Research methods

1. D. A. Tuoyire, Ph.D

2. ⦿Lateness
⦿Mobile Phones – WhatsApp???
⦿Informal conversations in class
⦿Exiting class
⦿Deadlines
⦿Tolerance

3. Students should be able to:
⦿Define research and explain its importance in the
field of health and allied sciences
⦿Distinguish between types and approaches to
research
⦿Understand the basic research process cycle
⦿Appreciate and apply research design, particularly
the survey research design

5. ⦿Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyse information to increase our understanding
of a topic or issue
⦿The scientific, systematic, rigorous investigation of a
situation or problem in order to generate new
knowledge or validate existing knowledge.
⦿Basically 3 steps
◾ Posea question.
◾ Collect data to answer the question.
◾ Present an answer to the question

6. ⦿Research Adds to Our Knowledge
◾contribute to existing information about issues
(like a brick wall)
◾fill a knowledge gap
⦿Research Improves Practice
◾new ideas to improve
◾evaluate approaches
⦿Research Informs Policy Debates
◾weighing various perspectives

9. Ontology
What’s
out there
to know?
Epistemology Methodology Methods Sources
How can
we know
about it?
How can
we go
about
acquiring
that
knowledge
?
Which
precise
procedures
can we use
to acquire
it? Which
data can
we
collect?

10. ⦿ Single vs multiple realities? Reality ‘out there’ vs
socially constructed?
⦿ Is knowledge generated only by observation of facts
and/or by meanings people make of reality and how
they make it?
⦿ Research as analysis of facts vs as generation of
working hypotheses?
⦿ Researcher influence over subject of investigation?
Positivism Critical
realism
Relativism
(Interpretivism/C
onstructivism)

11. Epidemiology/Clinical
science
There are a set of
facts to be gathered
(one reality)
Social science
Reality is constructed
by actors drawing on
their contexts
(different parallel
realities)
Positivism Relativism
Explain
Identify causes
Understand
Identify meanings

14. ⦿ Driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific
question.
⦿ Themain motivation is to expand man's knowledge.
⦿ There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries
that result from basic research.
⦿ For example, basic science investigations probe for
answers to questions suchas:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed
of?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

15. ⦿Scientific study and research that seeksto solve
practical problems.
⦿Applied research is usedto find solutions to everyday
problems, cure illness, and develop innovative
technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge's sake.
⦿For example, applied researchers may investigate
ways to:
• Treat or cure a specific disease
• Alternative sources of fuel

16. ⦿Quantitative Research
⦿Qualitative Research
⦿Mixed Methods Research

17. Quantitative Research Qualitative research
Other Aspects
Methods
Data
Other Aspects
Methods
Data

18. Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
⦿ Refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of
any phenomena via
statistical/mathematical
or computational
techniques
⦿ Predetermined
⦿ Instrument based
questions
⦿ Performance, attitude,
observation and census
data
⦿ Text and image analysis
⦿ Statistical analysis
⦿ Statistical interpretation
⦿ Deals with phenomena
that are difficult or
impossible to quantify
mathematically, such as
beliefs, meanings,
experiences, and symbols
⦿ Emergent
⦿ Open-ended questions
⦿ Interview, observation,
document and audio-visual
data
⦿ Themes, patterns
interpretation

19. Advantages Limitations
⦿ Draw conclusions for large
numbers of people
⦿ Efficient data analysis
⦿ Demonstrate relationships
⦿ Examine probable cause
and effect
⦿ Bias controlled
⦿ People like numbers
⦿ Impersonal, dry
⦿ Do not have the words of
the participants
⦿ Limited understanding of
context of participants
⦿ Largely researcher driven

20. I want to understand the world from your point
of view. I want to know what you know in the
way that you know it. I want to understand the
meaning of your experience, to walk in your
shoes, to feel things as your feel them, to explain
things as you explain them.
Will you become my teacher and help me
understand?

21. Advantages Limitations
⦿ Detailed perspective of a
few people
⦿ Can hear voices of
participants
⦿ Understand participants
experiences within
context
⦿ Built from views of
participants, not
researcher (more realistic)
⦿ People like stories
⦿ Limited generalizability
⦿ Soft data, not as hard as
numbers
⦿ Few people studied
⦿ Highly interpretive
⦿ Reliance on participants
minimizes researcher‘s
expertise

22. ⦿ Refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any
phenomena via statistical/mathematical or computational
techniques
⦿Aims to measure, test, describe and predict phenomena
by searching for regularities and causal relationships
⦿Deterministic – causes determine effects/outcomes
⦿Investigates questions such as
◾ How much?,How often?
◾ What is the relationship?
◾ What is the difference?

