This document discusses electrolyte replacement therapy and lists three common electrolyte compounds used: sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and calcium gluconate. Sodium chloride and potassium chloride are described in detail, including their molecular formulas, properties, preparation methods, assays, and uses. Calcium gluconate is also described briefly, noting its use as an electrolyte replenisher and to treat conditions caused by low calcium levels such as osteoporosis and rickets. The main purpose of electrolyte replacement therapy is to restore electrolyte and fluid balance in the body.
Acids, Bases And Buffers Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-I)
Acids, Bases are defined by Four main theories,
1.Traditional theory / concept
2.Arrhenius theory
3.Bronsted and Lowry theory
4.Lewis theory
Importance of acids and bases in pharmacy
Buffers: Buffer action
Buffer capacity Buffers system
Types of Buffers : Generally buffers are of two types:
1. Acidic buffers
2. Basic buffers
There are some other buffer system:
3. Two salts acts as acid-base pair. Ex- Potassium hydrogen phosphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
4. Amphoteric electrolyte. Ex- Solution of glycine.
5. Solution of strong acid and solution of strong base. Ex- Strong HCl with KCl Mechanism of Buffer action: Mechanism of Action of acidic buffers: Buffer equation-Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Standard Buffer Solutions Preparation of Buffer Solutions: Buffers in pharmaceutical systems or Application of buffer: Stability of buffers Buffered isotonic solution Types of Buffer Isotonic solution
1. Isotonic Solutions:
2. Hypertonic Solutions:
3. Hypotonic Solution:
Measurement of Tonicity: 1. Hemolytic method: 2. Cryoscopic method or depression of freezing point:
Methods of adjusting the tonicity:
Class I methods:
In this type, sodium chloride or other substances are added to the solution in sufficient quantity to make it isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its final volume withan isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
Cryoscopic method
Sodium chloride equivalent method.
Class II methods:
In this type, water is added in sufficient quantity make the preparation isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its volume with an isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
White-Vincent method
Sprowls method.
This is chapter No 3 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy) Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
The document describes the limit test for lead, which determines the allowable limit of heavy metal lead in a sample. The test involves reacting the sample with dithizone, which forms a violet-colored lead dithizonate complex in the presence of lead. The intensity of color in the sample is compared to that of a standard lead solution treated the same way. If the sample solution is less colored than the standard, the sample passes the lead limit test. The test is useful for detecting trace amounts of lead impurity from sources like equipment, storage containers, or packaging materials used during manufacturing or storage of medical compounds.
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
The document discusses the limit test for chloride. It defines a limit test as a quantitative or semi-quantitative test to identify and control small amounts of impurities likely to be present in a substance. The limit test for chloride determines the allowable limit of chloride in a sample. It involves dissolving the sample and standard sodium chloride solution, adding nitric acid and silver nitrate, and observing any opalescence or turbidity after 3 minutes. The sample passes the limit test for chloride if the opalescence is less than or equal to the standard solution.
This document discusses electrolyte replacement therapy and lists three common electrolyte compounds used: sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and calcium gluconate. Sodium chloride and potassium chloride are described in detail, including their molecular formulas, properties, preparation methods, assays, and uses. Calcium gluconate is also described briefly, noting its use as an electrolyte replenisher and to treat conditions caused by low calcium levels such as osteoporosis and rickets. The main purpose of electrolyte replacement therapy is to restore electrolyte and fluid balance in the body.
Acids, Bases And Buffers Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-I)
Acids, Bases are defined by Four main theories,
1.Traditional theory / concept
2.Arrhenius theory
3.Bronsted and Lowry theory
4.Lewis theory
Importance of acids and bases in pharmacy
Buffers: Buffer action
Buffer capacity Buffers system
Types of Buffers : Generally buffers are of two types:
1. Acidic buffers
2. Basic buffers
There are some other buffer system:
3. Two salts acts as acid-base pair. Ex- Potassium hydrogen phosphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
4. Amphoteric electrolyte. Ex- Solution of glycine.
5. Solution of strong acid and solution of strong base. Ex- Strong HCl with KCl Mechanism of Buffer action: Mechanism of Action of acidic buffers: Buffer equation-Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Standard Buffer Solutions Preparation of Buffer Solutions: Buffers in pharmaceutical systems or Application of buffer: Stability of buffers Buffered isotonic solution Types of Buffer Isotonic solution
1. Isotonic Solutions:
2. Hypertonic Solutions:
3. Hypotonic Solution:
Measurement of Tonicity: 1. Hemolytic method: 2. Cryoscopic method or depression of freezing point:
Methods of adjusting the tonicity:
Class I methods:
In this type, sodium chloride or other substances are added to the solution in sufficient quantity to make it isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its final volume withan isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
Cryoscopic method
Sodium chloride equivalent method.
