This document discusses design considerations for high step-down ratio buck converters. It begins with an overview of buck converter operation in continuous and discontinuous modes. It then lists typical specifications and design considerations such as input/output voltage ranges, efficiency targets, and size constraints. Improving efficiency is highlighted as critical for thermal management and reliability. Small signal modeling of the buck converter is presented, incorporating the PWM switch. Key MOSFET parameters like gate resistance and non-linear junction capacitance are also discussed.
This document presents a proposed zero-voltage transition fifth-order boost converter. A fifth-order boost converter has higher voltage gain but limitations at higher switching frequencies. Soft-switching techniques can remove these limitations. The proposed converter utilizes zero-voltage transition technique to achieve soft switching and improve efficiency. It analyzes the steady state operation and develops state-space models of the converter. The objective is to design a limitation free controller and simulate the complete system to validate the performance.
This document provides an overview of pulse-width modulated (PWM) DC/DC converters. It discusses typical applications, topologies including non-isolated converters like buck, boost and buck-boost converters. The principles of DC/DC converters like conversion ratio and voltage/current waveforms are introduced. Modes of operation for buck converters in continuous and discontinuous mode are examined. Component ratings for voltage and current are also covered.
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (II)Claudia Sin
The document discusses various aspects of integrated circuit design for power management circuits. It covers control loop design including biasing circuits, oscillators, comparators and operational amplifiers. It also discusses power stage design such as power transistors, synchronous rectification and active diodes. Finally it discusses peripheral circuits including undervoltage lockout, overcurrent protection and soft start circuits. The document provides guidelines and examples for analog integrated circuit design of switching converters and related circuits.
This chapter discusses discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) in power electronics. DCM occurs when inductor current or capacitor voltage ripple causes the applied switch current or voltage to reverse polarity. Analysis techniques for DCM include inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance. The chapter provides an example analysis of a buck converter in DCM and derives the mode boundary and conversion ratio equations.
Prof. Cuk invited talk at APEC 2011 plenary session to celebrate
35 years of his creation of this modeling and analysis method.
This talk was also recorded on video by IEEE.tv and can be viewed together. Here is a link to that video.
https://youtu.be/BLx57J2fF5w
Note: first few minutes of the video is Prof. Cuk's interview made after his presentation. This is thern followed by full 25 minutes presentation, which can be followed by the enclosed 67 slides.
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (I)Claudia Sin
by Wing-Hung Ki
Integrated Power Electronics Laboratory
ECE Dept., HKUST
Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong
www.ee.ust.hk/~eeki
International Symposium on Integrated Circuits
Singapore, Dec. 14, 2009
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (I)Claudia Sin
This document provides an overview of a tutorial on integrated circuit design of power management circuits. The tutorial covers topics such as switching converters, including fundamentals and control techniques; bandgap references; charge pumps; and low dropout regulators. It lists these topics along with brief descriptions in an agenda. It then begins discussing switching converters in more detail, covering concepts such as steady state analysis, lossless elements, buck, boost and buck-boost converter topologies, volt-second balance, continuous and discontinuous conduction modes, and efficiency calculations.
Design and implementation of cyclo converter for high frequency applicationscuashok07
This document presents a design and implementation of a 3-phase cyclo-converter for high frequency applications. It uses an H-bridge inverter to generate a constant voltage at an RLC load. MOSFETs are used as switching devices due to their high switching speed. The purpose is to convert low frequency AC to high frequency AC without switching losses. MATLAB Simulink and Keil software are used to simulate the power and control circuits respectively.
This document presents a proposed zero-voltage transition fifth-order boost converter. A fifth-order boost converter has higher voltage gain but limitations at higher switching frequencies. Soft-switching techniques can remove these limitations. The proposed converter utilizes zero-voltage transition technique to achieve soft switching and improve efficiency. It analyzes the steady state operation and develops state-space models of the converter. The objective is to design a limitation free controller and simulate the complete system to validate the performance.
This document provides an overview of pulse-width modulated (PWM) DC/DC converters. It discusses typical applications, topologies including non-isolated converters like buck, boost and buck-boost converters. The principles of DC/DC converters like conversion ratio and voltage/current waveforms are introduced. Modes of operation for buck converters in continuous and discontinuous mode are examined. Component ratings for voltage and current are also covered.
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (II)Claudia Sin
The document discusses various aspects of integrated circuit design for power management circuits. It covers control loop design including biasing circuits, oscillators, comparators and operational amplifiers. It also discusses power stage design such as power transistors, synchronous rectification and active diodes. Finally it discusses peripheral circuits including undervoltage lockout, overcurrent protection and soft start circuits. The document provides guidelines and examples for analog integrated circuit design of switching converters and related circuits.
This chapter discusses discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) in power electronics. DCM occurs when inductor current or capacitor voltage ripple causes the applied switch current or voltage to reverse polarity. Analysis techniques for DCM include inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance. The chapter provides an example analysis of a buck converter in DCM and derives the mode boundary and conversion ratio equations.
Prof. Cuk invited talk at APEC 2011 plenary session to celebrate
35 years of his creation of this modeling and analysis method.
This talk was also recorded on video by IEEE.tv and can be viewed together. Here is a link to that video.
https://youtu.be/BLx57J2fF5w
Note: first few minutes of the video is Prof. Cuk's interview made after his presentation. This is thern followed by full 25 minutes presentation, which can be followed by the enclosed 67 slides.
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (I)Claudia Sin
by Wing-Hung Ki
Integrated Power Electronics Laboratory
ECE Dept., HKUST
Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong
www.ee.ust.hk/~eeki
International Symposium on Integrated Circuits
Singapore, Dec. 14, 2009
IC Design of Power Management Circuits (I)Claudia Sin
This document provides an overview of a tutorial on integrated circuit design of power management circuits. The tutorial covers topics such as switching converters, including fundamentals and control techniques; bandgap references; charge pumps; and low dropout regulators. It lists these topics along with brief descriptions in an agenda. It then begins discussing switching converters in more detail, covering concepts such as steady state analysis, lossless elements, buck, boost and buck-boost converter topologies, volt-second balance, continuous and discontinuous conduction modes, and efficiency calculations.
Design and implementation of cyclo converter for high frequency applicationscuashok07
This document presents a design and implementation of a 3-phase cyclo-converter for high frequency applications. It uses an H-bridge inverter to generate a constant voltage at an RLC load. MOSFETs are used as switching devices due to their high switching speed. The purpose is to convert low frequency AC to high frequency AC without switching losses. MATLAB Simulink and Keil software are used to simulate the power and control circuits respectively.
This chapter discusses uncontrolled rectifiers, which convert AC to DC. It describes single-phase half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, as well as three-phase bridge rectifiers. Key performance parameters for rectifiers are defined, including efficiency, form factor, ripple factor, and power factor. Operation of a half-wave rectifier with resistive and inductive loads is examined. Application of rectifiers to battery chargers is also discussed.