23. ⦿ Refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any
phenomena via statistical/mathematical or computational
techniques
⦿Aims to measure, test, describe and predict phenomena
by searching for regularities and causal relationships
⦿Deterministic – causes determine effects/outcomes
⦿Investigates questions such as
◾ How much?,How often?
◾ What is the relationship?
◾ What is the difference?

24. Advantages
⦿Quantitative research allows the researcher to
measure and analyse data
⦿The researcher is more objective about the
findings of the research
⦿Can be used to test hypotheses in experiments
because of its ability to measure data using
statistics.

25. Disadvantages
⦿The main disadvantage of quantitative research
is that the context of the study or experiment is
ignored
⦿Does not study things in a natural setting or
discuss the meaning things have for different
people
⦿A large sample of the population must be studied
for more accurate results

26. ⦿Deals with phenomena that are difficult or
impossible to quantify mathematically, such as
beliefs, meanings, experiences, and symbols
⦿Relativististic and can only be understood from the
view point of the individual directly involved
⦿Aims to gather an in-depth understanding and
richly describe human behaviour and the reasons
that govern suchbehaviour.
⦿Investigates the WHY and HOW
⦿Not merely the WHAT,WHERE,WHEN

27. Advantages
⦿ It enables more complex aspects of a persons
experience to be studied
⦿ Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data
to be collected.
⦿ Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily,
Individuals can be studied in more depth
⦿ It is naturalistic and interpretive
⦿ Theparticipants are able to provide data in their own
words and in their own way

28. Disadvantages
⦿There is more subjectivity involved in analysing the
data
⦿It is more difficult to determine the validity and
reliability of linguistic data
⦿“Data overload” – open-ended questions can
sometimes create lots of data, which can take
along time to analyse!
⦿Time consuming

31. ⦿Quantitative Research
⦿Qualitative Research

32. Identifying a Research
Problem
• Specifying a problem
• Justifying it
• Suggesting beneficial
audiences
Reviewing the
Literature
• Locating resources
• Selecting resources
• Summarizing resources
Specifying a Purpose
for Research
• Identifying the purpose
statement
• Narrowing the purpose
statement to research
objectives, questions or
hypothesis
Collecting data
• Selecting individuals to study
• Obtaining permissions
• Gathering information
Analyzing and
Interpreting Data
• Breaking down the
data
• Representing the
data
• Explaining the data
Reporting and
Evaluating
Research
• Deciding on audiences
• Structuring the report
• Writing the report
sensitively
f
f
f = feed back(helps in controlling the sub
system

33. ⦿Research problem is typically an issue/problem that
needs to be studied.
⦿Research problem is a clear expression of issues,
controversies, or concerns that point the need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation
◾Practical research problems
 Everyday issuesor concerns
◾Research-based research problem
 The need for further research

34. Things to consider in deciding if a Research problem
CAN and SHOULD be researched:
⦿ Can you gain access to People and Sites?
⦿ Do you have the Time, Resources and Skills?
⦿ Will studying the problem contribute to Knowledge and
Practice? Study the problem if your study:
◾ Fills a gap or void in the literature
◾ Replicates a past study but examines different
participants/research sites
◾ Extends past research or examine a topic more thoroughly
◾ Reconciles conflicting evidence
◾ Addresses a methodological flaw

35. ⦿A statement which stimulates an issue of
concern
⦿What is the size of the public health problem
being studied?
◾ Globally,
◾ Regionally
◾ Locally
⦿What are the causes of the problem?
◾ Why does the problem exist?
◾ Is the more than one cause?
⦿What are the effects of the problem being
studied?
◾ At the individual level
◾ Public health effect

36. ⦿A good problem statement should include
the following key components:
1.A concise statement of the situation that need to be changed.
• What is the problem?
• What is the scale of the problem
• What is causing the problem ?
• What are the consequences of the problem?
• Who/what is affected?
• What links the problem to the purpose of the project?

