.. Write the domain in interval notation.
9) f(x) =
6
3 - x
4
10) f(x) = 2x2 - 9x, g(x) = x2 - 7x - 18 Find f/g.
11) Find (f - g)(-4) given f(x) = 4x2 - 3 and g(x) = x - 5.
12) Given f(x) = 4x2 + 3x + 8 and g(x) = 3x - 3, find (g f)(x).
5
Find and simplify the difference quotient of f,
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
, h 0, for the function. SHOW ALL WORK
13) f(x) = x2 + 7x + 1
Find the distance between the pair of points. Leave your answer in closed form (no decimals).
14) (2 3, 3) and (6 3, 4)
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment PQ.
15) P(0.7, 6.1), Q(7.8, -6.2)
6
Write the equation of the circle in in standard form. Find the center and radius and use them to graph the
circle.
16) x2 + y2 + 8x + 6y + 21 = 0
7
Thump! Thump! Thump! As the hollow sound echoes through the Liberian rainforest, Vera Leinert and her fellow
researchers freeze. Silently, Leinert directs the
guide to investigate. Jefferson ‘Bola’ Skinnah,
a ranger with the Liberian Forestry Develop-
ment Authority, stalks ahead, using the thump-
ing to mask the sound of his movement.
In a sunlit opening in the forest, Skinnah
spots a large adult chimpanzee hammering
something with a big stone. The chimpanzee
puts a broken nut into its mouth then contin-
ues pounding. When Skinnah tries to move
closer, the chimp disappears into the trees. By
the time Leinert and her crew get to the clear-
ing, the animal is long gone.
For the past year, Leinert has been trek-
king through Sapo National Park, Liberia’s
first and only protected reserve, to study its
chimpanzee population. A student volunteer
at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology (EVA) in Leipzig, Germany,
Leinert has never seen her elusive subjects in
the flesh but she knows some of them well.
There’s an energetic young male with a big
belly who hammers nuts so vigorously he has
to grab a sapling for support. There are the
stronger adults who can split a nut with three
blows. And there are the mothers who parade
through the site with their babies. They’ve all
been ...
Birds are glorified reptiles, Archaeopteryx, compare Archaeopteryx and moder...SoniaBajaj10
1. Birds evolved from reptiles and are considered "glorified reptiles" as they have evolved to have higher metabolic rates making them warm-blooded, the ability to fly through wing development, and other advanced features compared to reptiles.
2. The fossil Archaeopteryx from the Jurassic period shows traits of both birds and their reptilian ancestors, providing evidence that birds evolved from reptiles.
3. Comparative anatomy and other evidence indicates birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs, sharing many skeletal features, though some argue an earlier reptile group was the ancestor. Modern bird orders emerged in the Tertiary period around 60 million years ago.
1) Adaptations are physical or behavioral characteristics that help organisms survive and reproduce in their environments.
2) The fossil record provides evidence that species have changed over time as the Earth has changed, with newer fossil layers containing organisms more similar to present-day species.
3) Comparing anatomical and DNA evidence across living and extinct species, scientists have determined that species are related through common ancestors and have gradually changed over millions of years through the process of evolution.
Chapter 1 section 4 (how are living things classified) 2011Mr. Motuk
1. Classification of organisms is important to help organize the millions of species that have been discovered. Aristotle was the first to classify organisms into two kingdoms but his system had flaws.
2. Carolus Linnaeus improved on Aristotle's system by using physical traits and introduced binomial nomenclature, the scientific naming convention still used today.
3. There are currently six kingdoms used to classify organisms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Classification is based on characteristics like cell structure, DNA, and phylogeny.
1) Students will play a game where they use different utensils (spoon, spork, fork) as bird beaks to pick up colored beans representing insects.
2) They will test which utensil can gather the most insects. This models how bird beak adaptations lead to more or less success in finding food.
3) The activity aims to demonstrate how environmental pressures and natural selection can drive evolutionary changes in a species over multiple generations as less adapted traits die out.
This document provides information about evolution and its evidence from different sources such as fossil records, comparative anatomy, embryonic development, and amino acid sequences. It discusses Lamarck and Darwin's theories of evolution. Lamarck believed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics while Darwin proposed natural selection. The importance of studying evolution is also mentioned - it explains diversity of life and how organisms have changed over time. Understanding evolution can help improve agriculture and develop strategies to deal with pest resistance.
1. The document summarizes key ideas and evidence related to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including his observations and ideas that led to developing the theory in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.
2. Darwin noted that species are related through common ancestry (descent with modification) and proposed that natural selection is a mechanism driving adaptive evolution as individuals with heritable traits better suited to their environment tend to leave more offspring.
3. Evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution includes observations of natural selection today, the fossil record showing changes over time, anatomical and genetic similarities between organisms, and patterns of species distributions.
Rifkin, A Change of Heart about Animals”They are more like us t.docxmalbert5
Rifkin, “A Change of Heart about Animals”
They are more like us than we imagined, scientists are finding
Jeremy Rifkin, Los Angeles Times, September 1, 2003. Rifkin is an American economist whose work explores the way science and technological change influence the economy, jobs, culture, and the environment. In a 1989 interview published in Time Magazine, Rifkin argues against some technologies, claiming that in America,[w]e’re so skewed toward efficiency that we’ve lost our sense of humanity. What we need to do is to bring back a sense of the sacred.”
[1] Though much of big science has centered on breakthroughs in biotechnology, nanotechnology and more esoteric questions like the age of our universe, a quieter story has been unfolding behind the scenes in laboratories around the world — one whose effect on human perception and our understanding of life is likely to be profound.
[2] What these researchers are finding is that many of our fellow creatures are more like us than we had ever imagined. They feel pain, suffer and experience stress, affection, excitement and even love — and these findings are changing how we view animals.
[3] Strangely enough, some of the research sponsors are fast food purveyors, such as McDonald's, Burger King and KFC. Pressured by animal rights activists and by growing public support for the humane treatment of animals, these companies have financed research into, among other things, the emotional, mental and behavioral states of our fellow creatures.
[4] Studies on pigs' social behavior funded by McDonald's at Purdue University, for example, have found that they crave affection and are easily depressed if isolated or denied playtime with each other. The lack of mental and physical stimuli can result in deterioration of health.
[5] The European Union has taken such studies to heart and outlawed the use of isolating pig stalls by 2012. In Germany, the government is encouraging pig farmers to give each pig 20 seconds of human contact each day and to provide them with toys to prevent them from fighting.
[6] Other funding sources have fueled the growing field of study into animal emotions and cognitive abilities.
[7] Researchers were stunned recently by findings (published in the journal Science) on the conceptual abilities of New Caledonian crows. In controlled experiments, scientists at Oxford University reported that two birds named Betty and Abel were given a choice between using two tools, one a straight wire,
the other a hooked wire, to snag a piece of meat from inside a tube. Both chose the hooked wire. Abel,
the more dominant male, then stole Betty's hook, leaving her with only a straight wire. Betty then used her beak to wedge the straight wire in a crack and bent it with her beak to produce a hook. She then snagged the food from inside the tube. Researchers repeated the experiment and she fashioned a hook
out of the wire nine of out of 10 times.
[8] Equally impressive is Koko, the 300-p.
Theory of evolution : Lamarck and darwinbhavnesthakur
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of inheritance of acquired characters in 1809, which stated that (1) new needs arise from environmental changes, (2) organs develop through use or diminish through disuse, and (3) acquired characteristics are inherited by offspring. Charles Darwin later proposed the theory of natural selection in 1859, which explained evolution as being driven by (1) variation, (2) a struggle for existence where favorable variations help organisms survive and reproduce, and (3) the inheritance of favorable variations that allow populations to adapt to their environment over generations. Both theories attempted to explain the diversity of life and fossil evidence, though Darwin's theory of natural selection through random variations is now widely accepted.
College Application Essay Tips Study In Canada UnChristine Maffla
This document provides 5 steps for getting writing help from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications and reviews.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized content.
School Essay Essay For Child L. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
The document discusses Ted Lindsay, Gordie Howe, and Syd Abel who were known as the "Production Line" for the Detroit Red Wings in 1950 when they won the Stanley Cup, though Gordie Howe suffered a serious head injury during the playoffs that almost cost him his life. Red Kelly and Jack Stewart anchored the defense as the top blue liners, and Terry Sawchuk was called up when goalie Harry Lumley was injured in the 1950 Cup run. Prior to the 1950-51 season, Lumley was traded from the team.
Contenu connexe
Similaire à A case of quick problem solving in birds string pulling in keas, Nestor notabilis.pdf
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior in natural conditions and how behavior evolved to be adaptive. Key developments include identifying fixed action patterns and studying imprinting. Ethology examines behavior across many species to understand evolution, while comparative psychology focuses more on learning in artificial settings using few species. Important behaviors studied in ethology include habituation, associative learning, social behaviors like group living, communication, parental care, and mating rituals. Studying animal behavior provides insights into cognition, social learning, and the costs and benefits of group living.