The document discusses different types of transistors including MOSFETs and BJTs. It then covers the basic construction and operation of MOSFETs and CMOS logic gates like inverters, NOR gates, and NAND gates. Decoder circuits are also summarized. The remainder discusses static hazards, output characteristics testing, and common logic interface levels.
This document provides information on the CD4013B and CD4013BC dual D flip-flops. It includes general descriptions, features, applications, connection diagrams, truth tables, and electrical characteristics for the devices. The dual D flip-flops are CMOS integrated circuits that can be used for applications such as shift registers, counters, toggles, automotive systems, data terminals, instrumentation, and computers.
1. The document discusses the steady-state analysis of basic DC-DC converters like the Buck, Boost, and Buck-Boost converters in continuous conduction mode.
2. It introduces analysis methods based on the average values of inductor voltages and capacitor currents to determine output voltage expressions in terms of input voltage and duty cycle.
3. The analysis yields expressions for average and peak inductor and switch currents as well as maximum switch voltages.
1. The document discusses the steady-state analysis of DC-DC converters operating in continuous conduction mode (CCM), including the buck, boost, and buck-boost converters.
2. The analysis involves determining the main waveforms, applying Kirchhoff's laws to the average values of voltages and currents, and ensuring power balance at the input and output.
3. For the buck converter, the output voltage is less than the input voltage and equals the duty cycle times the input voltage. For the boost converter, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage and equals the input voltage divided by one minus the duty cycle.
This document discusses inverters and logic gates in VLSI design. It begins with an outline of topics covered, including nMOS and CMOS inverters, inverter characteristics, switching times, and CMOS logic structures. Diagrams and equations are provided to illustrate the DC and transient characteristics of inverters, including transfer characteristics, regions of operation, and rise/fall times. Design considerations for cascading inverters and driving large loads are also addressed. Transmission gates and static/dynamic CMOS design are briefly introduced.
The document describes experiments on rectifier and clipping circuits. It includes circuit diagrams and designs for a center tap full wave rectifier, bridge rectifier, and various clipping circuits using diodes. Procedures are provided to study the circuits, measure voltages, and compare results to theoretical values. Design examples are given for rectifiers and clipping circuits to meet specified output voltages and clipping levels.
This document discusses single-phase and three-phase rectifiers. It describes how a single-phase half-wave rectifier works by only allowing current to flow during one half of the AC cycle. Waveforms are provided for the voltage and current. When an inductive load is used, the current remains continuous. Performance parameters for rectifiers include efficiency, form factor, ripple factor, and total harmonic distortion. Three-phase bridge rectifiers are also covered.
This document is a lesson plan on multi-stage and differential amplifiers by Assoc Prof Zheng Yuanjin of Nanyang Technological University. It includes objectives, outlines the analysis of AC-coupled multi-stage amplifiers and differential amplifiers. It provides examples of a 3-stage amplifier and differential amplifier circuits. Key concepts covered are voltage gain, input and output resistances of multi-stage amplifiers, and differential and common mode gains of differential amplifiers. References and textbooks are listed for additional reading.
This document discusses power consumption in CMOS devices. It outlines the main sources of power dissipation including dynamic power, short circuit power, and static/leakage power. Dynamic power is proportional to the capacitive load and supply voltage. Short circuit power depends on the peak short circuit current. Static power includes leakage from reverse biased p-n junctions, subthreshold leakage, gate leakage, gate induced drain leakage, and punchthrough. The document discusses various techniques to reduce each component of power dissipation such as lowering supply voltage, increasing threshold voltage, and power gating.
This document discusses DC-DC converters, which convert a fixed DC source into a variable DC source like an AC transformer. It describes step-down converters, which use a switch like a BJT, MOSFET, or IGBT to alternately connect and disconnect the voltage source to produce a lower average output voltage. Key concepts covered include duty cycle, pulse-width modulation, modes of operation, generation of the switching signal, and analysis of a step-down converter with an RL load in continuous conduction mode.
The document discusses differential amplifiers. It begins by defining a differential amplifier as a circuit that amplifies the difference between two input signals. It then provides block diagrams and equations showing how the differential amplifier output is proportional to the difference of the two inputs. The document discusses concepts such as differential gain, common mode gain, common mode rejection ratio, and input and output resistances. It provides examples of differential amplifiers using field-effect transistors and discusses their operation. Finally, it compares a differential amplifier to two identical common-source amplifiers and discusses various configurations of differential amplifiers.
The chapter discusses input filter design for power electronics converters. It introduces the concepts of conducted electromagnetic interference (EMI) and how input filters can attenuate current harmonics to meet EMI regulations. However, input filters can negatively impact converter stability by changing the converter transfer functions. The chapter then examines how to analyze these impacts and provides criteria for proper input filter design, such as imposing impedance inequalities to minimize effects on stability. Sample impedance models are also presented for common converter types.
The SEPIC converter is a type of DC-DC converter that allows the output voltage to be greater than, less than, or equal to the input voltage. It uses two inductors and two capacitors in a unique configuration to achieve this. While more complex than a basic boost or buck converter, the SEPIC converter has advantages like having no average current pass through one of the capacitors and allowing impedance matching across the full operating range of a solar panel. Key components are rated for higher voltages and currents than a basic buck-boost converter.
The document discusses quasi-resonant converters and the half-wave zero-current-switching quasi-resonant switch cell. The switch cell uses a small resonant inductor and capacitor to achieve zero-current switching of the transistor. It operates in four subintervals per switching period: 1) transistor on, 2) resonant ringing, 3) capacitor discharging, 4) diode on. Mathematical analysis determines the waveforms and durations of each subinterval. Averaging the switch cell currents and voltages gives the conversion ratio, allowing the cell to be analyzed and incorporated into converter circuits.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
This chapter discusses principles of steady-state analysis of DC-DC power converters. It introduces the concepts of inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance, which allow determining converter steady-state behavior. These concepts are applied to example converters, including derivation of output voltage expressions and estimates of current/voltage ripple. The small-ripple approximation is also introduced to simplify analysis by ignoring higher-frequency switching components.
The document discusses the design of a power factor correction inductor using a powder core. It begins by defining power factor and explaining why power factor correction is needed. It then describes choosing a powder core over ferrite due to its higher saturation flux and smaller size. The document provides calculations to determine the required inductance and current rating. It selects a suitable core and calculates the number of turns needed. Finally, it analyzes the thermal performance and confirms the design meets requirements.
- The document discusses the working principle, construction, types, EMF equation, and operation under load of transformers.
- It describes how a transformer works on the principle of mutual induction to transfer electric energy from one circuit to another with a change in voltage or current but keeping frequency constant.
- The main parts of a transformer are the laminated steel core, primary and secondary windings, transformer tank containing oil for insulation and cooling, and protective devices like the Buchholz relay.