37. 1. Discuss and agree the
problem or issue to be
analysed
2. Identify the causes of the focal
problem – these become the
roots
3. Identify the consequences –
which become the branches
Causes
Problem
Consequences

38. ⦿ What body of knowledge currently exist on the problem
you plan to examine?
◾Who? What? How much?...
Importance of literature review
⦿ Todocument how your study adds to the existing literature
⦿ Todemonstrate that you know and can summarize the
literature on your topic
⦿ Tobuilds your research skills on info retrieval and how to
follows leads in the literature
⦿ Helps you learn how others have composed similar
research
⦿ Helps you find useful examples and models in the
literature for your own research

39. 1. Identify key terms
2. Locate literature
◾ Academic libraries
◾ Primary and secondary sources
3. Critically evaluate and select the literature
◾ Isit a good/accurate source?
◾ Isit relevant?
4. Organize the literature
◾ Abstracting or taking notes
◾ Developing a visual diagram
5. Write a literature review
◾ Style manual (citation and referencing)
◾ Strategies (Extent, Thematic vs Study-by-Study review)

40. Early Stage Material
Papers posted on Web site,
professional association newsletters,
drafts of papers for conference presentation
Indexed Publications
Conference papers, dissertations,
theses, professional association
papers, college and university
publications
Journal Articles
Refereed, non-refereed,
international, national, regional, state
Books
Research studies, essays
Summaries
Encyclopedias, research reviews,
handbooks, abstracts
Ideas
Appear First
Ideas
Appear 10+
Years After
Initiation
High Standards
to Ensure
Quality
Low
Standards
to Ensure
Quality
A Classification of Sources of Literature Review Materials

43. ⦿This provides critical information to readers
about the direction of a research study
⦿ It raises questions that the research will
answer through the data collection process
⦿Approaches
◾Purpose statement
◾Research objectives
◾Research questions
◾Research Hypotheses

44. The purpose statement
⦿ A statement that advances the overall direction or focus
for the study
⦿ Describes the purpose of a study in one or more
succinctly formed sentences
⦿ The purpose statement should contain:
• Research method/approach
• Central phenomenon
• Specific participants
• Specific research location(s)
Structure
The purpose of this [research method] is to [determine,
describe, explain, understand, explore, conceptualize,
assess] the [state the specific phenomenon you want to
study] among [specific participants] in the [specific
research location(s)]

45. Example: Purpose statement
OBESITY AMONG WOMEN IN GHANA
Structure
⦿The purpose of this [research method] is to
[determine, describe, explain, understand,
explore, conceptualize, assess] the [state the
specific phenomenon you want to study] among
[specific participants] in the [specific research
location(s)]
⦿….The study therefore employs [mixed-methods
techniques] in [assessing factors associated]
with [obesity] among [women] in [Ghana].

46. Research Objectives
⦿A statement of intent that specifies goals that
the investigator plans to achieve in a study
⦿Types:
◾Major/main and
◾Minor/specific objectives
⦿Functions:
◾Drives the study
◾Informs research approach
◾Informs data collection and analysis process
⦿S.M.A.R.T. objectives
◾Specify variables (dependent vs. independent)

47. Example: Research Objectives
OBESITY AMONG WOMEN IN GHANA
The major goal of the study is to assess obesity
among women in Ghana. The specific objectives are
to:
1. Compare the socio-demographic factors associated
with obesity between parous and nulliparous
women
2. Examine the behavioural factors associated with
obesity among women
3. Discuss the perceptions of women about obesity,
and
4. Understand the experiences of women regarding
overweight and obesity

48. Research Questions
⦿Questions that narrow the purpose statement
to specific questions that researchers seek to
answer
⦿They relate attributes or characteristics of
individuals/organizations
◾ Does the prevalence of obesity vary with the parity of
women?
⦿The relate to the central concept being
explored
◾ What does obesity mean for women?