Some references are coming from the internet, i just copied it.. credits to the owner. some information are not mine as well as the slide i just download it from the internet. My report in my Masters.
This document is a literature review summarizing research on the social behavior of various parrot species. Studies have found that parrots exhibit social behaviors like cooperating with mated partners, communicating vocally through learned dialects, and defending nesting territories, while also being negatively impacted by solitary housing. Research indicates parrots have intelligence and problem-solving abilities, though more research is needed due to the challenges of studying wild parrot populations and keeping exotic birds in captivity.
Edited by Jessica E. Fultz for the Department of Biology.U.docxjack60216
Edited by Jessica E. Fultz for the Department of Biology.
Updated January 10, 2014
Concepts in Biology
Laboratory
Biol 1100L
Spring 2014
Please note that this manual is a work in progress and was compiled specifically for the ISU Biology
department. It changes each semester/session depending on the interests of the instructors. It is
a free and unpublished manual that has not seen reviewers or editors; there are errors.
The first step in the acquisition of wisdom is silence,
the second listening, the third memory, the fourth practice,
the fifth teaching others.
~Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021 -1058 AD)
1-1
Biol 1100L Ecology1 Lab 1
1. Define hypothesis using your textbook.
Name:_______________________________ Section:____
In lab this week you will gather observational data about arthropod distributions and ecol-
ogy, describe their niches in terrariums, construct a hypothesis, make a prediction, and
calculate the diversity (Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index) for each niche type.
Arthropods are a major component of all terrestrial ecosystems and their behavior has been
the object of many famous ecological studies. All arthropod species are in the Kingdom
Animalia and Phylum Arthropoda but they are in many different classes, orders, and
families. A large proportion of arthropods are plant detritivores, i.e. organisms that feed on
dead and decaying plant material. These organisms hasten the conversion of biomass to
soil, speed up rates of nutrient cycling, and as a result, increase the productivity of ecosys-
tems.
In this lab you will learn about three very important ecological concepts: diversity, niche and
the competitive exclusion principle. Diversity can be measured in a number of different
ways, and you will use the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. The niche is a set of environ-
mental factors necessary to the continued existence of a species. The niche describes
anything you might be able to think of that an organism requires. This includes what it eats,
where it eats, when it eats, when it sleeps etc. The competitive exclusion principle states
that two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely (Gausse 1934). It makes
sense that species that coexist will have different niches. If they didn’t they would either be
in the process of going extinct or driving their competitor into extinction. The way species
subdivide niche space has been called niche partitioning.
Figure 1-1. Diagram of an arthropod terrarium.
Part 1. Defining Niches
One of the members of your group will obtain
a terrarium and poking / digging tools from the
west end of the lab. Do not do anything to the
terrarium yet. Note the overall structure of the
terrarium ecosystem (Fig. 1-1).
As a group talk about the different ...
Scientists Through History provides a timeline of famous scientists and their accomplishments, including:
- Aristotle established the foundations of taxonomy and defined nature's scale.
- Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy extensively and tried to recreate bird flight.
- Antony van Leeuwenhoek invented the simple microscope and was the first to observe bacteria and other microorganisms.
- Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" after observing cork under the microscope and made other advances in physics.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing a mechanism by which species evolved over generations.
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWSTribute to Tinber.docxdorishigh
CURRENT ISSUES - PERSPECTIVES AND REVIEWS
Tribute to Tinbergen: Public Engagement in Ethology
Julie Hecht* & Caren B. Cooper†
* Doctoral Program in Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
† Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA
(Invited Review)
Correspondence
Julie Hecht, Department of Psychology,
Hunter College and The Graduate Center,
City University of New York, 695 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received: October 4, 2013
Initial acceptance: October 19, 2013
Final acceptance: November 25, 2013
(M. Hauber)
doi: 10.1111/eth.12199
Keywords: citizen science, data quality,
animal behavior, informal science education
Abstract
Public engagement in research, called citizen science, has led to advances
in a range of fields like astronomy, ornithology, and public health. While
volunteers have been making and sharing observations according to pro-
tocols set by researchers in numerous disciplines, citizen science practices
are less common in the field of animal behavior. We consider how citizen
science might be used to address animal behavior questions at Tinbergen’s
four levels of analysis. We briefly review resources and methods for
addressing technical issues surrounding volunteer participation—such as
data quality—so that citizen science can make long-standing contributions
to the field of animal behavior.
Introduction
‘Citizen science’ describes the various ways that mem-
bers of the public participate in genuine scientific
research (Cooper et al. 2007a; Silvertown 2009; Shirk
et al. 2012). Many citizen science projects arise from
communities with specific concerns (such as long-
term environmental monitoring), and some are
initiated by scientists to address specific research
objectives. Other projects have additional goals to
increase science literacy (Bonney et al. 2009a).
Research via public engagement is possible because
people enjoy making natural history observations and
sharing these observations with professionals and
peers. In addition, Web 2.0 and mobile technologies
facilitate mass participation. Consequently, citizen
science projects have arisen in a myriad of disciplines,
including ecology, phenology, macroecology, public
health, natural resource management, hydrology,
urban planning, meteorology, math, volcanology, and
various taxon-specific fields such as entomology,
ornithology, and herpetology. In recent years, citizen
science has enabled substantial contributions to the
fields of astronomy (Lintott et al. 2008), medicine
(Khatib et al. 2011a,b), and climate change (Morisette
et al. 2009).
Currently, the field of animal behavior is under-
represented among citizen science projects. Animal
behavior research integrates diverse methodological
approaches to investigate a wide array of scientific
questions about the behavior of wild and domesti-
cated animals in natural and captive settings. Public
o.
This study experimentally evaluated attachment behaviors in owned cats using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. 28 cats of different ages, body types, sexes, and reproductive statuses underwent the test. The cats spent more time exploring when with their owner compared to alone or with a stranger. They exhibited alert behaviors more frequently with a stranger. The cats were less active when alone. The results were consistent with attachment behaviors found in children, suggesting cats can form attachments to their owners. Further research is needed to study separation anxiety in cats.
This document summarizes a study comparing the age structure of yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) obtained from live traps and owl pellets. 144 mice were analyzed from traps and 74 additional measurements were made on captive mice. 66 mouse skulls were also analyzed from owl pellets. Younger age classes (I and II) were only present in trapped mice, likely due to fragile skulls of young mice not surviving digestion. The most common age class in pellets was V (164-194 days), reflecting the most active wild mice. While methods provide different samples, the age structures were consistent, suggesting pellet analysis can provide population data before live trapping studies.
Chapter 1 section 4 (how are living things classified) 2011Mr. Motuk
This document provides an overview of biological classification and taxonomy. It discusses the history of classification from Aristotle to the modern system. Aristotle was the first to classify organisms into kingdoms but had problems with some organisms. Carolus Linnaeus improved the system by basing it on body structure. The modern system uses six kingdoms - Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals. Organisms are classified based on traits like cell structure, DNA, and phylogeny into taxonomic groups from kingdom to species.
This document provides an overview of genetics and its history. It begins with definitions of genetics and discusses early understandings from prehistoric times through Aristotle. It then summarizes major developments like Mendel's experiments, Darwin's theory of evolution, the rediscovery of Mendel's work, and discoveries in the 20th century like DNA's structure. The document outlines molecular genetics concepts and concludes with the scope and applications of genetics like biotechnology, disease control, and conservation.
MAC 1105 2015-1 Test 2 Name _________________________________.docxsmile790243
MAC 1105 2015-1 Test 2 Name: _____________________________________
YOU MUST SHOW ALL WORK TO RECEIVE CREDIT.
Determine the intervals over which the function is decreasing, increasing, and constant. WRITE YOUR
ANSWER IN INTERVAL NOTATION.
1)
1
Evaluate the function for the given values of x.
2)
f(x) =
-3x + 3, for x < -1
x2 + 3, for -1 x < 3
2, for x 3
(a) f(-1);
(b) f(4)
Graph the function.
3) f(x) =
-5 - x, x < 1
-2, x 1
2
Graph the given function. Be sure to plot x- and y-intercepts (if they exist).
4) g(x) = x2 - 2
Graph the given function. Be sure to plot x- and y-intercepts (if they exist).
5) g(x) = -x + 5
Determine whether the given function is even, odd, or neither. Justify your answer.
6) f(x) = 3x2 + x4
3
Use the graph to find the indicated function value.
7) y = f(x). Find f(-2)
Determine the domain and range of the function.
8)
Find the domain of the function.. Write the domain in interval notation.