Class II methods:
In this type, water is added in sufficient quantity make the preparation isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its volume with an isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
White-Vincent method
Sprowls method.
This is chapter No 3 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy) Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
The document describes the limit test for lead, which determines the allowable limit of heavy metal lead in a sample. The test involves reacting the sample with dithizone, which forms a violet-colored lead dithizonate complex in the presence of lead. The intensity of color in the sample is compared to that of a standard lead solution treated the same way. If the sample solution is less colored than the standard, the sample passes the lead limit test. The test is useful for detecting trace amounts of lead impurity from sources like equipment, storage containers, or packaging materials used during manufacturing or storage of medical compounds.
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
The document discusses the limit test for chloride. It defines a limit test as a quantitative or semi-quantitative test to identify and control small amounts of impurities likely to be present in a substance. The limit test for chloride determines the allowable limit of chloride in a sample. It involves dissolving the sample and standard sodium chloride solution, adding nitric acid and silver nitrate, and observing any opalescence or turbidity after 3 minutes. The sample passes the limit test for chloride if the opalescence is less than or equal to the standard solution.
Limt test Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-I (Part-III) Limit Test.
Limit tests:- Factors affecting limit tests:
Specificity of the tests
Sensitivity
Control of personal errors (Analyst errors)
Test in which there is no visible reaction
Comparison methods
Quantitative determination
Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result
Limit test for Iron: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Heavy metal: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Lead: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Arsenic: Principle, Gutzet test Procedure, detail in Gutzet Apparatus. observation and result.
Modifies Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Modified Limit test for sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
This document discusses electrolyte replenishers and their uses. It defines electrolytes as minerals in the body that have an electric charge and are present in blood, urine, tissues, and other body fluids. Electrolytes help balance the amount of water in the body. Replacement therapy aims to restore normal volume and composition of body fluids. Various electrolytes used in replacement therapy are discussed, including sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride and bicarbonates. Combination electrolyte therapies and oral rehydration salts are also summarized.
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes the principles of precipitation titration where a titrant forms an insoluble precipitate with the analyte. Common methods like Mohr's, Volhard's, and Fajans are summarized. Factors affecting precipitate solubility and limitations of precipitation titration are also outlined. The document serves to introduce various techniques in precipitation titration.
This document discusses dental products and their uses. It begins by introducing different types of dental products, including dentifrices, anticaries agents, cements and fillers, desensitizing agents, and mouthwashes. It then describes various dental problems like tooth decay, gum disease, and stained teeth. Next, it explains the causes and prevention of tooth decay. Key points covered include the role of bacteria, fluoride, and phosphate in preventing tooth decay. Specific products discussed in detail include sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride, calcium carbonate, zinc eugenol cement, and their applications.
The document discusses various gastrointestinal agents used to treat disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. It describes acidifying agents and antacids which are used to alter gastric pH. Antacids work by neutralizing excess stomach acid through chemical reactions. Common antacids discussed include aluminum hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate. The document also examines how antacids are prepared, their properties, uses, and side effects.
Lecture - 19 Titration with potassium iodate.pptxDRx Chaudhary
Potassium iodate is a strong oxidizing agent that can be used to assay several pharmaceutical substances through titration. It reacts quantitatively with both iodides and iodine. The titrations can be performed in the presence of organic acids, alcohols, and other organic substances. The oxidation-reduction reactions with potassium iodate produce iodine monochloride in strong hydrochloric acid. Some applications of potassium iodate titrations include the determination of potassium iodide, weak iodine solutions, aqueous iodine solutions, sodium diatrizoate, iodized oil fuel injection, mercury chloride, and hydralazine hydrochloride and injection.
This document discusses pharmaceutical impurities. It defines impurity as unwanted foreign particles other than the active drug. Impurities can come from raw materials, reagents, manufacturing processes, storage conditions, or deliberate adulteration. The types and amounts of impurities depend on factors like purity of starting materials and purification methods. Limit tests are used to detect and limit specific impurities like chlorides, sulphates, and iron according to pharmacopeia limits. The tests use reactions like precipitation or color changes to compare a sample to a standard of a known impurity level. Maintaining low impurity levels is important for safety, efficacy, and stability of pharmaceutical products.
This document provides information about gastrointestinal agents (GI agents), which are drugs used to treat GI disorders. It discusses the classifications of GI agents including acidifying agents, antacids, protectives, adsorbents, and cathartics. It then describes common antacids including aluminum hydroxide gel, calcium carbonate, and magnesium salts. The ideal characteristics of antacids are outlined. Common calcium-containing and magnesium-containing antacids are also discussed in more detail.