49. Research Hypotheses
⦿Statements which predict or conjecture about
the outcome of a relationship among attributes
or characteristics
⦿Based on results from past research and
literature
⦿Two types of hyes
◾ Null hypothesis
 H0:There is no significant difference in the prevalence
obesity between parous and nulliparous women
◾ Alternate hypothesis
 H1:There is a significant difference in the prevalence
obesity between parous and nulliparous women

50. Research
Hypotheses
Research
Objectives
Purpose
Statement
Research
Questions
Intent
Form
Use
Placement
Overall
direction
One or
more
statements
Quantitative
Qualitative
End of Intro
Questions
to be
answered
One or
more
questions
Quantitative
Qualitative
Predictions
about
expectations
One or
more
statements
Quantitative
End of introduction, after literature review, or in
a separate section of the study
Goals to be
accomplished
One or more
objectives
Typically
Quantitative
Distinguishing among Various Forms of Direction in Research

51. Topic
• the broad subject matter addressed by the study.
Problem
• a general educational issue, concern, or controversy
addressed in research that narrows the topic.
Purpose
• the major intent or objective of the study used to
address the problem.
Questions
• narrow the purpose into specific questions that the
researcher would like answered or addressed in the study
GENERAL
SPECIFIC

52. ⦿A variable is a characteristic (personal aspect) or
attribute (feel, behave, or think) of an individual or
an organization that:
 (a) researchers can measure or observe and
 (b) varies among individuals or organizations

53. Type of Variables: Quantitative and qualitative
 Quantitative (numerical) variables: They are
naturally measured as numbers e.g. age, systolic
blood pressure, number of malaria episodes, number
of telecommunication companies in a particular
district, number of children/wives, height, weight
etc.
 Quantitative variables are either discrete or
continuous.
 Continuous variable is a measurement on a continuous scale.
It can assume any value within a specified relevant interval
of values assumed by the values eg height, weight, and
temperature of a patient
 Discrete variable can only take a limited number of discrete.
values, which are usually whole numbers. That is they are
variables that cannot assume any other value between two
specific whole number eg number of students in a class,
number of deaths recorded, number of accidents in a week
etc.

54.  Qualitative (or categorical) variables: The measurement scale
consist of set of categories
 e.g. political party affiliation, marital status, education level,
sex (male/female), disease status (not diseased/diseased), HIV
status (Positive, negative), employment status (employed,
unemployed), Wealth index (Poorest, poor, rich, richest), quality
of life (Excellent, very good, good, bad, worse).
 A binary variable is a particular type of categorical variable,
which has only two levels of the factor or only two possible
values. It is also known as dichotomous.
 Nominal variables
 Ordinal variables

55. Why???
 In order to choose appropriate data analysis and statistical
methods, it is very important to distinguish between
dependent and independent variables, in addition to
identifying the types of each of the variables in the data
set.
 The dependent variable is the variable of interest, whose
variation or occurrence we are seeking to understand.
 The independent variable is the variable that may influence
the size or the occurrence of the outcome variable.
 The purpose of statistical analysis is to quantify the
magnitude of the association between one or more
independent variables and the dependent variable

56.  A number of different terms are used to describe the
dependent and independent variables, depending on the
context.
 Some common examples of the depended and independent
pairs are:
⦿ Response and explanatory variables;
⦿ Outcome and exposure variables;
⦿ y and x variables;
⦿ Case-control status and risk factors

57. Examples 1: A study was conducted to assess the risk
factors associated with diabetes.
Example 2: Weekly gross revenue and amount used in
television advertising
Example 3: Examining the effect of aspirin on
myocardial infarction.
Example 4: Number of share selling and expected price
Example 5: The impact of NHIS on mortality rate in
Ghana.
In each of the examples above, identify the outcome
and the exposure variable (s) being considered

58.  The four measurement scale in Statistics:
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
 Nominal Scale: They do not have natural ordering
and numbers associated with categories only serve as
labels.
 They do not have magnitude, no equal interval and
no absolute zero e.g. gender, eye color, race, region,
religion, lab results e.tc.
 VIP: They are all categorical/ Qualitative variables

59.  Ordinal Scale: They have natural ordering and are ranked in
some measure of magnitude.
 Numbers assigned to group express a “greater than
relationship”; however how much greater than is not
implied.
 They do not have equal interval eg stages of HIV and AIDs,
Health condition of TB patients ( very, bad, good, better,
best)
 VIP: They are all categorical/ Qualitative variables

60. Interval Scale:
 It has magnitude and equal interval but does not
have absolute zero.
 It uses numbers to indicate order and reflects a
meaningful relative distance b/n points on the scale.
 You cannot construct meaningful ratios or fractions
with interval scale variables eg temperature of
patients
 VIP: They are all quantitative variables