9) f(x) =
6
3 - x
4
10) f(x) = 2x2 - 9x, g(x) = x2 - 7x - 18 Find f/g.
11) Find (f - g)(-4) given f(x) = 4x2 - 3 and g(x) = x - 5.
12) Given f(x) = 4x2 + 3x + 8 and g(x) = 3x - 3, find (g f)(x).
5
Find and simplify the difference quotient of f,
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
, h 0, for the function. SHOW ALL WORK
13) f(x) = x2 + 7x + 1
Find the distance between the pair of points. Leave your answer in closed form (no decimals).
14) (2 3, 3) and (6 3, 4)
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment PQ.
15) P(0.7, 6.1), Q(7.8, -6.2)
6
Write the equation of the circle in in standard form. Find the center and radius and use them to graph the
circle.
16) x2 + y2 + 8x + 6y + 21 = 0
7
Thump! Thump! Thump! As the hollow sound echoes through the Liberian rainforest, Vera Leinert and her fellow
researchers freeze. Silently, Leinert directs the
guide to investigate. Jefferson ‘Bola’ Skinnah,
a ranger with the Liberian Forestry Develop-
ment Authority, stalks ahead, using the thump-
ing to mask the sound of his movement.
In a sunlit opening in the forest, Skinnah
spots a large adult chimpanzee hammering
something with a big stone. The chimpanzee
puts a broken nut into its mouth then contin-
ues pounding. When Skinnah tries to move
closer, the chimp disappears into the trees. By
the time Leinert and her crew get to the clear-
ing, the animal is long gone.
For the past year, Leinert has been trek-
king through Sapo National Park, Liberia’s
first and only protected reserve, to study its
chimpanzee population. A student volunteer
at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology (EVA) in Leipzig, Germany,
Leinert has never seen her elusive subjects in
the flesh but she knows some of them well.
There’s an energetic young male with a big
belly who hammers nuts so vigorously he has
to grab a sapling for support. There are the
stronger adults who can split a nut with three
blows. And there are the mothers who parade
through the site with their babies. They’ve all
been ...
Birds are glorified reptiles, Archaeopteryx, compare Archaeopteryx and moder...SoniaBajaj10
1. Birds evolved from reptiles and are considered "glorified reptiles" as they have evolved to have higher metabolic rates making them warm-blooded, the ability to fly through wing development, and other advanced features compared to reptiles.
2. The fossil Archaeopteryx from the Jurassic period shows traits of both birds and their reptilian ancestors, providing evidence that birds evolved from reptiles.
3. Comparative anatomy and other evidence indicates birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs, sharing many skeletal features, though some argue an earlier reptile group was the ancestor. Modern bird orders emerged in the Tertiary period around 60 million years ago.
1) Adaptations are physical or behavioral characteristics that help organisms survive and reproduce in their environments.
2) The fossil record provides evidence that species have changed over time as the Earth has changed, with newer fossil layers containing organisms more similar to present-day species.
3) Comparing anatomical and DNA evidence across living and extinct species, scientists have determined that species are related through common ancestors and have gradually changed over millions of years through the process of evolution.
Chapter 1 section 4 (how are living things classified) 2011Mr. Motuk
1. Classification of organisms is important to help organize the millions of species that have been discovered. Aristotle was the first to classify organisms into two kingdoms but his system had flaws.
2. Carolus Linnaeus improved on Aristotle's system by using physical traits and introduced binomial nomenclature, the scientific naming convention still used today.
3. There are currently six kingdoms used to classify organisms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Classification is based on characteristics like cell structure, DNA, and phylogeny.
1) Students will play a game where they use different utensils (spoon, spork, fork) as bird beaks to pick up colored beans representing insects.
2) They will test which utensil can gather the most insects. This models how bird beak adaptations lead to more or less success in finding food.
3) The activity aims to demonstrate how environmental pressures and natural selection can drive evolutionary changes in a species over multiple generations as less adapted traits die out.
This document provides information about evolution and its evidence from different sources such as fossil records, comparative anatomy, embryonic development, and amino acid sequences. It discusses Lamarck and Darwin's theories of evolution. Lamarck believed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics while Darwin proposed natural selection. The importance of studying evolution is also mentioned - it explains diversity of life and how organisms have changed over time. Understanding evolution can help improve agriculture and develop strategies to deal with pest resistance.
1. The document summarizes key ideas and evidence related to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including his observations and ideas that led to developing the theory in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.
2. Darwin noted that species are related through common ancestry (descent with modification) and proposed that natural selection is a mechanism driving adaptive evolution as individuals with heritable traits better suited to their environment tend to leave more offspring.
3. Evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution includes observations of natural selection today, the fossil record showing changes over time, anatomical and genetic similarities between organisms, and patterns of species distributions.
Rifkin, A Change of Heart about Animals”They are more like us t.docxmalbert5
Rifkin, “A Change of Heart about Animals”
They are more like us than we imagined, scientists are finding
Jeremy Rifkin, Los Angeles Times, September 1, 2003. Rifkin is an American economist whose work explores the way science and technological change influence the economy, jobs, culture, and the environment. In a 1989 interview published in Time Magazine, Rifkin argues against some technologies, claiming that in America,[w]e’re so skewed toward efficiency that we’ve lost our sense of humanity. What we need to do is to bring back a sense of the sacred.”
[1] Though much of big science has centered on breakthroughs in biotechnology, nanotechnology and more esoteric questions like the age of our universe, a quieter story has been unfolding behind the scenes in laboratories around the world — one whose effect on human perception and our understanding of life is likely to be profound.
[2] What these researchers are finding is that many of our fellow creatures are more like us than we had ever imagined. They feel pain, suffer and experience stress, affection, excitement and even love — and these findings are changing how we view animals.
[3] Strangely enough, some of the research sponsors are fast food purveyors, such as McDonald's, Burger King and KFC. Pressured by animal rights activists and by growing public support for the humane treatment of animals, these companies have financed research into, among other things, the emotional, mental and behavioral states of our fellow creatures.
[4] Studies on pigs' social behavior funded by McDonald's at Purdue University, for example, have found that they crave affection and are easily depressed if isolated or denied playtime with each other. The lack of mental and physical stimuli can result in deterioration of health.
[5] The European Union has taken such studies to heart and outlawed the use of isolating pig stalls by 2012. In Germany, the government is encouraging pig farmers to give each pig 20 seconds of human contact each day and to provide them with toys to prevent them from fighting.
[6] Other funding sources have fueled the growing field of study into animal emotions and cognitive abilities.
[7] Researchers were stunned recently by findings (published in the journal Science) on the conceptual abilities of New Caledonian crows. In controlled experiments, scientists at Oxford University reported that two birds named Betty and Abel were given a choice between using two tools, one a straight wire,
the other a hooked wire, to snag a piece of meat from inside a tube. Both chose the hooked wire. Abel,
the more dominant male, then stole Betty's hook, leaving her with only a straight wire. Betty then used her beak to wedge the straight wire in a crack and bent it with her beak to produce a hook. She then snagged the food from inside the tube. Researchers repeated the experiment and she fashioned a hook
out of the wire nine of out of 10 times.
[8] Equally impressive is Koko, the 300-p.
Theory of evolution : Lamarck and darwinbhavnesthakur
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of inheritance of acquired characters in 1809, which stated that (1) new needs arise from environmental changes, (2) organs develop through use or diminish through disuse, and (3) acquired characteristics are inherited by offspring. Charles Darwin later proposed the theory of natural selection in 1859, which explained evolution as being driven by (1) variation, (2) a struggle for existence where favorable variations help organisms survive and reproduce, and (3) the inheritance of favorable variations that allow populations to adapt to their environment over generations. Both theories attempted to explain the diversity of life and fossil evidence, though Darwin's theory of natural selection through random variations is now widely accepted.
Similaire à A case of quick problem solving in birds string pulling in keas, Nestor notabilis.pdf (20)
College Application Essay Tips Study In Canada UnChristine Maffla
This document provides 5 steps for getting writing help from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications and reviews.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized content.
School Essay Essay For Child L. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
The document discusses Ted Lindsay, Gordie Howe, and Syd Abel who were known as the "Production Line" for the Detroit Red Wings in 1950 when they won the Stanley Cup, though Gordie Howe suffered a serious head injury during the playoffs that almost cost him his life. Red Kelly and Jack Stewart anchored the defense as the top blue liners, and Terry Sawchuk was called up when goalie Harry Lumley was injured in the 1950 Cup run. Prior to the 1950-51 season, Lumley was traded from the team.
How To Write An Essay Abstract Synonym. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
This document provides instructions for completing a group project for an economics course on business forecasting. It explains that students should be divided into groups of 3-4 to analyze time series data and answer questions related to forecasting building approval rates. The report should include an executive summary, main report discussing the analysis and answers, issues with the results, and an appendix with the analysis commands. The project aims to provide forecasting advice to a client and should not exceed 12 pages in length.