Limit tests are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests designed to identify and control small quantities of impurity, which are likely to be present in the substance. The quantity of any one impurity in an official substance is often small, and consequently the visible reaction response to any test for that impurity is also small. The design of individual tests is therefore important if errors are to be avoided in the hands of different operators.
Diazotization titrations involve the reaction of primary aromatic amines with sodium nitrite in acidic solution to form unstable diazonium salts. This reaction can be used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of compounds containing amino groups. The endpoint is detected using an external indicator like starch-iodide paper, which detects excess nitrous acid after all the aromatic amine has reacted. Some common compounds that can be assayed via diazotization titration include dapsone, sulphamethoxazole, and benzocaine.
Limit tests, Introduction, Definition,
Limit Test For Chlorides
Limit Test For Sulphates
Limit Test For Iron
Limit Test For Lead
Limit Test For Arsenic
This document discusses various types of cathartics/laxatives including bulk forming, stimulant, stool softeners, and osmotic laxatives. It provides examples of specific cathartics that fall into each category such as magnesium sulfate, sodium orthophosphate, kaolin, and bentonite. Details are given on the properties, identification tests, uses and methods of preparation/assay for some of these cathartic agents. Constipation and the role of laxatives in treating it are also briefly covered.
Limit test of sulphate is based on the reaction of soluble sulphate with barium chloride in presence of dilute hydrochloric acid to form barium sulphate which appears as solid particles (turbidity) in the solution.
This document describes the limit test for sulfate. The test is based on the reaction between barium chloride and soluble sulfates in the presence of hydrochloric acid. This results in the precipitation of barium sulfate. The turbidity produced by the test solution is compared to that of a standard sulfate solution. If the turbidity of the test solution is less than the standard, then the sample passes the limit test for sulfate.
Arsenic is well known under desirable hand harmful due to its toxic nature, it poses the serious health hazard, which is present in medical substance, many qualitative and quantitative test for arsenic known, however Pharmacopoeia method is based on ‘Gutzeit Method’.
Concentration of arsenic beyond 0.01 mg/L in pollutant by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Reasons:
• Stannous chloride is used for complete evolution of arsine.
• Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent.
• Hydrochloride acid is used to make the solution acidic.
• Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide, which may be evolved along with arsine.
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistr...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
Electrolyte: Intracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
Plasma (Vascular fluid)
Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
Concentration of important Electrolytes:
Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy: Sodium
chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Expectorants are agents that enhance sputum secretion from the respiratory tract and facilitate removal of mucus. They are classified as sedatives or stimulants. Sedatives act through gastric irritation while stimulants directly or indirectly stimulate respiratory secretions. Common expectorants include potassium iodide, ammonium chloride, and copper sulfate. Potassium iodide is prepared via reaction of iodine with potassium hydroxide or potassium carbonate and iron filings. Ammonium chloride is made by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia. Copper sulfate pentahydrate is obtained from heating copper and sulfur. Emetics induce vomiting by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone or irritating the GI
This document discusses expectorants and emetics. It describes expectorants as agents that enhance sputum secretion from the respiratory tract and are used to treat cough. Expectorants are classified as sedative or stimulant based on their mechanism of action. Sedative expectorants irritate the stomach to stimulate gastric reflux, while stimulant expectorants directly or indirectly stimulate respiratory secretory cells. Potassium iodide and ammonium chloride are discussed as examples of expectorant drugs. Emetics induce vomiting and act by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone or irritating the GI tract. Copper sulfate is provided as an example of an emetic drug and its properties and uses are summarized.
Limt test Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-I (Part-III) Limit Test.
Limit tests:- Factors affecting limit tests:
Specificity of the tests
Sensitivity
Control of personal errors (Analyst errors)
Test in which there is no visible reaction
Comparison methods
Quantitative determination
Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result
Limit test for Iron: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Heavy metal: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Lead: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Arsenic: Principle, Gutzet test Procedure, detail in Gutzet Apparatus. observation and result.
Modifies Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Modified Limit test for sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
This document discusses electrolyte replenishers and their uses. It defines electrolytes as minerals in the body that have an electric charge and are present in blood, urine, tissues, and other body fluids. Electrolytes help balance the amount of water in the body. Replacement therapy aims to restore normal volume and composition of body fluids. Various electrolytes used in replacement therapy are discussed, including sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride and bicarbonates. Combination electrolyte therapies and oral rehydration salts are also summarized.