Contenu connexe
Similaire à ddc cinverter control design process.ppt
This chapter discusses uncontrolled rectifiers, which convert AC to DC. It describes single-phase half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, as well as three-phase bridge rectifiers. Key performance parameters for rectifiers are defined, including efficiency, form factor, ripple factor, and power factor. Operation of a half-wave rectifier with resistive and inductive loads is examined. Application of rectifiers to battery chargers is also discussed.
The document discusses different types of transistors including MOSFETs and BJTs. It then covers the basic construction and operation of MOSFETs and CMOS logic gates like inverters, NOR gates, and NAND gates. Decoder circuits are also summarized. The remainder discusses static hazards, output characteristics testing, and common logic interface levels.
This document provides information on the CD4013B and CD4013BC dual D flip-flops. It includes general descriptions, features, applications, connection diagrams, truth tables, and electrical characteristics for the devices. The dual D flip-flops are CMOS integrated circuits that can be used for applications such as shift registers, counters, toggles, automotive systems, data terminals, instrumentation, and computers.
1. The document discusses the steady-state analysis of basic DC-DC converters like the Buck, Boost, and Buck-Boost converters in continuous conduction mode.
2. It introduces analysis methods based on the average values of inductor voltages and capacitor currents to determine output voltage expressions in terms of input voltage and duty cycle.
3. The analysis yields expressions for average and peak inductor and switch currents as well as maximum switch voltages.
1. The document discusses the steady-state analysis of DC-DC converters operating in continuous conduction mode (CCM), including the buck, boost, and buck-boost converters.
2. The analysis involves determining the main waveforms, applying Kirchhoff's laws to the average values of voltages and currents, and ensuring power balance at the input and output.
3. For the buck converter, the output voltage is less than the input voltage and equals the duty cycle times the input voltage. For the boost converter, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage and equals the input voltage divided by one minus the duty cycle.
This document discusses inverters and logic gates in VLSI design. It begins with an outline of topics covered, including nMOS and CMOS inverters, inverter characteristics, switching times, and CMOS logic structures. Diagrams and equations are provided to illustrate the DC and transient characteristics of inverters, including transfer characteristics, regions of operation, and rise/fall times. Design considerations for cascading inverters and driving large loads are also addressed. Transmission gates and static/dynamic CMOS design are briefly introduced.
The document describes experiments on rectifier and clipping circuits. It includes circuit diagrams and designs for a center tap full wave rectifier, bridge rectifier, and various clipping circuits using diodes. Procedures are provided to study the circuits, measure voltages, and compare results to theoretical values. Design examples are given for rectifiers and clipping circuits to meet specified output voltages and clipping levels.
This document discusses single-phase and three-phase rectifiers. It describes how a single-phase half-wave rectifier works by only allowing current to flow during one half of the AC cycle. Waveforms are provided for the voltage and current. When an inductive load is used, the current remains continuous. Performance parameters for rectifiers include efficiency, form factor, ripple factor, and total harmonic distortion. Three-phase bridge rectifiers are also covered.
This document is a lesson plan on multi-stage and differential amplifiers by Assoc Prof Zheng Yuanjin of Nanyang Technological University. It includes objectives, outlines the analysis of AC-coupled multi-stage amplifiers and differential amplifiers. It provides examples of a 3-stage amplifier and differential amplifier circuits. Key concepts covered are voltage gain, input and output resistances of multi-stage amplifiers, and differential and common mode gains of differential amplifiers. References and textbooks are listed for additional reading.
This document discusses power consumption in CMOS devices. It outlines the main sources of power dissipation including dynamic power, short circuit power, and static/leakage power. Dynamic power is proportional to the capacitive load and supply voltage. Short circuit power depends on the peak short circuit current. Static power includes leakage from reverse biased p-n junctions, subthreshold leakage, gate leakage, gate induced drain leakage, and punchthrough. The document discusses various techniques to reduce each component of power dissipation such as lowering supply voltage, increasing threshold voltage, and power gating.
This document discusses DC-DC converters, which convert a fixed DC source into a variable DC source like an AC transformer. It describes step-down converters, which use a switch like a BJT, MOSFET, or IGBT to alternately connect and disconnect the voltage source to produce a lower average output voltage. Key concepts covered include duty cycle, pulse-width modulation, modes of operation, generation of the switching signal, and analysis of a step-down converter with an RL load in continuous conduction mode.
The document discusses differential amplifiers. It begins by defining a differential amplifier as a circuit that amplifies the difference between two input signals. It then provides block diagrams and equations showing how the differential amplifier output is proportional to the difference of the two inputs. The document discusses concepts such as differential gain, common mode gain, common mode rejection ratio, and input and output resistances. It provides examples of differential amplifiers using field-effect transistors and discusses their operation. Finally, it compares a differential amplifier to two identical common-source amplifiers and discusses various configurations of differential amplifiers.
The chapter discusses input filter design for power electronics converters. It introduces the concepts of conducted electromagnetic interference (EMI) and how input filters can attenuate current harmonics to meet EMI regulations. However, input filters can negatively impact converter stability by changing the converter transfer functions. The chapter then examines how to analyze these impacts and provides criteria for proper input filter design, such as imposing impedance inequalities to minimize effects on stability. Sample impedance models are also presented for common converter types.
The SEPIC converter is a type of DC-DC converter that allows the output voltage to be greater than, less than, or equal to the input voltage. It uses two inductors and two capacitors in a unique configuration to achieve this. While more complex than a basic boost or buck converter, the SEPIC converter has advantages like having no average current pass through one of the capacitors and allowing impedance matching across the full operating range of a solar panel. Key components are rated for higher voltages and currents than a basic buck-boost converter.
The document discusses quasi-resonant converters and the half-wave zero-current-switching quasi-resonant switch cell. The switch cell uses a small resonant inductor and capacitor to achieve zero-current switching of the transistor. It operates in four subintervals per switching period: 1) transistor on, 2) resonant ringing, 3) capacitor discharging, 4) diode on. Mathematical analysis determines the waveforms and durations of each subinterval. Averaging the switch cell currents and voltages gives the conversion ratio, allowing the cell to be analyzed and incorporated into converter circuits.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
The document describes the operation and design considerations of a buck/boost DC-DC converter circuit. It provides equations to calculate component ratings for the input inductor, output capacitor, MOSFET, diode, and other parts. Design examples are given to illustrate how to select appropriate component values and ratings to ensure continuous inductor currents and minimize output voltage ripple.
This chapter discusses principles of steady-state analysis of DC-DC power converters. It introduces the concepts of inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge balance, which allow determining converter steady-state behavior. These concepts are applied to example converters, including derivation of output voltage expressions and estimates of current/voltage ripple. The small-ripple approximation is also introduced to simplify analysis by ignoring higher-frequency switching components.
Similaire à ddc cinverter control design process.ppt (20)
The document discusses the design of a power factor correction inductor using a powder core. It begins by defining power factor and explaining why power factor correction is needed. It then describes choosing a powder core over ferrite due to its higher saturation flux and smaller size. The document provides calculations to determine the required inductance and current rating. It selects a suitable core and calculates the number of turns needed. Finally, it analyzes the thermal performance and confirms the design meets requirements.