One Way That You Can Help Students Practice Their ParaChristine Maffla
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email; 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. It emphasizes that original, high-quality content is guaranteed or a full refund will be provided.
Everything You Need To Know About Buying Essay Online - Learn ESLChristine Maffla
The document discusses the Note 7 fiasco involving Samsung's Galaxy Note 7 smartphone. It describes how Samsung unveiled the Note 7 to much fanfare in August 2016 but that a few weeks after its release, reports emerged of the phones exploding while charging. Airlines and passengers were warned not to use the Note 7 on flights due to explosion risks. Consumer safety groups also warned the public to stop using the Note 7 and were working with Samsung to address the issue. The fiasco was a major problem for Samsung's reputation and consumer confidence in one of its flagship products.
How To Write A Essay Step By Step Middl. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
The document discusses the health care industry, which consists of several industries that provide services to private and business consumers. It notes that in 1886, brothers Robert, James and Edward Johnson created a company that has since revolutionized the creation and production of healthcare products. However, no other details are provided about the Johnson brothers or their company.
Number Paper - A4 Plain And Square - Printable TeachinChristine Maffla
The document discusses the history of discovering exoplanets, including the first confirmed detection of terrestrial mass planets orbiting a pulsar in 1992, and the first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main sequence star in 1995. Early speculations about the possibility of exoplanets date back to the 16th century philosopher Giordano Bruno, and the idea was also mentioned by Isaac Newton in the 18th century. Major milestones in exoplanet discovery included the first imaging of exoplanets directly by telescopes and indirect detection methods such as the transit method and radial velocity method.
What Is A Plot In A Story Images And Photos FinderChristine Maffla
Here are the key aspects of grounded theory according to Glaser and Strauss:
- Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon.
- The researcher does not begin with a preconceived theory in mind but rather allows the conceptualization of theories to emerge from the data through a process of constant comparison between data collection and analysis.
- Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously in an iterative process where each informs and shapes the other. The researcher alternates between collecting data and analyzing it to develop theoretical categories.
- Through coding and analysis, concepts and categories are developed to construct a theory that is "grounded" in or derived from
The document discusses how class has become an integral part of societies. It divides societies based on factors like gender, education, occupation, and wealth. These dividing factors shape how individuals are perceived by their peers and form the basis of social classes. While the elements that determine one's class may seem arbitrary, class influences daily interactions and how people perceive each other, whether consciously or not.
Miss GiraffeS Class October Writing Crafts For KidsChristine Maffla
The document discusses the steps to request writing assistance from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and reviewing writer bids before choosing a writer and placing a deposit to start the assignment. It notes that customers can request revisions until satisfied with the high-quality original content and receive a refund if plagiarism is found.
College Application Essay Editing Ser. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
The document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net service to have college application essays edited, including creating an account, submitting a request with instructions and materials, reviewing writer bids and choosing a writer, revising the edited essay if needed, and being able to request revisions to ensure satisfaction with the editing services. The process involves a bidding system for writers, deposit payment, and guarantee of original and high-quality work or a full refund.
The document discusses the Freudian concepts of the id, ego, and superego and how they are represented by characters in William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies. Sigmund Freud proposed that people are made up of an id (wanting immediate gratification), ego (feeding the id in socially acceptable ways), and superego (doing things for the greater good). In Lord of the Flies, Golding uses Jack to represent the id, always seeking what he wants without restraint. Ralph represents the ego, attempting to satisfy desires appropriately. Piggy embodies the superego, acting for the benefit of the group.
College Essay Descriptive Paragraph About A PersonChristine Maffla
This research paper examines two extinct species: the archaeopteryx and the dodo bird. The archaeopteryx, which lived around 150 million years ago, was considered the first bird or a transitional form between reptiles and birds. It had both feathered wings and claws, and was a carnivore that preyed on small animals. The dodo bird was a flightless bird that became extinct after humans arrived on its island habitat. The paper explores these two extinct species that no longer exist today.
1. The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net in order to request that a writer complete an assignment. It outlines registering with an email and password, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and choosing a writer to complete the work.
2. After receiving a completed paper, the customer can request revisions if needed and pay the writer upon approval. HelpWriting.net offers refunds for plagiarized work.
3. The site uses a bidding system where writers submit bids for assignments, and customers choose a writer based on qualifications, history, and feedback to start the writing process.
Why You Need A Ghostwriter And How To Be A GhostwritChristine Maffla
The document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net ghostwriting service, including how to create an account, submit a paper request by completing an order form, review bids from writers and choose one to complete the assignment, and authorize payment after receiving and approving the completed paper. The service allows for multiple revisions to ensure customer satisfaction and offers refunds for plagiarized work.
016 College Essay Organizer Example First Sentence PChristine Maffla
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from the HelpWriting.net website in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and attach a sample if wanting the writer to imitate your style.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications, history, and feedback, then pay a deposit to start.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize final payment if pleased, or request free revisions.
5. Choose HelpWriting.net confidently knowing you can request multiple revisions until satisfied, and receive a full refund if the paper is plagiarized.
Free Writing Worksheets For 4Th Grade - Uirunisaza.Web.Christine Maffla
This document outlines the goals and objectives of a project called Enterprise Connect. The main goal is to revolutionize connections between employees in a company by improving how employees interact with each other. Key objectives include making managers more accessible to their teams and allowing easier collaboration across departments. The project aims to streamline communication and boost productivity through a new internal communication platform.
How To Write An Interview Paper Format. Online assignment writing service.Christine Maffla
The document discusses Shintoism and the Ise Grand Shrine in Japan. It explains that the Ise Grand Shrine is the most important Shinto shrine and is dedicated to Amaterasu, the sun goddess. Amaterasu is an important deity in Japanese mythology and art. The shrine represents her with three symbols - cocks, a mirror, and a raven.
Zaner-Bloser Handwriting Grade K Homeschool Bundle-StudenChristine Maffla
This study uses molecular dynamics simulations to examine how the orientation of Stone Thrower Wales defects impacts the mechanical properties of graphene. Different types of STW defects are introduced in linear and angular orientations along the zigzag and armchair directions of graphene. The results provide insights into how the mechanical properties of graphene, such as strength and flexibility, can be tailored by controlling the placement and structure of defects. Understanding these effects could inform applications of defect-engineered graphene in flexible electronics and nanodevices.
009 Essay Example How To Cite Poem In ThatsnotusChristine Maffla
The document discusses the role of the insula in language processing. It begins by defining the insula as a cortical region along the floor of the Sylvian fissure. Recent studies suggest the insula plays a role in complex articulation, syntactic encoding, apraxia of speech, word repetition, and production of complex consonant clusters, pseudowords, and non-native syllables. The evidence presented shows greater left anterior insula activation during tasks involving novel or complex speech sounds compared to overlearned sounds.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A case of quick problem solving in birds string pulling in keas, Nestor notabilis.pdf
1. A case of quick problem solving in birds: string pulling
in keas, Nestor notabilis
DAGMAR WERDENICH*† & LUDWIG HUBER*
*Department for Behavior, Neurobiology and Cognition, University of Vienna
yKonrad Lorenz Institute for Ethology, Vienna
(Received 8 September 2004; initial acceptance 13 October 2004;
final acceptance 8 June 2005; published online 28 February 2006; MS. number: 8268R)
Keas are extremely inquisitive birds that explore and manipulate objects with their beak and feet when
foraging or at play. We investigated how captive keas face a problem that they have never encountered
before: food objects suspended from a long string. Using this well-probed test for means–end comprehen-
sion, our aim was to see whether, and how, the keas solved the task. The seven subjects showed immediate
interest in the string and, with the exception of a fledgling, reached the food by repeating combined ac-
tions of pulling up the string with the beak and holding loops of it against the perch with a foot. Four keas
completed the first trial within a few seconds, by showing only goal-directed behaviour, thus executing the
solution in a manner that could not be improved upon in nine further trials. The behaviour of the fledg-
ling shows that the crucial element of the string-pulling competence is the beak–foot coordination. We
then conducted four different two-string discrimination tests varying in the attachments and the spatial
relationship of the strings to assess the keas’ level of understanding of the functional properties of the
task. The subjects’ performance suggests that their attention is drawn very quickly to the relevant proper-
ties of the strings, that is, their connection between perch and food. These findings contribute to the on-
going debate on the distribution of higher cognitive skills in the animal kingdom by showing high levels
of sensorimotor intelligence in animals that do not use tools.