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes the principles of precipitation titration where a titrant forms an insoluble precipitate with the analyte. Common methods like Mohr's, Volhard's, and Fajans are summarized. Factors affecting precipitate solubility and limitations of precipitation titration are also outlined. The document serves to introduce various techniques in precipitation titration.
This document discusses dental products and their uses. It begins by introducing different types of dental products, including dentifrices, anticaries agents, cements and fillers, desensitizing agents, and mouthwashes. It then describes various dental problems like tooth decay, gum disease, and stained teeth. Next, it explains the causes and prevention of tooth decay. Key points covered include the role of bacteria, fluoride, and phosphate in preventing tooth decay. Specific products discussed in detail include sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride, calcium carbonate, zinc eugenol cement, and their applications.
The document discusses various gastrointestinal agents used to treat disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. It describes acidifying agents and antacids which are used to alter gastric pH. Antacids work by neutralizing excess stomach acid through chemical reactions. Common antacids discussed include aluminum hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate. The document also examines how antacids are prepared, their properties, uses, and side effects.
Lecture - 19 Titration with potassium iodate.pptxDRx Chaudhary
Potassium iodate is a strong oxidizing agent that can be used to assay several pharmaceutical substances through titration. It reacts quantitatively with both iodides and iodine. The titrations can be performed in the presence of organic acids, alcohols, and other organic substances. The oxidation-reduction reactions with potassium iodate produce iodine monochloride in strong hydrochloric acid. Some applications of potassium iodate titrations include the determination of potassium iodide, weak iodine solutions, aqueous iodine solutions, sodium diatrizoate, iodized oil fuel injection, mercury chloride, and hydralazine hydrochloride and injection.
This document discusses pharmaceutical impurities. It defines impurity as unwanted foreign particles other than the active drug. Impurities can come from raw materials, reagents, manufacturing processes, storage conditions, or deliberate adulteration. The types and amounts of impurities depend on factors like purity of starting materials and purification methods. Limit tests are used to detect and limit specific impurities like chlorides, sulphates, and iron according to pharmacopeia limits. The tests use reactions like precipitation or color changes to compare a sample to a standard of a known impurity level. Maintaining low impurity levels is important for safety, efficacy, and stability of pharmaceutical products.
This document provides information about gastrointestinal agents (GI agents), which are drugs used to treat GI disorders. It discusses the classifications of GI agents including acidifying agents, antacids, protectives, adsorbents, and cathartics. It then describes common antacids including aluminum hydroxide gel, calcium carbonate, and magnesium salts. The ideal characteristics of antacids are outlined. Common calcium-containing and magnesium-containing antacids are also discussed in more detail.
Limit tests are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests designed to identify and control small quantities of impurity, which are likely to be present in the substance. The quantity of any one impurity in an official substance is often small, and consequently the visible reaction response to any test for that impurity is also small. The design of individual tests is therefore important if errors are to be avoided in the hands of different operators.
Diazotization titrations involve the reaction of primary aromatic amines with sodium nitrite in acidic solution to form unstable diazonium salts. This reaction can be used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of compounds containing amino groups. The endpoint is detected using an external indicator like starch-iodide paper, which detects excess nitrous acid after all the aromatic amine has reacted. Some common compounds that can be assayed via diazotization titration include dapsone, sulphamethoxazole, and benzocaine.
Limit tests, Introduction, Definition,
Limit Test For Chlorides
Limit Test For Sulphates
Limit Test For Iron
Limit Test For Lead
Limit Test For Arsenic
This document discusses various types of cathartics/laxatives including bulk forming, stimulant, stool softeners, and osmotic laxatives. It provides examples of specific cathartics that fall into each category such as magnesium sulfate, sodium orthophosphate, kaolin, and bentonite. Details are given on the properties, identification tests, uses and methods of preparation/assay for some of these cathartic agents. Constipation and the role of laxatives in treating it are also briefly covered.
Limit test of sulphate is based on the reaction of soluble sulphate with barium chloride in presence of dilute hydrochloric acid to form barium sulphate which appears as solid particles (turbidity) in the solution.
This document describes the limit test for sulfate. The test is based on the reaction between barium chloride and soluble sulfates in the presence of hydrochloric acid. This results in the precipitation of barium sulfate. The turbidity produced by the test solution is compared to that of a standard sulfate solution. If the turbidity of the test solution is less than the standard, then the sample passes the limit test for sulfate.
Arsenic is well known under desirable hand harmful due to its toxic nature, it poses the serious health hazard, which is present in medical substance, many qualitative and quantitative test for arsenic known, however Pharmacopoeia method is based on ‘Gutzeit Method’.
Concentration of arsenic beyond 0.01 mg/L in pollutant by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Reasons:
• Stannous chloride is used for complete evolution of arsine.
• Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent.
• Hydrochloride acid is used to make the solution acidic.
• Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide, which may be evolved along with arsine.
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistr...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
Electrolyte: Intracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
Plasma (Vascular fluid)
Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
Concentration of important Electrolytes:
Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy: Sodium
chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Expectorants are agents that enhance sputum secretion from the respiratory tract and facilitate removal of mucus. They are classified as sedatives or stimulants. Sedatives act through gastric irritation while stimulants directly or indirectly stimulate respiratory secretions. Common expectorants include potassium iodide, ammonium chloride, and copper sulfate. Potassium iodide is prepared via reaction of iodine with potassium hydroxide or potassium carbonate and iron filings. Ammonium chloride is made by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia. Copper sulfate pentahydrate is obtained from heating copper and sulfur. Emetics induce vomiting by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone or irritating the GI
This document discusses expectorants and emetics. It describes expectorants as agents that enhance sputum secretion from the respiratory tract and are used to treat cough. Expectorants are classified as sedative or stimulant based on their mechanism of action. Sedative expectorants irritate the stomach to stimulate gastric reflux, while stimulant expectorants directly or indirectly stimulate respiratory secretory cells. Potassium iodide and ammonium chloride are discussed as examples of expectorant drugs. Emetics induce vomiting and act by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone or irritating the GI tract. Copper sulfate is provided as an example of an emetic drug and its properties and uses are summarized.
Expectorants are agents that enhance sputum secretion from the respiratory tract and facilitate removal of bronchopulmonary mucus. They are classified as sedatives like ipecac or stimulants like eucalyptus oil. Potassium iodide is a sedative expectorant prepared by reacting iodine with potassium hydroxide or using iron fillings with potassium carbonate. Ammonium chloride is also a sedative expectorant made by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia. Emetics induce vomiting by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone or irritating the GI tract. Copper sulphate is a common emetic that is prepared as blue crystals through a two-
This document provides information about expectorants and miscellaneous compounds used as expectorants or emetics. It discusses how expectorants work to thin mucus and increase secretions to ease coughing. Common inorganic expectorants include ammonium chloride, potassium iodide, and antimony potassium tartrate. Copper sulfate is mentioned as an emetic, though it is not the preferred choice. The document also covers hematinics and ferrous sulfate and ferrous gluconate which are used to treat iron-deficiency anemia.
This document provides information about expectorants, astringents, and antidotes for cyanide poisoning. It discusses the mechanisms and examples of expectorants like ammonium chloride and potassium iodide. It also covers the properties and uses of astringents like potash alum. Finally, it explains the mechanisms and administration of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate as antidotes for cyanide poisoning through their effects on hemoglobin and endogenous detoxification pathways.
Expectorants are drugs that enhance sputum secretion from the airways, making it easier to cough up phlegm. Ipecacuanha and potassium iodide are common expectorants that work by irritating the stomach or bronchial mucosa to stimulate sputum production. Ammonium chloride and antimony potassium tartrate are also used as expectorants. Potassium iodide, ammonium chloride, and sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelle salt) can also act as emetics in small doses to induce vomiting. Activated charcoal, sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulphate are common antidotes used to treat poisoning from substances like cyanide.
Emetics are drugs that induce vomiting by causing the contents of the stomach to be expelled through the mouth. They are important for treating poisoning cases. Copper sulfate is a common emetic that is blue crystalline powder. It can be assayed through an oxidation-reduction titration with iodine and sodium thiosulfate. Sodium potassium tartrate, also known as Rochelle salt, is a crystalline powder that is soluble in water. It has uses as a laxative, diuretic, and food additive.
Cathartics are drugs used to relieve constipation by stimulating bowel movements. They include mild laxatives that soften stool and strong purgatives that cause complete bowel evacuation. Constipation can be caused by factors like weak intestines, diet, drugs, or ignoring the urge to defecate. Cathartics work by irritation, increasing stool bulk, lubrication, or drawing water into the intestines. Common cathartics discussed include magnesium sulfate, sodium phosphate, kaolin, and bentonite.
This is chapter No 3 of Pharmaceutical Chemistry - I for Diploma in Pharmacy (D. Pharmacy) Details notes for Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharmacy) Students.
Topical agents are substances applied locally to the skin or mucous membranes. They are classified into protectives and adsorbents which form a film on the skin; antimicrobials which destroy microbes via oxidation, halogenation, or protein precipitation; sulphur and its compounds; and astringents which cause local protein precipitation. Common topical agents include talc, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, boric acid, silver nitrate, chlorhexidine gluconate, and sulphur. They are used as antiseptics, disinfectants, and to treat wounds, fungal infections, gingivitis, and other conditions.