- The document discusses the working principle, construction, types, EMF equation, and operation under load of transformers.
- It describes how a transformer works on the principle of mutual induction to transfer electric energy from one circuit to another with a change in voltage or current but keeping frequency constant.
- The main parts of a transformer are the laminated steel core, primary and secondary windings, transformer tank containing oil for insulation and cooling, and protective devices like the Buchholz relay.
Magnets have north and south poles and are surrounded by magnetic fields, they exert attractive or repulsive forces on other magnets depending on whether the poles are opposite or alike, and an object is magnetic if the alignment of atomic domains within it create an overall magnetic field.
The document describes control logic design for a PWM generator and SVPWM module. It outlines tasks to verify the ADC conversions, Clarke and Park transformations used in the control loop, speed measurement using resolver signals, safety and protection modules, flux and speed estimation, and closed-loop speed regulation. Test results are shown for varying voltage commands Vd and Vq with Ta, Tb, and Tc commands 120 degrees apart from the space vector. Waveforms are displayed with varying Vd commands and DC bus voltages.
This document provides an overview of object-oriented (OO) design principles and processes for developing a mobile application. It discusses key OO design elements like classes, responsibilities, and collaborations. The document then outlines the full OO design process, including identifying domain classes and assigning responsibilities, mapping the domain model to framework patterns, identifying class collaborations, and evaluating the design. It also provides an example walkthrough of applying these principles to design classes for a Tic-Tac-Toe game.
Education_selecting key discovery tools for education research_v1_2021.pptxShivamChaturvedi67
Selecting key discovery tools for research in education is a presentation that identifies important tools for finding different types of information required for dissertation research. It discusses searching for textbooks, handbooks, journal articles, grey literature, and more. The presentation recommends databases like ERIC, ProQuest, and EBSCOhost for accessing these information sources and provides tips for effective searching within the databases.
This document discusses flow of control in C programming. It covers selection structures like if/else statements that allow a program to make decisions based on boolean expressions. It also covers repetition structures like loops. The key control structures are sequences, selection, and repetition. Selection structures include if/else and switch statements. If/else allows two alternative paths, while switch supports multiple comparisons. Logical and relational operators are used to construct boolean expressions that if/else and switch evaluate. Proper indentation and braces are important for nested conditional statements.
This document discusses flow control in C programming. It covers:
1. Control structures like sequence, selection, and repetition that regulate program execution flow. Selection uses if/else statements to make decisions while repetition uses loops.
2. Boolean expressions that evaluate to true or false, including relational expressions comparing values and logical expressions combining conditions.
3. The if and if/else selection structures for conditional execution including syntax, truth tables for logical operators, and nested conditional structures.
4. The switch multiple-selection structure for testing a variable against multiple values through case labels and an optional default. It must end each case with a break to avoid fall-through.
This document provides an introduction to the Java programming language. It discusses Java syntax, the Java API, building standalone Java programs and applets. It explains that Java is object-oriented, platform independent, and more secure than C++. It also describes how to compile and run Java programs, the Java Virtual Machine, primitive data types, control structures, classes and objects.
The document outlines the agenda for Lecture 3 which includes layouts, intents (both explicit and implicit), and list views and adapters. It provides details on layout parameters like layout_margin and padding. It also discusses explicit and implicit intents, intent filters, and using bundles to pass data. List views and adapters are mentioned along with how resources and layouts work in Android applications.
This document provides an overview of the CS324e course which teaches graphics and visualization using Java. It introduces Java after students have learned Python in previous courses. The first couple lectures and assignments focus on reviewing Java by looking at common techniques in Python and their Java equivalents. Java is an object-oriented language that uses braces, strong typing, and requires all code to be part of a class. The document defines Java identifiers, basic program structure, variables, arrays versus lists, and provides examples for calculating sums of squares, counting characters, and searching lists.
This document provides an overview of pointers in C programming. It defines pointers as variables that store memory addresses rather than values. Pointers have several useful applications like accessing variables outside functions, passing information between functions, and more efficiently handling data tables. The document explains how to declare pointer variables, assign the address of a variable to a pointer, dereference a pointer to access the value at an address, and pass pointers to functions. It also discusses pointers and arrays, structures, and arrays of structures.
The document outlines the agenda for Lecture 3 which includes layouts, intents (both explicit and implicit), and list views and adapters. It provides details on layout parameters like layout_margin and padding. It also discusses explicit and implicit intents, intent filters, and using bundles to pass data. List views and adapters are mentioned along with how resources and layouts work in Android applications.
The document summarizes the agenda for Lecture 2 which includes discussing the Java event model, anatomy of an Android application, activity lifecycle, state changes and saving/restoring state, model-view-controller in Android, views, view groups and layouts, the Android Studio designer tool, what's inside an APK file, and resources in Android.
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KALYAN MATKA | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA TIPS | SATTA MATKA | MATKA.COM | MATKA PANA JODI TODAY | BATTA SATKA | MATKA PATTI JODI NUMBER | MATKA RESULTS | MATKA CHART | MATKA JODI | SATTA COM | FULL RATE GAME | MATKA GAME | MATKA WAPKA | ALL MATKA RESULT LIVE ONLINE | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA RESULT | DPBOSS MATKA 143 | MAIN MATKA
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KALYAN MATKA | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA TIPS | SATTA MATKA | MATKA.COM | MATKA PANA JODI TODAY | BATTA SATKA | MATKA PATTI JODI NUMBER | MATKA RESULTS | MATKA CHART | MATKA JODI | SATTA COM | FULL RATE GAME | MATKA GAME | MATKA WAPKA | ALL MATKA RESULT LIVE ONLINE | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA RESULT | DPBOSS MATKA 143 | MAIN MATKA
➒➌➎➏➑➐➋➑➐➐ Satta Matka Dpboss Matka Guessing Indian Matka
KALYAN MATKA | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA TIPS | SATTA MATKA | MATKA.COM | MATKA PANA JODI TODAY | BATTA SATKA | MATKA PATTI JODI NUMBER | MATKA RESULTS | MATKA CHART | MATKA JODI | SATTA COM | FULL RATE GAME | MATKA GAME | MATKA WAPKA | ALL MATKA RESULT LIVE ONLINE | MATKA RESULT | KALYAN MATKA RESULT | DPBOSS MATKA 143 | MAIN MATKA
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Mr. Brainwash ❤️ Beautiful Girl _ FRANK FLUEGEL GALERIE.pdfFrank Fluegel
Mr. Brainwash Beautiful Girl / Mixed Media / signed / Unique
Year: 2023
Format: 96,5 x 127 cm / 37.8 x 50 inch
Material: Fine Art Paper with hand-torn edges.
Method: Mixed Media, Stencil, Spray Paint.
Edition: Unique
Other: handsigned by Mr. Brainwash front and verso.