61. Ratio scale
 It has magnitude, equal interval and absolute zero.
 It uses numbers to indicate order and reflects a
meaningful relative distance b/n points on the scale.
 You can construct a meaningful ratios or fractions
with ratio scale variables e.g. age, height, weight,
serum level of patients e.t.c.
 VIP: They are all quantitative variables

62. Scale
Level
Scale of
Measurement
Scale Qualities Example(s)
4:
Strongest
Ratio
Magnitude
Equal Intervals
Absolute Zero
Age, Height, Weight,
Percentage
3 Interval
Magnitude
Equal Intervals
Temperature
2 Ordinal Magnitude
Likert Scale, Anything
rank ordered
1:
Weakest
Nominal None Names, Lists of words

64. Primary Data
⦿Questionnaires
⦿Observations
⦿Interviews
Secondary Data
⦿Data repositories
⦿Public records and statistics
⦿Historical documents etc

65. WHO/WHAT will be studied?
⦿Unit of analysis (who can supply the needed information)
 individual, family, community, multiple levels
 Unit of analysis may vary between independent and
dependent variable
⦿Population/universe
◾ Similar characteristics
⦿Target population(sampling frame)
◾ Readily identifiable with similar characteristics
⦿Sample
◾ subgroup of the target population
 Representativeness
 Sample Size

66. Population and sample
Sample Sample
Target
Population
Population

67. Random/probability
⦿Simple Random
⦿Systematic
⦿Stratified
⦿Multistage Cluster
Non- Random/Non-
Probability
⦿Convenience
⦿Purposive
⦿Snowball
⦿Quota
 Permissions and Ethical issues in actual data collections

69. Systematic random sampling

72. • “Qualitative inquiry typically focuses on depth in
relatively small samples, even single cases, selected
purposefully.”
• Purpose should always be made clear
• “The logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in
selecting information-rich cases for study in-depth.”
(Patton, 1990)
• For example…

73. Stratified purposive sampling: illustrates characteristics of
particular subgroups of interest; facilitates comparisons
Extreme/deviant case sampling: disconfirming cases (i.e.,
those who are “exceptions to the rule”)
Snowball sampling: identifies cases of interest from
people who know people who know people who know
what cases are information rich
Maximum variation sampling: documents unique or
diverse variations that have emerged in adapting to
different conditions

74. Amos Laar, PhD
Data saturation means that no new themes, findings, concepts
or problems relevant for the study emerge through the data
collection process.

76. Data preparation
◾Software for inputting
◾Coding and inputting data
◾Data cleaning
Data analyses
◾Descriptive
◾Inferential
◾Thematic approach
Data interpretation
◾Report results
◾Discuss key findings
Qualitative
Data
Analysis
Process
Themes/Patterns
Cut across codes,
concepts to give pattern
Codes
labels for specific segments
of data, building blocks of
analysis
Text/Raw data
(Transcripts)

78. Preliminary pages
◾ Title page
◾ Certificate of supervisor
◾ Abstract
◾ Table of contents
◾ Preface
◾ Acknowledgement
◾ Listing of tables
◾ Listing of figures
◾ Abbreviations

79. Main text




◾ Chapter 1: Introduction
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Research Questions/Objectives/Hypotheses
Significance/justification/relevance of study
◾ Chapter 2: Literature review
◾ Chapter 3: Methodology
◾ Chapter 4: Results and discussion
◾ Chapter 5: Summary, conclusion and
recommendations

80. End matter
⦿ Bibliography/References
⦿ Appendix
⦿ Bibliography
⦿ Glossary

81. ◾ The title
◾ Background of the study
◾ Statement of the problem
◾ Research Questions/Objectives/Hypotheses
◾ Significance/justification/relevance of study
◾ Methodology
◾ Time schedule
◾ Budget

84. WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE THAT
WE USE TO STUDY RESEARCH PROBLEMS?

85. ⦿Research design – the science (and art) of
planning procedures for conducting studies so
as to get the most valid results
⦿An overarching or broader plan to conduct a
research
⦿Spells out the framework or guide used for the
planning, implementation, & analysis of a study
distinguishing features
⦿The you can use to
collect, analyze, and interpret data in either
quantitative or qualitative research

86. ELEMENTS
OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
The approach
Qualitative
Quantitative
Or both
Population, sample
& sampling
technique
Time & place of data
collection
Tools & Methods of
data collection
Method of data
analysis
Presenting results