Major intra & extra cellular electrolytes ATTRIRAKESH1
This document discusses various electrolytes used in acid-base therapy and their properties and uses. It describes sodium acetate, potassium acetate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, potassium citrate, sodium lactate, ammonium chloride, and potassium bicarbonate. It also discusses oral rehydration solutions, their formulations and benefits. The World Health Organization recommends reduced osmolarity oral rehydration solutions containing sodium, potassium, citrate, magnesium, zinc, and glucose to effectively treat diarrhea and dehydration.
Topical agents such as talc, zinc oxide, calamine, zinc stearate, titanium dioxide, and silicone polymers are applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes to protect them from irritation, injury, or inflammation. Talc, zinc oxide, calamine, and zinc stearate are commonly used in dusting powders, ointments, and lotions as mild antiseptics and astringents to soothe skin conditions. Titanium dioxide and silicone polymers are also used as protective topical agents and in products as lubricants, sunscreens, or to prevent bedsores. These protective agents are finely powdered or viscous liquids that are generally inert, odorless, and tasteless when applied
DEFINATION
TYPES OF COUGH
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPECTORANT AND MECHANISM OF ACTION
DEFINATION OF EMETICS
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF EMETICS
COMPOUND RELATED TO EXPECTORANT.
Ch Acid,Bases and Salts notes - ST. Coaching Centre.docxSouravMaity79
The document provides information on acids, bases, indicators and salts. It defines acids as substances with a sour taste that turn litmus red and conduct electricity. Bases are defined as substances with a bitter taste that turn litmus blue and conduct electricity. Common indicators and their properties are described, including litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein. Examples of acids, bases and common salts such as sodium chloride, washing soda and baking soda are given along with their chemical formulas, methods of production and uses.
This document provides information about various miscellaneous inorganic pharmaceutical compounds categorized as antidotes. It discusses the definitions, classifications, examples and properties of antidotes including physiological, chemical and mechanical antidotes. Specific antidotes discussed in detail include sodium thiosulphate, sodium nitrite and activated charcoal. Their methods of preparation, physical properties, uses and identification tests are summarized. The document aims to inform readers about these important miscellaneous inorganic pharmaceutical agents.
Introduction to common essential DrugsTanzir Ahmed
This document provides information on common essential drugs including benzoic acid, salicylic acid, aspirin, paracetamol, PABA, sulfa drugs, and PASA. It describes the structure, synthesis, properties and uses of each drug. Benzoic acid is used as a germicide and food preservative. Salicylic acid has analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Aspirin is used to reduce fever and pain. Paracetamol is an analgesic and antipyretic. PABA acts as a sunscreen and in vitamin synthesis. Sulfa drugs treat bacterial infections. PASA is used to treat tuberculosis.
Similaire à Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry -B Pharmacy First Year -First semester -miscellaneous compound.pdf (20)
This document provides an overview of drugs acting on the central nervous system. It discusses sedatives and hypnotics, which are central nervous system depressants that induce sedation or sleep. Specific barbiturate drugs are described that act as sedatives and hypnotics by stimulating the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain, including barbital, phenobarbital, mephobarbital, amorbarbital, and butabarbital. Their mechanisms of action, structures, and uses for conditions like insomnia and seizures are summarized for each drug.
This document discusses para-sympathetic agents that act indirectly by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. It describes two types of indirect agents: reversible inhibitors like physostigmine and neostigmine that temporarily bind the enzyme's active site, and irreversible inhibitors like parathion and malathion that permanently inactivate the enzyme. Reversible inhibitors are used to treat conditions like glaucoma and myasthenia gravis. Irreversible inhibitors are toxic and used as insecticides. The document also mentions pralidoxime, a cholinesterase reactivator that can treat poisoning from irreversible inhibitors like organophosphates.
Lecture 9 .Parasympathetic agents.b pharmacy second yearmanjusha kareppa
This document discusses para-sympathetic agents, which mimic the actions of acetylcholine and cause nerve stimulation. It describes two types: direct-acting agents that bind nicotinic or muscarinic receptors, and indirect-acting agents that inhibit acetylcholine hydrolysis. Several direct-acting agents are mentioned, including acetylcholine, carbachol, bethanechol, methacholine, and pilocarpine. Their structures, mechanisms of action, and uses are outlined, such as treating glaucoma, stimulating the GI tract, and producing miosis in eye surgery.