Ó 2006 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
For many decades, researchers have tried to get a glimpse
into the ‘folk physics’ of animals, that is, their common-
sense understanding of how the world works, as well as
why it works in the way it does (Köhler 1921; reviewed in
Beck 1980; Tomasello & Call 1997; Povinelli 2000; Matsu-
zawa 2001). Many researchers now believe that it is not
only humans but also many large-brained animals that de-
velop an increasing ability to understand causal relation-
ships with increasing experience, with language being
only a powerful accelerator of this process, rather than
a prerequisite (Rumbaugh et al. 2000).
Causal understanding requires assigning cause–effect or
means–end relationships to the physical or social world
through either observation or insight. Such causal re-
lationships between objects might lead to the representa-
tion of abstract concepts, such as ‘connectivity’ (Hauser
1997), or the construction of a chain of responses that
lead to a goal, or simply the generalization of responses
to similar situations. Only experimental work can eluci-
date which perceptual-motor abilities are involved and
which steps of the solution are achieved in cases where
animals appear at first sight to behave creatively or in-
sightfully. The apprehension of a cause–effect relationship
between two or more physical objects determines how ob-
jects are manipulated, which of several alternative objects
are used, and how the individual responses are assembled
into a coherent whole.
The ability to gain access to food that is out of reach has
long been regarded as a valid example of apprehension of
a cause–effect relationship (Köhler 1921; Piaget 1954).
Many experiments testing birds’ abilities to use a physical
object to obtain food that is out of reach have involved
the string-pulling task. Known since ancient times and
used in animal research for many decades (reviewed in
Seibt & Wickler, in press), this task involves the presenta-
tion of food suspended by a string or thread fixed to
a perch, not accessible from the ground or from flight
(Dücker & Rensch 1977). The most effective and intelli-
gent solution to this problem has been described by Hein-
rich (1995, 2000) with common ravens, Corvus corax. It
requires that the bird repeats the following sequence sev-
eral times: reaching down from the perch, grasping the
Correspondence: L. Huber, Department for Behavior, Neurobiology and
Cognition, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Biocenter,
Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria (email: ludwig.huber@
univie.ac.at).
855
0003–3472/06/$30.00/0 Ó 2006 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 2006, 71, 855–863
doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.06.018
2. string with the beak, pulling the string up, placing the
pulled-up loop of string on the perch, then pressing
a foot down on the loop and letting go with the beak so
that the bird can reach down to pull up another loop
(Fig. 1). If a bird has achieved this solution spontaneously,
and the complete act has been accomplished in a rapid
and smooth manner without any fumbling, we would
probably agree with Thorpe (1956) in seeing nothing sug-
gestive of trial-and-error learning. However, out of more
than 15 species of birds initially tested with the string-
pulling task only ravens seem to understand the cause–
effect relationship between food, string and perch, use
effective techniques instantaneously, in contrast to a num-
ber of other species that do not, and generalize the solu-
tion to various situations (Heinrich 2000).
Besides corvids (Emery & Clayton 2004), parrots are es-
pecially well known for performing amazing cognitive
tasks. Recently, Funk (2002) reported some string-pulling
competence in yellow-crowned parakeets, Cyanoramphus
auriceps, and Pepperberg (2004) in language-trained grey
parrots, Psittacus erithacus. A parrot species that has re-
ceived public attention because of its alleged intelligence
and curiosity is the kea (Diamond & Bond 1999). This
bird’s explorative attitude, combined with its persistent
and rigorous destructiveness and almost total lack of neo-
phobia, makes it the ideal candidate for the study of
means–end comprehension and sensorimotor intelligence
in birds (Huber et al. 2001; Gajdon et al. 2004).
Despite the obvious problems of controlled testing in
field situations, Johnston (1999) successfully addressed
the string-pulling abilities of wild keas. Of 19 freely partici-
pating keas six solved the problem in their first trial, with
the median time to completion being 50 s. Other individ-
uals did not instantly master the task or never solved it,
suggesting that responses are not innate.
In our experiments we attempted to examine the keas’
sensorimotor intelligence under controlled laboratory con-
ditions by using a set-up that allows a distinction between
(1) finding the solution by chance, (2) executing innate
responses, (3) trial-and-error learning, and (4) means–
end comprehension. Because we were interested in the
goal directedness of the actions and were aware that keas
may learn from even a few errors, we performed a detailed
analysis of the initial steps they took to achieve success in
Figure 1. Six frames of a video clip (a–f) showing a kea performing string pulling in the first test.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 71, 4
856
3. their first attempt to secure the food reward. To examine
the behavioural variability and the amount of learning we
compared the performance across trials. Furthermore,
following Heinrich’s (1995, 2000) comprehensive attempt
to examine the cognitive aspects of string pulling in ravens,
we devised four patterned string-pulling problems. By
varying shape, colour, length and weight of the strings as
well as their spatial relationship to each other we assessed
the keas’ level of understanding of the functional proper-
ties of the task.
METHODS
Study Animals
Seven captive keas at the Konrad Lorenz Institute for
Ethology in Vienna, Austria, participated in this study.
One group consisted of the female Kima (6 years) and the
males Bigo (4 years), John (3 years), Knut (2 years) and
Bruce (7 months) and the other of the female Tiffy
(6 years) and the male Mismo (3 years). All individuals
were born in captivity and reared by their parents. They
were fully habituated to humans who interacted with
them as feeders or experimenters.
The subjects were kept in two large aviaries, providing
outdoor conditions year round. The aviary for the large
group (15 10 m and 4 m high) and the aviary for Tiffy
and Mismo (5 4 m and 3 m high) could both be divided
into three compartments. Both aviaries were equipped
with tree trunks, rocks, pieces of wood, perches and
wooden shelters and the ground was covered with sand.
Chains holding heavy branches were present in the aviary,
but could not be lifted by the keas. Except for these items,
no string-like objects had been presented to them. Water
and food, which contained a mixture of vegetables, fruits,
seeds, margarine, ox heart and vitamin supplements every
day, were available ad libitum. Individual recognition of
the birds was facilitated by coloured leg bands. No licence
was required for this study.
Apparatus
We conducted the experimental tests in a visually
separated corner of the aviary, using a wooden perch
and different objects attached to one or more vertical
strings (Fig. 2). The perch (170 cm long, 5 5 cm in cross-
section) was supported by two poles (170 cm high) that
were screwed into wooden bases measuring 60 60 cm.
One or two plastic strings were nailed to the underside
of the perch. In the various tests we used strings that dif-
fered in colour, length and spatial relationships. We used
thin wire attached to the poles at a height of 115 cm to
cross the strings or to bring them into a slanted position
(Fig. 2). Fixed to the ends of the strings were objects of
different shape, texture and weight, such as a yellow toy
car (25 g), a black Kodak film canister (20 g), a piece of
wood (50 g) and a stone (2000 g). Baiting one of the
objects with a mixture of butter and egg yolk provided
a food reward.
Procedure
The keas received six string-pulling tests. Before starting
the experiment we allowed the keas to investigate the
wooden perch without the string for 1 h on 3 consecutive
days. None of them had ever experienced rewards on
a string and they received no string-pulling training prior
to the experiments. They were tested individually with the
same number of trials in the same sequence of tests, but
we changed the order in which they participated every
day. Usually we conducted two sessions per day, one in
the morning (from 0900 hours) and one in the afternoon
(from 1500 hours). Video recording enabled us to analyse
the details of the keas’ behaviour.
Test 1
Test 5 Test 6
Test 3 Test 4
Test 2
Figure 2. Diagrams showing the single string in tests 1 and 6 and the
spatial relationships between the two strings in tests 2–5. The way in
which the crossed and the slanted strings were kept in position by
thin wires is also shown.
WERDENICH HUBER: STRING PULLING IN KEAS 857
4. Test 1: single string-pulling task
This initial task tested the keas’ ability to pull up a baited
toy that was suspended 70 cm from the horizontal perch
by a single yellow string. Before the experiment, the prese-
lected individual was lured into the test compartment and
the other individuals locked into another compartment of
the aviary, from which they could not see the test subject.
The subjects received 10 trials in immediate succession.
During the intertrial interval (20–30 s), the experimenter
(D.W.) baited the object on the string while the bird flew
to another perch in the aviary.
Test 2: object discrimination task
To see how the object on the string controlled the keas’
pulling behaviour, we presented in three consecutive
sessions of 10 trials each two strings, one with the baited
object attached, as before, and one with a piece of wood
attached. The three sessions differed in the baited object
(the toy of test 1 in the first session, a film canister in the
other two) and the colour of the strings (both yellow in
the first two sessions; the string with the baited object was
red in the third one). In this test, as in all other patterned
string problems, we determined the position of the
rewarded string for each session in an arbitrary manner
by tossing a coin. The subjects could investigate both
objects for about 10 s before the first trial. Test 2 followed
immediately after the last trial of test 1.