87. VIP: Note that poorly designed study gives misleading
results

89. ⦿Nature of the research problem
⦿Purpose of the study
⦿Researcher’s knowledge & experience
⦿Researcher’s interest & motivation
⦿Research ethics & principles
⦿Respondents/participants
⦿Resources
⦿Time
⦿Users of the study findings
⦿Possible control on extraneous variables

90. 1. Qualitative Research
2. Quantitative Research
3. Mixed-Methods Research
Several designs under each research approach

92. Broad Categories Types of Research Design/Main Features
I. Descriptive/Non-
Analytical studies
1. Descriptive Survey research design
Accurate description of characteristics of individual, situation, or
group, & the frequency with which a certain phenomenon occurs
without imposing any control or manipulation
Univariant : Studies undertaken to describe the frequency of
occurrence of a phenomenon rather than to study relationship
Exploratory: Investigating the phenomenon & its related factors
about which very little is known
Comparative: Comparing occurrences of a phenomenon in two or
more group
II. Analytical studies 1. Experimental design
Manipulation of independent variable, in the presence of control
group, randomization
2. Quasi-experimental design
Manipulation of independent variable, but absence of either
randomization or control group.

93. Broad Categories Types of Research Design/Main Features
II. Analytical studies 3. Non-experimental/Observational studies
Examining the relationship between two or more variables without
manipulation or control (cause & effect relationship)
Epidemiological designs
• Cross-sectional study design
• Case-control design
• Cohort study design
Survey study design
Investigation in which self reported data are collected from sample with
the purpose of describing population and associations on some variables
of interest.
• Cross-sectional studies
• Longitudinal studies
III. Other additional
research design
1. Methodological studies
Develop, test, & evaluate the research instruments &
method.
2. Meta-analysis/Systematic reviews
Quantitatively combing & integrating the findings of the
multiple research studies on a particular topic.

95. Types of qualitative
designs
Main features
Phenomenological
research
Phenomenological research examines human
experiences through the descriptions provided by people
involved.
Ethnographic research Ethnographic research involves the information
collected from certain cultural groups, by living with
people of those groups & from their key informants,
who are believed to be most knowledgeable about the
selected culture.
Case studies Research on a phenomenon by studying in depth a single
case example. The case can be an individual person, an
event, a group, or an institution.
Historical research Systematic collection & objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to understand these
events that may help to explain present events &
anticipate future events.

97. ⦿Simply using the name without the rigorous
methods
⦿Having both quantitative and qualitative data
available
⦿Collecting and reporting qualitative and
qualitative data separately without
combining them
⦿Using multiple quantitative (e.g experiment,
surveys) or multiple qualitative approaches
(e.g interviews, observations)

98. ⦿Collecting and analyzing qualitative and
quantitative data in response to a research
question
⦿Using rigorous qualitative and quantitative
methods
⦿Combining or integrating qualitative and
qualitative data using a specific mixed
methods design
⦿Framing the mixed methods design within a
broader framework (e.g experiment, theory
or philosophy)

99. Types of mixed methods
designs
Main features
Convergent parallel design
–parallel or concurrent
Simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data,
merge the data, and use the results to understand a research
problem
Explanatory sequential
design – two-phase model
First collecting quantitative data and then collecting
qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the
quantitative results
Exploratory sequential
design
First gathering qualitative data to explore a phenomenon, and
then collecting quantitative data to explain relationships found
in the qualitative data
Embedded design Collecting quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously or
sequentially, but to have one form of data play a supportive
role to the other form of data.
The two databases may not be easily compared
because the data address different research questions.
Multiphase design Using one of the four designs (convergent, explanatory,
exploratory, or embedded) to examine a problem or a set of
incremental research questions through a series of studies or
separate studies
Transformative design Using one of the four designs (convergent, explanatory,
exploratory, or embedded), but to encase the design within a
transformative framework or lens (feminist, racial, ethnic,
disability, and gay or lesbian) to address a social issue for
marginalized group to bring about change

100. Quantitative Data
Collection
Quantitative
Results
Quantitative Data
Analysis
Qualitative
Results
Qualitative Data
Collection
Qualitative Data
Collection
Interpretation
⦿ Quantitative and qualitative results are compared