This document summarizes different types of adrenergic blockers (antagonists) that block the effects of sympathomimetic drugs. It discusses alpha and beta adrenergic blockers, providing examples of each type along with their mechanisms of action and uses. Specific alpha blockers mentioned include prazosin, tolazoline, and dihydroergotamine. Examples of beta blockers provided are propranolol, atenolol, betaxolol, esmolol, labetalol, and carvedilol. The document also discusses the structure-activity relationships of different classes of beta blockers.
Medicinal chemistry -l-Second year-Fourth semester -Lecture V sympathomimetic...manjusha kareppa
Sympathomimetic agents mimic the sympathetic nervous system by interacting with adrenergic receptors. They can be classified based on their structure and sites of substitution. Norepinephrine, epinephrine, phenylephrine, dopamine, and salbutamol are examples of direct-acting sympathomimetic agents that bind adrenergic receptors. Norepinephrine is used to reduce local anesthetic absorption and decrease hemorrhaging. Epinephrine is used for anaphylaxis, asthma, and rhinitis. Phenylephrine causes vasoconstriction and is used as a decongestant. Dopamine increases blood pressure and urine output in shock and heart failure. Salbutamol is
This document provides an overview of the autonomic nervous system and drugs that act on it. It discusses how the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions and is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It then explains that adrenergic drugs act directly on the sympathetic nervous system by mimicking its actions. The key neurotransmitters of the adrenergic system, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are discussed. It also summarizes the biosynthesis, storage, release and catabolism of these neurotransmitters. Finally, it describes the two types of adrenergic receptors, alpha and beta receptors, and their subtypes and functions in regulating various organs and tissues.
Medicinal chemistry -l-Second year-Fourth semester --Medichem drug metabolism...manjusha kareppa
This document provides an overview of drug metabolism. It discusses that drug metabolism involves altering drug molecules through phase I and phase II reactions to make them more polar and excretable from the body. Phase I reactions introduce functional groups through oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis. Phase II reactions conjugate phase I metabolites with molecules like glucuronic acid, glutathione, or sulfate to further increase polarity. Several factors can influence a drug's metabolism, including its physicochemical properties, the presence of enzyme inhibitors or inducers, and biological factors like age, diet, or disease state. The document aims to explain the basic process of drug metabolism and some key concepts.
Medicinal chemistry -l-Second year-Fourth semester -medichem intro and histor...manjusha kareppa
This document provides an introduction and history of medicinal chemistry. It discusses how medicinal chemistry involves the discovery, design, and study of biologically active compounds and their mechanisms of action at the molecular level. The history section notes that ancient civilizations first used plants for medicine and key developments include the isolation of morphine in the early 19th century, the introduction of general anesthetics and antiseptics in the 1840s-1860s, and the discovery and synthesis of many modern drugs and antibiotic classes from the 1930s-1950s.
Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry -B Pharmacy First Year -First semester -PI...manjusha kareppa
This document provides an overview of gastrointestinal agents used to treat various gastrointestinal disorders. It discusses acidifiers that increase acid in the stomach and are used to treat achlorhydria. It also covers antacids that neutralize excess stomach acid and are used for hyperacidity/hyperchlorhydria. Finally, it discusses cathartics/laxatives that relieve constipation through increasing bowel movements. Specific agents covered include ammonium chloride, dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium bicarbonate, aluminum hydroxide gel, and magnesium hydroxide mixture.
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
�
(
�
−
�
)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
�
cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
�
) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
�
Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
BIRDS DIVERSITY OF SOOTEA BISWANATH ASSAM.ppt.pptxgoluk9330
Ahota Beel, nestled in Sootea Biswanath Assam , is celebrated for its extraordinary diversity of bird species. This wetland sanctuary supports a myriad of avian residents and migrants alike. Visitors can admire the elegant flights of migratory species such as the Northern Pintail and Eurasian Wigeon, alongside resident birds including the Asian Openbill and Pheasant-tailed Jacana. With its tranquil scenery and varied habitats, Ahota Beel offers a perfect haven for birdwatchers to appreciate and study the vibrant birdlife that thrives in this natural refuge.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
2. EMETICS -
⦿ Introduction: The drug which produces vomiting is called as emetics.
⦿ E.g. Sodium potassium tartarate, Copper sulphate.
⦿ These drugs act by stimulating the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ)
located in areas of thalamus.
⦿ 1. Copper sulphate:
Method of preparation:
1. When dilute sulphuric acid react with copper oxide to form copper
sulphate.
H2 SO4 + CuO ----------- CuSO4 + H2O
2. When dilute sulphuric acid react with copper carbonate to form copper
sulphate
H2 SO4 + CuCO3 ----------- CuSO4 + H2O
⦿ Assay: Principle: Assay of copper sulphate is performed using Iodometric
titration.