Test 3: crossed strings task
By crossing the strings we wanted to assess whether the
keas’ choice was determined by the spatial or the functional
relationship between string and reward, that is, if they
pulled at the string directly above the baited object as in the
40 trials before or based their choice on the functional
connection between food and string. The food container
was now suspended 20 cm laterally to where it was located
before (Fig. 2). We conducted two 30-trial sessions to exam-
ine improvement of performance. While in these sessions
we used strings of different colour to ensure that the birds
could follow the strings from one end to the other, we
used two yellow strings in a further 20-trial session.
Test 4: slanted strings task
In this task, the two yellow strings were bent off to the
same side (Fig. 2). Although the food container was again
directly below where the unbaited string was attached to
the perch, the strings did not cross. We conducted one
20-trial session.
Test 5: overload string task
In a 20-trial session, the keas could choose between two
yellow strings, one with the food container and the other
with a heavy (2000-g) stone baited with a large amount of
butter. This task tested whether the choices were influ-
enced by relevant physical properties of the attached
objects (their weight).
Test 6: overlength string task
In this 20-trial task we wanted to test the flexibility of
problem solving in keas. Over the preceding 160 trials, the
keas were trained to pull up the string from the perch they
were sitting on but in this task the length of the string was
140 cm, enabling the subject to reach the reward from the
ground.
RESULTS
Performance in the Single String-pulling Task
All keas showed immediate interest and flew directly to
the perch. None tried to obtain the reward by flying
directly at the toy or by jumping up to it from the ground.
With the exception of the fledgling (Bruce) they solved
the task in their first trial.
Table 1. Action list and action sequences in the keas’ first attempt to
secure the reward
Action
number
Efficient
actions N
Inefficient
actions N
Exploratory
actions
1 Lands on
perch
12 Tries to
place
string on
perch but
does not
succeed
17 Nibbles
string
2 Reaches for
string with
beak
13 Tries to
place
foot on
string but
does not
succeed
18 Nibbles
perch
3 Pulls up
string
with beak
14 Drops
string
after
having
pulled
it up
19 Touches
string
4 Places string
on perch
15 Sits on
perch
5 Uses one foot
to hold string
on perch
16 Flies off
perch
6 Uses both feet
to hold string
on perch
7 Pulls up string
until body is
upright and
therefore gains
more string
8 Grabs string
directly with
foot
9 Takes one or
more steps
sideways on
perch holding
string with beak
10 Lets go of string
with beak to
reach down
again
11 Gains
reward after
having pulled
up string
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 71, 4
858
5. A detailed analysis of the actions of the keas in their first
attempt revealed that they fell into three subgroups with
regard to their goal directedness in the single string-
pulling task (Tables 1, 2). Four subjects showed mostly ef-
ficient, rather than exploratory, actions, including the key
elements of pulling up and stepping on the string (see
Table 1 for the categorization of actions). Given that the
birds were facing the problem for the first time, they
found this solution very rapidly (9–15 s; Table 3). Even
more striking, these ‘immediate solvers’ did not show
any improvement across the further nine trials of the
task. They also never attempted to fly off with the food ob-
ject once it was recovered.
Although taking the group as a whole, there was also no
significant difference in latency or number of pull-ups
between the first and the second trial (Wilcoxon test:
latency: T ¼ 7, N ¼ 7, P ¼ 0.24; pull-ups: T ¼ 10, N ¼ 7,
P ¼ 0.5) or the first and the 10th trial (latency: T ¼ 3,
N ¼ 7, P ¼ 0.06; pull-ups: T ¼ 1.5, N ¼ 7, P ¼ 0.06), it is ev-
ident that the two remaining subgroups behaved differ-
ently from the immediate solvers. The juvenile Knut and
the adult Tiffy showed many exploratory actions (nib-
bling), executed the efficient actions more slowly and
left the perch once or more before completing the task.
They dramatically improved their methods in the second
trial, but not thereafter (Table 3). The fledgling Bruce was
the only bird that was completely unable to secure the
food toy in his first attempts. Only after 1 month and
three further trials did he solve the string-pulling task.
One obvious measure of string-pulling skill is how often
the string is dropped (Table 3). In fact, the 7-month-old
fledgling’s (Bruce) bad performance in the first trial is re-
flected by the large number of drops. In his first trial he
pecked at the string and pulled it up with his beak a few
centimetres. Only twice was he able to hold the string
with his foot but he seemed unable to coordinate his
movements and to repeat the correct sequence several
times. After three unsuccessful sessions (each of 10 min
on 3 consecutive days) we stopped testing him for 1
month. When tested again he became successful only af-
ter three further 10-min trials. The obvious challenge
was to move the beak holding the string towards the
foot and thereby place the string directly underneath
the foot. When he managed to do this, he could hold
the string with the foot more accurately and repeat the
necessary movements until he reached the reward. In
Table 2. Action sequences of individual keas in their first attempt to secure the reward
Subjects Action sequence
Bigo 1-2-17-3-4-5-6-10-2-3-4-5-10-2-3-4-5-10-2-3-4-5-10-2-3-4-5-10-2-3-4-5-11
John 1-2-17-3-5-10-2-3-5-9-6-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-9-6-10-2-3-4-5-11
Kima 1-2-3-5-10-2-3-6-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-9-5-11
Mismo 1-2-17-3-9-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-5-11
Knut 1-2-17-17-10-18-2-17-17-10-2-17-2-3-5-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-10-14-2-17-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-14-16-1-2-3-9-5-
10-2-3-5-10-14-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-14-2-3-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-5-11
Tiffy 1-2-17-3-5-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-5-17-14-18-18-18-2-3-14-2-17-2-17-17-17-17-18-18-18-15-18-18-16-1-16-1-2-17-2-17-2-3-6-
10-14-2-19-2-3-6-10-2-3-5-3-4-17-3-9-5-10-2-3-8-10-17-10-14-18-15-2-17-3-10-14-2-3-6-10-2-3-9-5-10-2-3-5-10-2-3-5-10-
2-3-5-10-2-3-9-6-11
Bruce 1-2-17-17-3-13-14-2-17-3-3-12-14-2-3-3-12-13-14-2-3-3-13-7-13-14-18-18-18-18-18-2-3-4-5-17-14-2-3-13-14-2-3-14-2-3-
17-3-13-14-2-17-3-4-13-14-2-3-13-14-2-3-4-5-17-4-13-14-2-3-4-5-17-4-6-10-14-2-3-4-5-7-5-4-13-14-2-3-4-13-4-5-17-13-4-
6-17-8-17-7-13-14-2-3-4-5-7-13-14-2-3-7-13-7-9-4-5-10-2-3-3-9-4-13-14-2-3-3-7-9-4-5-7-5-7-14-2-3-3-7-14-2-3-3-7-9-4-
13-14-2-3-7-9-4-5-10-2-3-4-5-6-11
See Table 1 for list of actions. Exploratory and inefficient actions are in bold. The action sequence of Bruce was recorded during his second test
1 month after his first (unsuccessful) attempts (see text).
Table 3. Performance in the single string-pulling task
Trial
Subjects
Bigo Bruce* John Kima Knut Mismo Tiffy
T P D T P D T P D T P D T P D T P D T P D
1 12 5 0 369 30 19 15 4 0 9 4 0 120 16 4 13 6 0 330 17 5
2 10 6 0 24 4 2 11 7 0 21 7 1 18 9 1 26 9 1 32 11 2
3 9 5 0 17 3 0 4 5 0 15 5 0 10 5 0 13 5 1 17 6 0
4 17 7 1 33 4 1 6 5 0 11 5 0 10 6 0 16 5 1 15 8 0
5 7 3 0 40 8 4 6 6 0 16 6 0 11 6 1 26 5 1 14 6 1
6 10 4 0 13 4 2 13 5 1 13 5 0 13 6 1 24 6 3 29 11 2
7 22 6 1 120 10 3 6 7 0 17 7 0 17 8 1 15 3 1 18 5 0
8 13 8 0 13 1 0 8 7 0 17 7 1 9 5 0 8 3 0 14 4 0
9 10 4 0 86 8 5 9 5 0 11 5 0 10 5 0 14 4 2 25 10 0
10 13 5 0 65 21 7 6 6 0 12 6 0 10 5 0 6 1 0 11 5 0
T: time to completion (s); P: number of pulls; D: number of drops.
*For Bruce data are given not for his first session, but for the session including his first successful trial (see text).
WERDENICH HUBER: STRING PULLING IN KEAS 859
6. his previous attempts, he held the string with the beak in
an upright position and tried to place the foot on the ver-
tically dangling string. While in this first successful trial
the step-on method emerged slowly, it was executed in
a quick and fluent manner in the next trial.