101. Quantitative results are further
explained by qualitative data and results
Quantitative Data
Collection
Quantitative
Results
Quantitative Data
Analysis
Qualitative
Results
Qualitative Data
Collection
Qualitative Data
Collection
Interpretation

102. Qualitative exploration leading to
quantitative test
Quantitative Data
Collection
Quantitative
Results
Quantitative Data
Analysis
Qualitative
Results
Qualitative Data
Collection
Qualitative Data
Collection
Interpretation

103. Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods
Nature Pre-determined methods Pre-determined
and emerging
methods
Emergent methods
Instrument Closed ended questions Both open- and
closed- ended
questions
Open ended
questions
Data Performance, attitude,
observational and census
data
Multiple forms of
data drawing on all
possibilities
Interview,
observation,
document and audio-
visual data
Analysis Statistical analysis Statistical and text
analysis
Text and image
analysis
Interpretation Statistical interpretation Across database
interpretation
Themes, patterns
and interpretations

105. ⦿Procedures in quantitative research in which
investigators administer a ‘survey’ to a sample or
entire population
⦿Theaim is to describe the attitudes, opinions,
behaviours, or characteristics of the population
⦿Quantitative, numbered data is collected
⦿They do not involve experimental manipulation of
conditions by the researcher
⦿Mainly focus on learning about a population,
although they often involve correlation of
variables

106. ⦿Todescribe trends
◾e.g. HIV prevalence in Ghana
⦿ Todetermine individual opinions about policy issues
◾e.g. NHIS options (fee for service vs capitation)
⦿Toidentify important beliefs, attitudes and practices
of individuals
◾e.g. Abortion beliefs, attitudes and practices
⦿May be used to follow up individuals 5, 10,15 years
or more..
◾e.g. Migration intentions of medical students

108. Survey types
Trends in
the same
population
over time
Changes in a
subpopulation
group identified
by a common
characteristic
over time
Changes
in the
same
people
over time
Attitudes
and
practices
Community
needs
Program
evaluation
Longitudinal Cross-sectional
Trend Cohort Panel Group
comparisons
National/local
assessment
Study Over Time Study at One Point in Time
Time of Data Collection

109. The Population
is the group of individuals having one
characteristic that distinguishes them from
other groups.
The Target Population or Sampling
Frame is the actual list of sampling units
from which the sample is selected.
The Sample is the group of
participants in a study
selected from the target
population from which the
researcher generalizes to the
target population.
Census
Random/
probability
procedures

110. External Validity – extent to which the results can be
generalized to a larger population
⦿Reduce coverage error
◾ Have a good sampling frame list
⦿Reduce sampling error
◾ Select as large a sample from the population as possible
⦿Reduce measurement error (Internal Validity)
◾ Use a good instrument, with clear, unambiguous questions
and response options
⦿Reduce non-response error
◾ Use rigorous administration procedures to achieve as large a
return rate as possible

111. Questionnaire Interview
Electronic/web-
based
Mailed
Individual
Focused
group
Telephone
Participant Researcher
Who Completes or Records the Data?
WHY WOULD YOU OR WOULD YOU NOT CHOOSE ONE TECHNIQUES
OVER THE OTHER???

112. STEP 1
• Decide if a Survey Is the Best Design to Use
STEP 2
• Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses
STEP 3
• Identify the Population, the Sampling Frame, and the Sample
STEP 4
• Determine the Survey Design and Data Collection Procedures
STEP 5
• Develop or Locate an Instrument
STEP 6
• Administer the Instrument
STEP 7 • Analyze the Data to Address the Research Questions or Hypotheses
STEP 8
• Write the Report

114. APPLIED RESEARCH
Study & research that seeks
to solve practical problems.
Applied research is used to
find solutions to everyday
problems, cure illness, and
develop innovative
technologies.
BASIC RESEARCH
Study and research on pure
science that is meant to
increase our scientific
knowledge base. This type of
research is often purely
theoretical with the intent of
increasing our understanding
of certain phenomena or
behavior but does not seek to
solve or treat these problems.
• Truthful
• Right to Privacy
• Right to be informed
• Protection
2. Researcher
• Purpose of Research is
Research
• Objectivity
• Misrepresentation of
Research
• Confidentiality
• Dissemination of Faulty
Conclusion
DEFINITION
ETHICAL ISSUES
1. Participants
RESEARCH
ETHICS
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Research
Mix
Quantitative &
Qualitative
Research
DESIGN