Beautiful Girl by Mr. Brainwash is a mixed media artwork on paper done in 2023. It is unique and of course signed by Mr. Brainwash. The picture is a tribute to his own most successful work of art, the Balloon Girl. In this new creation, however, the theme of the little girl is slightly modified.
In Mr. Brainwash’s mixed media artwork titled “Beautiful Girl,” we are presented with a captivating depiction of a little girl adorned in a summer dress, with two playful pigtails framing her face. The artwork exudes a sense of innocence and whimsy, as the girl is shown in a dreamy state, lifting one end of her skirt and looking down as if she were about to dance. Through the use of mixed media, Mr. Brainwash skillfully combines different artistic elements to create a visually striking composition. The vibrant colors and bold brushstrokes bring the artwork to life, evoking a sense of joy and happiness. The attention to detail in the girl’s expression and body language adds depth and character to the piece, allowing viewers to connect with the young protagonist on a personal and emotional level. “Beautiful Girl” is a testament to Mr. Brainwash’s unique artistic style, blending elements of street art, pop art, and contemporary art to create a visually captivating and emotionally resonant artwork.
The use of mixed media in “Beautiful Girl” adds an additional layer of complexity to the artwork. By combining different artistic techniques and materials, such as stencils, spray paint, and collage, Mr. Brainwash creates a dynamic and textured composition that grabs the viewer’s attention. The juxtaposition of different textures and patterns adds depth and visual interest to the piece, while also emphasizing the artist’s eclectic and experimental approach to art-making. The inclusion of collage elements, such as newspaper clippings and torn posters, further enhances the artwork’s urban and contemporary feel. Overall, “Beautiful Girl” is a visually captivating and thought-provoking artwork that showcases Mr. Brainwash’s talent for blending different artistic elements to create a truly unique and engaging piece.
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1. Design Considerations for High
Step-Down Ratio Buck Converters
Ramesh Khanna – National Semiconductor, Richardson, TX
&
Satish Dhawan – Yale University, CT, USA
2. 2
Buck converter
Co
12V Q2
L1
Q1
1.2V
10A
Vm
IL1
Vin = 12V
Vm
Q1
on on on
IL1
Duty cycle D = 0.1
Vo
Vin = 12V
in o
V V
o
V
L
V s
DT
'
S
DT
sec
volt balance
Q1 on & Q2 off
L in out
on
s
V V V
T
D
T
'
(1 ) (1 )
L out
on
s
V V
T
D D
T
( ) ( )
( ) (1 )
in out on out off
in out s out s
out
in
V V T V T
V V DT V D T
V
D
V
Q1 off & Q2 on
DC gain
In Non-Synchronous buck converter
Q2 is replaced with diode
3. 3
Continuous vs Discontinuous mode of
Operation
When Q1 is turned on Input source charges the inductor and supplies the Output load
When Q1 turns-off Voltage across the inductor changes polarity and forward biases
the sync diode, Q2 is allowed to turn-on. Energy stored in the inductor is supplies to
the load.
8. 8
PWM switch model
• Next step we perturb and linearize the equations, where we
assume average voltage consists of constant “dc”
component and small signal “ac” variation around the dc
component.
2
ˆ
I d
2
2
(
(
))
D
I
i
t
1 1( )
I i t
( ) ( )
d t D d t
' '
( )
d D d t
1 1 1
( ) ( )
i t I i t
1 1 1
( ) ( )
Ts
v t V v t
2 2 2
( ) ( )
Ts
v t V v t
2 2 2
( ) ( )
i t I i t
2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
Ts Ts
v t v t d t
2 2 1 1
( ) ( ( )) ( ( ))
V v t D d t V v t
2 2 1 1 1
( ) ( ( )) ( )
V v t D V v t d t V
1 2
( ) ( )
Ts
i t d i t
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ( )) ( ( ))
I i t I i t D d t
1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ( ))
I i t D I i t I d
+
-
+
-
1
1
(
(
))
D
V
v
t
1
V d
2 2 ( )
V v t
9. 9
PWM switch model
• Combining the two sections, we have the small signal mode
of PWM switch
2
ˆ
I d
2
2
(
(
))
D
I
i
t
1 1( )
I i t
1
1
(
)
V
v
t
2 2 1 1 1
( ) ( ( )) ( )
V v t D V v t d t V
1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ( ))
I i t D I i t I d
+
-
+
-
1
1
(
(
))
D
V
v
t
1
V d
2 2 ( )
V v t
Common
Active
Passive
2
ˆ
I d
1 1( )
I i t
1
1
(
)
V
v
t
+
-
1
V d
D
1: D
2 2 ( )
V v t
2 2
( ( ))
I i t
10. 10
Incorporating PWM switch in Buck Circuit
• Small signal model of Buck converter - DC Analysis
0
d
For DC Analysis
L = Short circuit
C = Open circuit
ap in
cp ap in
cp o
o in
o
in
V V
V DV DV
V V
V DV
V
D
V
ˆ
c
I d
a
I
ap
V
+
-
ap
V d
D
1: D
CP
V
c
I
a c
p
in
V
F
C
C
r
L
R
F
L
o
r
o
V
11. 11
Incorporating PWM switch in Buck Circuit
• Small signal model of Buck converter – AC Analysis
• For AC analysis we short the input source
( 1)
(1 ( ))
L o C
x
o C L
R sC r
Z
sC r R
L o
Z r sL
ˆ
c
I d
a
I
ap
v
+
-
ap
V d
D
1: D
cp
v
c
I
a c
p
F
C
C
r
L
R
F
L
o
r
o
v
( )
( ) ( )
o x
x L
cp
v Z s
Z s Z s
v
0
( ) ( ) ( )
cp o
cp
v
v v
s s s
d d v
Control to output is the most important transfer function as it is necessary for the design of stable
feedback loop.
( )
cp
in
v
s V
d
12. 12
Incorporating PWM switch in Buck Circuit
• Small signal model of Buck converter – AC Analysis Alternate Approach
• For AC analysis we short the input source
ˆ
c
I d
a
I
ap
v
+
-
ap
V d
D
1: D
cp
v
c
I
a c
p
F
C
C
r
L
R
F
L
o
r
o
v
Write differential equation for Voltage across inductor Lf
Write differential equation for Current thru the output capacitor Cf (1 )
L
L
C
R
Den
R
r
( ) c
L o ap
C
V
diL
L i r Den Den V d
dt r
2
1 1
( ) ( )
L c
C C C
dv Den
C i v
dt r r Den r
13. 13
Incorporating PWM switch in Buck Circuit
• Write the two equations in matrix form
• Solve matrix using cramers rule to obtain control to output transfer function.