The female Tiffy also showed some improvement with
respect to the number of drops. In contrast, the remaining
keas showed small numbers of drops from the beginning
of the task (Table 3). These five individuals had no prob-
lem holding the string with their claws or by stepping
on it; four of them never dropped the string with the
food in the first trial.
Methods Used to Obtain the Reward
Although the task seemed to require straightforward
solutions, we found a considerable variation in the
techniques shown and in the frequency of their usage.
Taken together, the group of keas performed nine different
techniques when confronted with the various tests
(Table 4). Combinations of up to five different methods
per trial occurred. Only four methods, loop making, side
walking, turn and upright pull, were shown by all individ-
uals. The variation in methods used in alternation re-
mained consistently high across tasks.
Performance in the String Discrimination Tasks
An analysis of the subjects’ individual performances in
the four discrimination tests revealed some variation
between tests and subjects. We scored their choice in
a trial as ‘correct’ if they started with a clear pulling action
at the baited string. Note that at the onset of test 2, all
birds were proficient at the string-pulling task.
In test 2, which required a discrimination between the
baited and the unbaited object, all seven subjects per-
formed extremely well. Only two (Kima and Mismo) failed
in the first trial, but none in the following two trials. The
string with the baited toy was chosen by the group in 86%
of all 10 trials, in 83% of all further 10 trials with the food
container, and in 84% of the 10 trials with strings of
different colour.
In the crossed strings task, the birds faced much greater
problems. Only one bird (John) chose the correct string in
the first trial (as well as in 27 of the 29 following trials,
with the failures occurring in the second and 25th trials).
Three birds (Bruce, Knut and Mismo) learned quickly after
the failure in the first trial (with 24, 25 and 25 correct trials
thereafter), one bird only after a number of failures (Bigo,
with two correct choices in the first 13 trials and 14 correct
choices in the remaining 17 trials), and two birds (Kima
and Tiffy) remained at chance level throughout the 30
trials (12 and 16 correct trials). In the repetition phase
(further 30 trials), all birds were overwhelmingly correct,
with a minimum of 26 correct trials out of 30 trials (group
performance: 91%). When we used the same colour for
both strings, four birds failed in the first trial, and four
birds remained confused during 19 further trials. Only
Bruce, John and Knut performed significantly well (bi-
nomial test: P 0.02).
In the slanted strings task, all birds performed well.
Only Bigo failed in the first trial. The percentage of correct
choices in the first 10 trials of the whole group was 87%
and in the next 10 trials 86%. In the first trial of the
overload test, three birds (John, Knut and Tiffy) failed.
Some learning occurred thereafter, as the percentage of
correct choices in the first 10 trials of the whole group was
81% and in the next 10 trials 93%.
In the final overlength string task, the birds could easily
obtain the reward by flying to the ground near the food
container. However, after 160 trials in which they were
required to pull up the string from the perch, six birds
continued to use their pulling technique, although it
sometimes took them almost 1 min or 20 correct pulls.
Only one female (Tiffy) changed her behaviour. After 11
pulling trials she flew some distance away from the perch,
then returned to the apparatus by successively climbing
Table 4. The relative frequencies of methods used to solve the tasks
Subjects
Methods
Flip Foot grab Foot stretch Loop making Side walking Turn Upright pull Wrap Down
Bigo 0.4 0.7 0.3 58.9 32.4 1.1 6.2 0.0 0.0
Bruce 0.7 2.3 0.0 5.6 60.0 2.6 28.3 0.4 0.0
John 2.3 1.0 0.4 54.6 28.3 0.4 13.0 0.0 0.0
Kima 0.0 6.6 0.0 7.6 57.8 2.0 26.0 0.0 0.0
Knut 2.0 0.0 0.0 22.5 66.5 5.9 3.1 0.0 0.0
Mismo 0.0 0.8 0.0 9.7 76.6 3.8 9.0 0.0 0.0
Tiffy 0.5 3.8 3.3 23.2 32.4 7.1 27.7 0.0 2.1
Total 0.8 2.2 0.6 26.0 50.6 3.3 16.2 0.1 0.3
Flip: reaching down and flipping the string to the other side of the perch; Foot grab: grabbing the string with the foot and placing it on the
perch; Foot stretch: standing on the string with both feet, moving the foot with the loose end of the string laterally on the perch and thereby
pulling the string up; Loop making: reaching down, pulling up string with the beak, placing the foot on the string, letting go of the string with
the beak, remaining in place, reaching down again; Side walking: reaching down, pulling up the string with the beak, walking to the side of the
perch, placing the foot on the string, reaching down again; Turn: turning the whole body 180
while holding the string and stepping on the
additional string with the feet; Upright pull: pulling up the string till the body is in a completely upright position and thus gaining more string;
Wrap: pulling up the string, letting go at the other side of the perch, pulling up at the other side and by repeating these steps wrapping the
string around the perch; Down: taking the food container from the ground (only possible in test 6).
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 71, 4
860
7. down branches and finally got close to the string on the
ground, from where she easily obtained the reward. In
all further trials she flew directly to the ground near the
food cup.
DISCUSSION
Inspired by Heinrich’s (1995, 2000) studies with ravens,
and in accord with findings obtained from wild keas
(Johnston 1999), our experiments with captive keas indi-
cate that these parrots are very efficient at finding a solu-
tion to a nontrivial technical problem and at
discriminating between stimuli based on the functionality
of an object and its relationship to other objects. So far,
only grey parrots and ravens have proved to behave simi-
larly well in such means–end object retrieval tasks (Pep-
perberg 2004; Heinrich Bugnyar 2005). Several
characteristics of our keas’ performance invite discussion
in comparison to other published experiments and to
the existing theories of the cognitive processes underlying
problem solving in animals.
First, all keas except the fledgling solved the string-
pulling task by coordinating beak and a foot in their first
trial. Four of those successful keas retrieved the food object
dangling on a string instantaneously and without show-
ing exploratory or ineffective methods (such as flying up
from the ground or pecking at the string as ravens did; see
Heinrich Bugnyar 2005). This is, to our knowledge, by
far the quickest manner in which the string-pulling prob-
lem has been solved by birds. Perhaps they had worked
out a solution to the retrieval problem even before their
first trial run.
Second, it is remarkable that from the first trial of the
initial single string-pulling task onwards there was no
significant improvement of the group across the test.
Neither the time to completion nor the number of pulls
or drops decreased in our whole bird sample in a signifi-
cant manner. In contrast, in all other birds tested so far,
including ravens (Heinrich 1995; Heinrich Bugnyar
2005), improvement in performance was on the whole
gradual and intermittent. We might therefore argue that
the overt construction, rather than the explicit training,
of a sequence of actions in order to bring about an effect
was the key achievement in the keas’ string-pulling
behaviour.
Third, the keas’ behaviour remained flexible, as they
used different techniques throughout all string-pulling
tests, that is, for about 180 trials. Although there was some
evidence of an increase in the efficiency of particular
action elements, the keas did not eliminate techniques.
We suggest that the elimination of methods is hampered
in keas by their strong inclination towards object explo-
ration and object play. Nevertheless, as is evident from the
short task completion times, the majority of their actions
were food directed and guided by some understanding of
the key functional features or affordances of the task. Only
in the test with the extra long string did they behave
stubbornly. However, 160 rewarded pull-ups of the string
might have narrowed their attention towards the end of
the string. Only tests with na€
ıve animals may elucidate
the true problem-solving capacities of keas in this task.
Finally, the keas showed very high success rates in the
discrimination tasks, thereby demonstrating attendance
to the end and the configuration of the strings. The two-
string choice experiments showed that the birds instan-
taneously distinguished between strings with baited and
unbaited objects. Such immediate solutions were obvi-
ously not achieved in the crossed and slanted strings tasks.
Except for one raven in Heinrich’s study (1995) there are
no reports to our knowledge of birds solving this problem.
Even for primates the solution is not always immediate
and may require an extended period of learning (reviewed
in Tomasello Call 1997; Povinelli 2000).
The most advanced solution in the crossed and slanted
strings tasks would require the possession of a ‘concept of
connectedness’ (Piaget 1954). However, without present-
ing in probe trials strings that vary in the visual salience
of connectedness, it remains unclear to what extent an
understanding of ‘contact’ is grounded in a genuine ap-
preciation of physical connection (Hauser 1997; Povinelli
2000). A less advanced although equally effective solution
would require attendance to the perceptually tangible cues
of the strings, particularly the continuity of the paths, as
opposed to causally imperceptible physical factors. How-
ever, tracing the paths of the strings is difficult when fac-
ing a crossing at some distance. The much better
performance in the slanted strings task than in the crossed
strings task might be counted as evidence that tracing the
paths of the strings was the critical element in the keas’
discrimination performance.