Reaction:
2CuSO4 + 4KI2 ------- CuI2 +2K2 SO4
2Cu I2 --------------------Cu2 I 2 +I2
I2 +2Na2 S2O3 -------- Na2 S4O6 + 2NaI2
3. Procedure:
⦿ Conical Flask: Take a conical flask having 250ml capacity and add
copper sulphate, potassium iodide, acetic acid & 2 gm potassium
thiocynate. Burette: Titrate the above solution using Standardized
sodium thiosulphate
⦿ Indicator: Starch
⦿ End point: Disappearance of blue colour
⦿ Properties: Physical properties: It is……….
⦿ 1. deep blue crystals or powder. 2. soluble in water. 3. very soluble in
boiling water. 4. insoluble in alcohol. 5. acidic to litmus.
⦿ Chemical Properties: At very high temperature, it decomposes to cupric
oxide and sulphur dioxide gas.
2CuSO4 -------- 2CuO + SO2 + O2
Uses: It is… 1. Used as emetics. 2. used as chemical antidote in
phosphorous poisoning. 3. used as astringent. 4. used as fungicidal. 5.
used as ingredients of benedicts and fehlings reagent 6. used in
detection of water.
4. 2.SODIUM POTASSIUM TARTARATE
⦿ Physical Properties:
It is……. 1. whitecolourless crystalline powder. 2. produces
effloresce slightly in warm dry air. 3. odorless. 4. cooling saline in
taste 5. having specific gravity 1.783. 6. freely soluble in water. 7.
practically insoluble in alcohol.
⦿ Chemical Properties:
⦿ When crystals of Sodium potassium tartarate heated it melts at
about 75o C. When it is further heated the crystalline powders
become a red which having the odour of brunt sugar.
C4H4KNaO6 + 5O2 ------- K2CO3 + NaCO3 + 6CO2 + 4H2O
⦿ Uses : It is used… 1. as saline cathartics. 2. as stabilizers for food
such Cheese and meat products. 3. as ingredient of effervescent
powder. 4. as diuretics. 5. as urinary alkaliser. 6. as mild laxative
depends on dose.
5. EXPECTORANTS
⦿ Expectorants are drugs used to help in the removal (expulsion) of
secretions or exudate from the trachea, bronchi, or lungs, and
hence they are used in the treatment of cough.
⦿ The cough is a protective physiological reflux
(both,voluntaryandinvoluntary) to clear the airway.
⦿ Hence this agent intended for treatment of cough.
⦿ Ex. Ammonium chloride
6. CLASSIFICATION
⦿ They are classified according to their mechanism of action into 2
categories:-
⦿ 1. Reflux expectorants / Sedative type-
These types of expectorants produces mild irritation of the
gastric mucosa which stimulates gastric reflexes.
This helps to increase the respiratory secretion.
These types of drugs are bitter in taste. E.g.- Antimony
potassium tartrate, Ammonium chloride, KI etc.
All these drugs are potential emetics and hence produce nausea
and vomiting.
⦿ 2. Direct expectorant / Stimulant type-
In this type the drugs directly increases a stimulation of secretory
cells of respiratory tract. Since the drug stimulates the secretion,
more fluid is formed in respiratory tract and sputum gets diluted.
Also they increase mucociliary action E. g- Terpenoid oils like
Eucalyptus, lemon, Anise
7. 1.Potassium iodide
⦿ Properties: Physical Properties: It is…. 1. cubic or hexahedral crystals
2. colorless, transparent or white granular powder. 3. odorless. 4.
slightly bitter in taste 5. slightly hygroscopic. 6. soluble in alcohol,
very soluble in water. 7. when expose to air it becomes yellow due to
liberation of iodine.
⦿ Chemical Properties:
⦿ 1. Iodine get readily dissolve in an aqueous potassium iodide
solution, form dark brown solution containing potassium tri-iodide.
KI + I2 ------- KI 3
⦿ Uses of KI- It is used …. 1. as Expectorant. 2. as source of Iodine &
potassium. 3. in treatment of Goiter. 4. as antifungal in veterinary
practice. 5. As saline diuretics in the form of solution. 6. in treatment
of hypothyroidism.
8. ⦿ 2.Ammonium chloride
⦿ Method of Preparation:
It is prepared by neutralization of hydrochloric acid with the help of
ammonium hydroxide and the solution get evaporates to the
dryness followed by crystallization.
NH4OH + HCl ------- NH4Cl + H2O 2.
It is prepared by treating ammonia with hydrochloric acid.
NH3 +HCl ------ NH4Cl
⦿ Assay: Assay of ammonium chloride is performed using
argentimetric titration.