(1 )
L
L
C
R
Den
R
r
2
1 1 1
( ) 0
o
ap
F C F L
F
C
F L F C C
r Den Den
diL V
L r L i
dt
d
L
v
dv Den
dt C R C r Den r
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
sX s AX s Bd s
sIX s AX s Bd s
sI A x s Bd s
x s
sI A B
d s
2
( )
( )
( )
1 1
( )
0
( )
o
F C F L
in
F
o
C C
F C F
r Den Den
s
L r L i s
V
d s
L
v s
r Den r
Den
s
d s
C r C
( )
( )
( )
o
o
v
v s d
d s
17. 17
MOSFET Switching Behavior : Turn-on
MOSFET Turn-On 4
stages
Reduce transition time
during stage 2 to minimize
switching losses
Critical Gate Drivers
ability to source current
1. Turn-On Delay –
• Input capacitor is
charged from 0V to Vth.
2. Linear Operation
• Vg increases from Vth
to Miller Capacitor
• Mosfet is carrying the
entire Inductor
current.
3. Vgs is Steady
• Driver current
diverted to discharge
Cgd
• Drain Voltage falls
4. Vgs increased from
Vmiller to Vfinal
• Mosfet fully enhanced
• Cgs and Cgd charged
• Rds_on reduced.
18. 18
Mosfet Switching Behavior : Turn-Off
1. Turn-off Delay
• Ciss is discharged from initial
value to Miller Plateau.
2. Vds rises
• Gate current is charging
Cgd
• Gate in its Miller Plateau
3. Mosfet in Linear mode
• Vg falls from Miller to Vth
• Cgs capacitor is started to
discharged
4. Turn-off Stage
• Vgs is further decreased with
current coming out of Cgs
capacitor.
MOSFET Turn-Off 4 stages
Reduce transition time during
stage 3 to minimize switching
losses
Critical Gate drivers ability to
sink current.
19. 19
Diode Reverse recovery
• Current can flow from
cathode to anode until
diode turns off.
• This can produce
– High peak currents
– High dissipation:
• In the diode
• In other circuit
components
VD
ID
ID
VD
20. 20
High Side Fet Losses
_
conduction HS
P 2 2
_ 0
rms HS on on
Iq Rds I Rds D
min 2 max 3
(1 2) {[ ] [ ]}
sw in sw q q
P V f I t I t
_
sw drv drv sw g
P V f Q
2
cos 0.5
s oss sw in
P C f V
Qrr rr in sw
P Q V f
_ 0.5
g sw gd gs
Q Q Q
sw gsw g
t Q I
min
_ 2
( ( (1/ ))
drv th q m
g t
g gext drv
V V I g
I
R R R
_ 3
(1/ )
th qpk m
g t
gfet gext drv
V I g
I
R R R
• Conduction and Switching Losses
Switching losses during turn-on and turn-off
Driver losses
Capacitor drain-source losses
Reverse recovery losses
Switch conduction losses
21. 21
Low Side Losses
• Profile of Loss in High side and Low side are quite
different especially for Low output voltages.
• Low side losses are dominated by conduction
losses
• High side conduction and switching losses
2 2
_ _ (1 )
conduction LS qrms LS on o on
P I Rds I Rds D
Select HS Mosfet for low Qg
Select LS Mosfet for low Rds_on
22. 22
Mangetic Materials
• There are two classes of materials
• 1. Alloys of iron, which contain silicon (Si), Nickel
(Ni), Chrome (Cr) and Cobolt (Co)
• 2. Ferrites – ceramic materials mixture of iron,
Manganes (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni) and Cobolt
(Co)
23. 23
Inductor Losses ( Conduction and Core)
DCR losses
• Core losses
• Core losses can be calculated
based upon flux density,
frequency of operation, core
volume
• Core vendors provide core loss
data vs frequency used to
estimate core losses
• For Ferrite cores: Steinmetz
equation defines core losses
2
_ 0
0
_
_
LF RMS
Inductor PL I r
r Inductor DCR
6
( ) ( )
10 1000
a b e
V
f
PL K
_
_ ( )
( )
e
flux density
V core volume cm
f frequency khz
24. 24
Output Inductor saturation behavior
Inductor
Saturation
No
Inductor
Saturation
o
V
+
-
c
r
o
C
L
R
in
V
+
-
V1 V2
I1 I2
PWM
switch
Waveform shows
output inductor
waveform in
1) normal
operation
2) Inductor is
saturated.
3) Saturation is
reduction in
inductance as
function of
current, which
can destroy the
MOSFET
25. 25
Capacitor - Input / output
Ideal
C
esr
esl
R
L
C
Real World
Ideal Capacitor
Real World Capacitor
1 10 100 1 10
3
1 10
4
1 10
5
1 10
6
1 10
7
1 10
8
1 10
9
1 10
10
1 10
11
1 10
5
1 10
4
1 10
3
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1 10
3
1 10
4
1 10
5
1 10
6
1 10
7
Ideal Capacitor
Real World Capacitor
Capacitor Impedance
Frequency (Hz)
Impedance
(Ohms)
0.1
1
10
100
1 10
3
1 10
4
1 10
5
1 10
6 Inductor Impedance
edance
(Ohms)
Input Capacitor selection
criteria is to meet:
• Input capacitor rms ripple
current rating
Output Capacitor
selection criteria is based
upon
• esr of the capacitor ( in
order to meet o/p ripple
voltage specification)
• Bulk capacitance to
ensure it meets maximum
overshoot/ undershoot
during transient conditions.
26. 26
Current Mode Control
• Current mode Control has two loops
– Inner current loop
– Outer voltage loop
27. 27
Current mode control
• Current loop stable for duty cycle less than 50% for Vin=12V Vout = 1.2V Duty cycle is
10%
• Current loop un-stable for duty cycle greater than 50% - requires slope compensation
28. 28
Adding slope compensation
• For duty cycle > 0.5 slope compensation required.
• Minimum slope required is ½ downslope of inductor current
29. 29
Current loop
• Current loop is sampled data loop
– Peak inductor current is sampled and held until next switchng cycle
– Transfer function He models sampling nature of current loop
30. 30
Buck Regulator with Current Mode Control
CLOCK
SWITCH
DRIVER
R
S
Q
SWITCH
CURRENT
MEASURE
1.25V
REFERENCE
Vin Vout
ERROR
AMP
PWM
COMPARATOR
Q1
D1
L1
31. 31
Why Emulated Current Mode?
Leading edge spike,
conventional current
mode control.
• Step down switching regulators designed for high input voltages must control very short
minimum on-times to operate at high frequencies.
• The maximum switching frequency (and size of the inductor and output capacitor) are
function of the minimum on-time.
• The on-time of conventional current mode controllers is limited by current measurement
delays and the leading edge spike on the current sense signal. When the Buck FET
turns on and the diode turns off, a large reverse recovery current flows, this current
can trip the PWM comparator. Additional filtering and / or leading edge blanking is
necessary to prevent premature tripping of the PWM. The emulated current signal is
free of noise and turn-on spikes.
32. 32
Current Mode Control
Advantages / Disadvantages
• Current mode control is a single pole system. The current loop forces the inductor to
act as constant current source.