How does this study contribute to the ongoing discus-
sion about the evolution of cognition? In the past, the
string-pulling task has been used to examine whether
animals apply an evolutionarily ‘programmed’ solution, or
learn by trial and error (instrumental conditioning), or
show means–end behaviour. However, it is unlikely that
these alternatives constitute exclusive options for an
animal in the string-pulling situation. Obviously, the
execution of the motor acts involved rests on preprog-
rammed action elements. The real challenge in the string-
pulling task, of course, is the assembling of the actions
into a coherent whole. Gradual improvement was obvi-
ously not the dominant process underlying the keas’
performance. In addition, the collection of the necessary
proprioceptive experiences is arguably not sufficient for
the construction of an action sequence that is appropriate
for the task at hand. The early failures of the fledgling and
the great variability of techniques applied render an
explanation in terms of ‘preprogrammed’ solutions
unlikely.
Instead, there is increasing evidence that the apprehen-
sion of cause–effect relationships between two or more
physical objects, including the subject’s own body, guides
the covert assembly of the response sequence, the exact
manner in which objects are manipulated, and which of
several alternative objects are used (Hauser 1997; Heinrich
2000; Rumbaugh et al. 2000). Perhaps this is what Thorpe
(1956) called insight in contrast to trial-and-error learning,
in which actions are selected through reinforcement. We
believe that our keas’ string-pulling behaviour can be
best explained by such apprehension of a cause–effect re-
lationship and the adaptive reorganization of experience.
WERDENICH HUBER: STRING PULLING IN KEAS 861
8. Our study supports the hypothesis that keas manage to
solve complex technical tasks by some kind of under-
standing of means–end relationships and by attending to
the functional properties of objects. Captive keas in
Vienna have shown an ability to manipulate group
members in a cooperation task (Tebbich et al. 1996), to
understand the affordances of locking devices through ob-
servation of a conspecific (Huber et al. 2001), and to solve
difficult technical tasks quickly (Gajdon et al. 2004). An
interesting feature of these studies is the striking differ-
ence in performance of wild and captive keas. When
tested under controlled conditions, wild keas failed to
show convincing forms of social learning and horizontal
transmission of technical innovations (Gajdon et al.
2004, in press), and also performed less convincingly in
the string-pulling task (Johnston 1999) than the birds in
the present study. However, we should not make strong
claims about this difference before determining the effects
of group arousal, neophobia and the presence of humans
in the wild. Furthermore, string-pulling behaviour, and
most probably the performance in all problem-solving
tasks, depends on the experience and skill of the individ-
ual acquired prior to the experiment and on social strate-
gies, as has been shown recently in grey parrots
(Pepperberg 2004). In that study, those birds with little
training in referential English requests succeeded in string
pulling, whereas birds that could request the suspended
item failed to obtain the object but engaged in repeated re-
questing. The wild keas in Johnston’s (1999) study might
also have been engaged in social strategies and therefore
might have shown less goal-directed string-pulling behav-
iour than our individually tested keas.
In conclusion, the findings from parrot studies have
shown that neither extensive tool use and manufacturing,
as in New Caledonian crows, Corvus moneduloides (Hunt
1996), nor food caching and feeding in the vicinity of
dangerous predators, as in ravens (Heinrich 1999; Bugnyar
Kotrschal 2002), are the evolutionary recipe for ad-
vanced intelligence in birds. For primates, numerous re-
searchers have proposed that intelligence is a correlate of
having a complex social system and a long life (the so
called ‘social function of intellect’ hypothesis put forward
first by Jolly 1966 and Humphrey 1976). Marler (1996)
and later Emery Clayton (2004) have suggested similar
selection processes for birds, and Pepperberg (1999) added
emphasis on the combination of intelligence and ad-
vanced communication skills in parrots. Indeed, parrots
may rival corvids and primates not only in relative brain
and telencephalic volumes (Iwaniuk et al. 2005), but
also in some cognitive abilities.
Acknowledgments
Financial support was provided by the Austrian Science
Foundation (FWF-grant P15027-BIO). We acknowledge
the hospitality of the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Ethol-
ogy, with special thanks to H. Winckler and D. Penn.
We are grateful for the assistance and support of C.
Grabmayr for the keas’ well-being. We thank S. Rechberger
for help in conducting the experiments, G. Gajdon, T.
Bugnyar and R. Johnston for valuable discussion and
comments on the manuscript, and C. Reid for improving
the English.
References
Beck, B. B. 1980. Animal Tool Behavior. The Use and Manufacture of
Tools by Animals. New York: Garland.
Bugnyar, T. Kotrschal, K. 2002. Observational learning and the
raiding of food caches in ravens, Corvus corax: is it tactical decep-
tion? Animal Behaviour, 64, 185–195.
Diamond, J. Bond, A. B. 1999. Kea, Bird of Paradox. The Evolution
and Behaviour of a New Zealand Parrot. Berkeley, California: Uni-
versity of California Press.
Dücker, G. Rensch, B. 1977. The solution of patterned string
problems by birds. Behavior, 62, 164–173.
Emery, N. J. Clayton, N. S. 2004. The mentality of crows: conver-
gent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science, 306,
1903–1907.
Funk, M. S. 2002. Problem solving skills in young yellow-crowned
parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps). Animal Cognition, 5, 167–
176. doi:10.1007/s10071-002-0149-4.
Gajdon, G. K., Fijn, N. Huber, L. 2004. Testing social learning in
a wild mountain parrot, the kea (Nestor notabilis). Learning and
Behavior, 32, 62–71.
Gajdon, G. K., Fijn, N. Huber, L. In press. Limited spread of inno-
vation in a wild parrot, the kea (Nestor notabilis). Animal Cognition.
Hauser, M. 1997. Artifactual kinds and functional design features:
what a primate understands without language. Cognition, 64,
285–308.
Heinrich, B. 1995. An experimental investigation of insight in
common ravens (Corvus corax). Auk, 112, 994–1003.
Heinrich, B. 1999. Mind of the Raven. New York: Harper Collins.
Heinrich, B. 2000. Testing insight in ravens. In: The Evolution of Cog-
nition (Ed. by C. M. Heyes L. Huber), pp. 289–305. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Heinrich, B. Bugnyar, T. 2005. Testing problem solving in ravens:
string-pulling to reach food. Ethology, 111, 962–976.
Huber, L., Rechberger, S. Taborsky, M. 2001. Social learning af-
fects object exploration and manipulation in keas, Nestor notabilis.
Animal Behaviour, 62, 945–954. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1822.
Humphrey, N. K. 1976. The social function of intellect. In: Growing
Points in Ethology (Ed. by P. G. Bateson R. A. Hinde), pp. 303–
317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hunt, G. R. 1996. Manufacture and use of hook-tools by New
Caledonian crows. Nature, 379, 249–251.
Iwaniuk, A. N., Dean, K. M. Nelson, J. E. 2005. Interspecific
allometry of the brain and brain regions in parrots (Psittaciformes):
comparisons with other birds and primates. Brain, Behaviour and
Evolution, 65, 40–59.
Johnston, R. 1999. The kea (Nestor notabilis): a New Zealand prob-
lem or problem solver? M.Sc. thesis, University of Canterbury.
Jolly, A. 1966. Lemur social behavior and primate intelligence.
Science, 153, 501–506.
Köhler, W. 1921. The Mentality of Apes. London: Methuen.
Marler, P. 1996. Are primates smarter than birds? Current Ornithol-
ogy, 13, 1–32.
Matsuzawa, T. 2001. Primate Origins of Human Cognition and
Behavior. Tokyo: Springer.
Pepperberg, I. M. 1999. The Alex Studies. Cognitive and Communica-
tive Abilities of Gray Parrots. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press.
Pepperberg, I. M. 2004. ‘Insightful’ string-pulling in grey parrots
(Psittacus erithacus) is affected by vocal competence. Animal Cog-
nition, 7, 263–266.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 71, 4
862
9. Piaget, J. 1954. The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York:
Ballantine Books.
Povinelli, D. J. 2000. Folk Physics for Apes. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Rumbaugh, D. M., Beran, M. J. Hillix, W. A. 2000. Cause–effect
reasoning in humans and animals. In: The Evolution of Cognition
(Ed. by C. M. Heyes L. Huber), pp. 221–238. Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts: MIT Press.
Seibt, U. Wickler, W. In press. Individuality in problem solving:
string-pullingintwoCarduelisspecies(Aves:Passeriformes).Ethology.
Tebbich, S., Taborsky, M. Winkler, H. 1996. Social manipulation
causes cooperation in keas. Animal Behaviour, 52, 1–10.
Thorpe, W. H. 1956. Learning and Instinct in Animals. London:
Methuen.
Tomasello, M. Call, J. 1997. Primate Cognition. New York: Oxford
University Press.
WERDENICH HUBER: STRING PULLING IN KEAS 863