• Current mode control remains a single pole system regardless of conduction mode
(continuous mode or discontinuous).
• Inherent line feed-forward since the ramp slope is set by the line voltage.
• By clamping the error signal, peak current limiting can be implemented.
• Ability to current share multiple power converters.
• Susceptibility to noise on the current signal is a very common problem, reducing the
ability to process small on-times (large step-down ratios).
• As the duty cycle approaches 50% current mode control exhibits sub-harmonic
oscillations. A fixed slope ramp signal (slope compensation) is generally added to the
current ramp signal.
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
33. 33
Emulated Current Mode, How
Does it Work?
Vin
Vout
Vin - Vout
25uA
5u x (Vin - Vout)
A = 1
C
ONTROL
TIMING
SAMPLE
&
HOLD
RAMP SIGNAL FOR PWM
AND CURRENT LIMIT
0.5 V/ A
CRAMP
Rs
Vin Vout
Is
RAMP
Q1
D1
L1
dv/dt = (Vin - Vout) / CRAMP
di/dt = (Vin - Vout) / L1
Sample and Hold
DC Level
TON
RAMP
Cout
34. 34
Emulated Current Mode
Waveforms
Sample and Hold
of Diode (Inductor)
Current
Emulated Current
Mode Controller
Timing
SW
IL
IDIODE
EMULATED
RAMP
0.5 V/A
IBUCK SWITCH
35. 35
Maximum Input Voltage vs Operating Frequency
ns
Vin
V
Vout
Fsw
MAX
D
MAX
80
To calculate the maximum switching frequency use:
• For a minimum on-time capability of 80ns, the minimum duty cycle is therefore 80ns
x Fsw. For low output voltage, high frequency applications the maximum switching
frequency may be limited. If VinMAX is exceeded pulses will have to skip.
Tsw
80ns
Where VD is the diode forward drop
36. 36
Maximum Operating Frequency vs Output Voltage
Max operating frequency
vs output voltage for the
LM2557X family.
(TON(MIN) = 80ns)
Max operating frequency
vs output voltage for a
“2.8MHz” device.
(TON(MIN) = 150ns)
For high input voltage
applications the real
maximum operating
frequency is determined by
the minimum on-time
(TON(MIN)) of the controller.
Fsw = (Vout+Vd) / (TON(MIN) x Vin)
Max Operating Frequency vs
Output Voltage (Vin = 36V)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1 2 3 4 5
Output Voltage
Max
Operating
Frequency
(KHz)
37. 37
Minimum Input Voltage vs Operating Frequency
500ns
Tsw
Tsw - 500ns
To calculate the minimum input voltage use:
• A forced off-time of 500ns is implemented each cycle, to allow time for the sample &
hold of the diode current. The maximum duty cycle is therefore limited to; 1 – (500ns
x Fsw). For high frequency applications the minimum input voltage may be limited. If
Vin is less than VinMIN the output voltage will droop.
Where VD is the diode forward drop
ns
Fsw
V
Vout
Vin D
MIN
500
1
38. 38
Slope Compensation
Background: Current mode controlled
power converters operating at duty
cycles >50% are prone to sub-harmonic
oscillation. Disturbances in peak rising
current ( I) increase at the end of the cycle.
Solution: A 25uA offset in the RAMP current
source provides additional slope for the
emulation ramp.
Vin
Vout Vin - Vout
25uA
5u x (Vin - Vout)
A = 1
CONTROL
TIMING
CRAMP
RAMP
39. 39
Emulated Current Mode Advantages /
Disadvantages
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
• Reliably achieves small on-times necessary for large step-down applications.
• All of the intrinsic advantages of current mode control are retained without the noise susceptibility
problems often encountered from; diode reverse recovery current, ringing on the switch node and
current measurement propagation delays.
• During short circuit overload conditions there is no chance of a current run-away condition since
the inductor current is sampled BEFORE the buck switch is turned on. If the inductor current is
excessive, cycles will be skipped until the current decays below the over-current threshold.
• The maximum duty cycle is limited to less than 100% since off-time is required for the sample
and hold measurement of the diode current.
• If the inductor saturates, it will not be detected.
40. 40
Constant Frequency, COT
Switching Regulator
RF2
RF1
+
-
Feedback
Comparator
LM5010/10A
VREF
+
-
RL
RC
(ESR)
VIN
VOUT
L
C
On-Time
Inversely
Proportional
toVin
+
-
+
-
Vth
I-Limit
Comparator
Nearly constant operating frequency plus
all of the benefits of the conventional
Constant On Time regulator.
41. 41
Constant Frequency COT Regulator
Waveforms (CCM)
I RIPPLE
V RIPPLE
Buck switch ON
time:
tON = K / Vin
VIN
VSW
-0.3V
IOUT
IL
tON
T
VOUT
VOUT(DC)
Buck switch turns
on at the VFB
threshold
Freq * tON = Vout / Vin
but tON = K / Vin
Freq * K / Vin = Vout / Vin
Freq = Vout / K = constant for given Vout
42. 42
Summary
•Synchronous Buck converter is reviewed
•All critical Component and their selection
criterias are highlighted.
•Small-signal model of converter is
developed
•Various control architectures are
reviewed for high-step down voltage
ratios.
Shown on this slide is the same basic buck regulator power stage with the addition of the control circuitry. Control is accomplished though pulse width modulator of Q1. This particular control circuit is referred to current mode control. The main characteristic of current mode control is that the modulating ramp used by the PWM comparator is a signal derived from the buck switch current. When the buck switch is turned on, the current rises with the same profile as the inductor current.
Each period the modulation of Q1 is controlled as follows:
It can be seen that there are quite of steps that need to be accomplished each period. The minimum time required to complete these steps creates a minimum controllable on-time or duty cycle. For large step-down applications with a large Vin and much smaller Vout this minimum on-time can present a problem. The biggest challenge when designing for minimum on-time is the design of the current measure circuit. We’ll talk more about this in the following slides.
Shown of this slide is the buck regulator power stage comprised of Q1, D1, L1 and Cout.
The objective is to create a signal that accurately represents the current through the buck switch Q1 without actually making a direct measurement.
When we study the characteristics of the buck switch current signal we can note that the signal can be broken down into two parts, a pedestal and a ramp. When the buck switch initially turns on the current level jumps to the same level that was conducting previously in the diode. By taking a sample-and-hold measurement of the diode current just before turning on the buck switch we can establish the pedestal level. A small current sense resistor is placed in series with the diode anode to accomplish this measurement.
Once the buck switch is turned on the characteristic of the ramping current is:
di/dt = (Vin – Vout) / L This is the basic inductor equation.
To emulate the ramping portion of the buck switch signal first we create a current source proportional to the difference between the input and the output voltage. If this current source flows into a capacitor, the ramping voltage across the capacitor will equal:
dv/dt = (Vin – Vout) / C
If we set the value of the capacitor proportional to the inductor value we can scale the capacitor voltage to match the ramping current signal.
The final step is to add the sample and hold diode current level to the capacitor ramp voltage. Now we have recreated the buck switch signal with no delays and no leading edge noise spike. We can now use this signal for pulse-width modulation and current limit purposes as in conventional CM control. Each period after the buck switch turns off the ramp capacitor is discharged in preparation for the next cycle.
Shown on this slide is a timing diagram for the buck regulator power stage. You can see how the inductor current is the sum of the buck switch current and the diode currents. The sample and hold is accomplished at the times indicated by the yellow bars. This sample and hold establishes the pedestal level. Shown on the bottom is the emulated ramp signal scaled to 0.5 V/A.
Applications requiring a high operating frequency along with a large step-down ratio require the controller to have the ability to control the smallest possible minimum on-time. For applications with a large Vin and a small Vout the minimum on-time may limit the maximum frequency.
Our new simple switcher regulators can achieve an on-time of 80ns.
The equation for the maximum switching frequency vs Vout, Vin and Ton(min) is shown.
Shown on this graph is a plot of max operating frequency versus output voltage for two different IC regulators with the input voltage set to 36V.
Due to the minimum on-time constraints that we discussed on the previous slide, if the input voltage is set relatively high (in this case 36V) the operating frequency may be limited, depending upon the output voltage.
Shown in blue is the maximum operating frequency versus output voltage for the LM2557X family of switching regulators. These devices are have a maximum rated operating frequency of 1MHz with a minimum on-time of 80ns.
Shown in orange is a competitor device with a maximum rated operating frequency of 2.8MHz, yet this device has a minimum on-time of 150ns. If the input voltage is set to the maximum of 36V and the output voltage is set to 3.3V this device can only operate to 700KHz, far less than the claim of 2.8MHz.
On the past two slides we looked at how the operating frequency may be limited due to minimum duty cycle, caused by the minimum on-time.
At the other extreme, if the controller’s maximum duty cycle is limited to anything less than 100%, then the maximum operating frequency may be limited and the minimum input voltage may be limited.
For the emulated current mode control concept there is a forced off-time each cycle of 500ns. This forced off-time is necessary to allow time for the sample & hold of the diode current. This forced off-time creates a maximum duty cycle limit of 1 – (500ns x Fsw). Ideally for a buck regulator the output will remain in regulation even when the input voltage is reduced to almost equal the output voltage. The maximum duty cycle limit requires the input voltage be higher than the output voltage. The minimum input voltage predicted in the equation is lowest input voltage while the output voltage can remain in regulation.
Current mode controlled power converters operating at duty cycles >50% are prone to sub-harmonic oscillation. Disturbances in peak rising current ( I) increase at the end of the cycle causing alternating large and small duty cycles.
Fortunately, the solution to the sub-harmonic issue is easy to solve. The most common solution is to add additional fixed slope to the current sense ramp. Usually the fixed slope ramp is derived from the oscillator. For the ECM control method a 25uA offset in the RAMP current source provides additional fixed slope for the emulation ramp.
In summary the emulated current mode offers all of the advantages of conventional current mode with the following advantages and disadvantages:
Hysteretic control is the simplest architecture available for a switcher. The modulator is simply a comparator with input hysteresis that compares the feedback voltage to a reference voltage. When the feedback voltage exceeds the reference hysteresis voltage, the comparator output goes low, turning off the switch. The switch will remain off until the feedback voltage falls below the reference hysteresis voltage, at which point, the comparator output goes high, turning on the switch and allowing the feedback voltage to rise again.
This simple topology provides several benefits. It is extremely fast at reacting to load and line transients. It has a very wide bandwidth control loop that doesn’t use an error amplifier, and doesn’t require frequency compensation. Thus, total component count is reduced, and output capacitance can be reduced.
Unlike a PWM regulator, switching frequency isn’t set by an oscillator, but is dependant on several variables.
Hysteretic control is also known as ripple regulation, because it is the output ripple which controls the switching. The wave forms for a hysteretic buck regulator are shown above. The inductor ripple current generates an AC voltage across the output capacitor’s ESR and ESL. This results in a triangle-shaped waveform at Vout. The output switch alternates on and off as the output waveform ramps beyond the upper and lower thresholds set by VHYS at the feedback node. Because of propagation delay, the peak to peak amplitude of the output ripple will extend slightly beyond these thresholds as shown above. Note that low ESL output capacitors must be used to keep the ripple step (seen in the Vout waveform) small and within the hysteretic window.
The equation above shows how switching frequency can be set using the external components. The output switch on time and off time (and therefore the frequency) are functions of the input and output voltage, the inductor, ESR and ESL of the output cap, the comparator’s hysteresis, the feedback ratio, and the propagation delay (td) in the modulator and output stages. When designing a regulator, we can assume that VOUT, VHYS, the resistor feedback ratio, and td are constants. As a result, we select L and ESR for a desired frequency. However, frequency will vary with input voltage, so a range of operating frequencies should be selected, given a specified range of VIN.
Stable regulation is easy to achieve by making careful selections of the inductor and output capacitor ESR. In most cases, the output capacitor’s ESR will dominate in determining both frequency and output ripple. Therefore, it is recommended that a low ESR ceramic output capacitor be used in series with a resistor to provide a stable ESR.
Output ripple can be determined by the following equation: Vrip=(Vin-Vout)*ton*ESR/L Where ton=duty cycle/frequency
Hysteretic control is also known as ripple regulation, because it is the output ripple which controls the switching. The wave forms for a hysteretic buck regulator are shown above. The inductor ripple current generates an AC voltage across the output capacitor’s ESR and ESL. This results in a triangle-shaped waveform at Vout. The output switch alternates on and off as the output waveform ramps beyond the upper and lower thresholds set by VHYS at the feedback node. Because of propagation delay, the peak to peak amplitude of the output ripple will extend slightly beyond these thresholds as shown above. Note that low ESL output capacitors must be used to keep the ripple step (seen in the Vout waveform) small and within the hysteretic window.
The equation above shows how switching frequency can be set using the external components. The output switch on time and off time (and therefore the frequency) are functions of the input and output voltage, the inductor, ESR and ESL of the output cap, the comparator’s hysteresis, the feedback ratio, and the propagation delay (td) in the modulator and output stages. When designing a regulator, we can assume that VOUT, VHYS, the resistor feedback ratio, and td are constants. As a result, we select L and ESR for a desired frequency. However, frequency will vary with input voltage, so a range of operating frequencies should be selected, given a specified range of VIN.
Stable regulation is easy to achieve by making careful selections of the inductor and output capacitor ESR. In most cases, the output capacitor’s ESR will dominate in determining both frequency and output ripple. Therefore, it is recommended that a low ESR ceramic output capacitor be used in series with a resistor to provide a stable ESR.
Output ripple can be determined by the following equation: Vrip=(Vin-Vout)*ton*ESR/L Where ton=duty cycle/frequency