This work examines the childhood obesity epidemic, its foundations, and strategies for reducing its prevalence. There is currently a plethora of information, opinions and sometimes contradictory data surrounding the subject. Although overweight and obesity has existed presumably since the dawn of mankind, it has been relatively uncommon in most societies. Historically, only the wealthy have had the ability to overindulge.
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILHOOD OBESITY14CAUSE AND RIMaximaSheffield592
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILHOOD OBESITY
1
4
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY
Cause and Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity
Lesly M. Ponce Gonzales
Mountain View College
ENGL 1302 - TR -11:00
Abstract
Childhood obesity is a global public health concern and its increasing over the years and it is defined as an increase in body fat and this is related to an abnormal weight gain for their age and height. The obese child is more predisposed to being an obese adult and tends to increase his probability of early mortality. Causes or risk factors are closely related to genetic inheritance, lifestyle, and environmental factors, such as school diet, socioeconomic problems, and technology. It can also cause diseases such as type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, sleep disorders, among others. The causes and risk factors of childhood obesity because it helps to understand the increasing growth of obese children and adults in the world. Knowing the causes or risk factors allows specialists to find or propose solutions for its prevention.
Cause and Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity
Did you know that overweight and obesity in children and adolescents is one of the faster-growing epidemics in the world, that it is not only related to excessive consumption of calories? Although childhood obesity is caused by eating more energy than it is burning, and it is associated with a dietary factor and sedentary lifestyle, exists others less known causes associated with genetic, psychological, family, sociocultural, socioeconomic and environmental factors that develop and increase the risk of the childhood obesity.
As a global health concern, World Health Organization (WHO), classifies if a child is overweight or obese using body mass index (BMI) “systematic reviews have shown that the BMI (…) provides the best simple means of defining obesity in children and adolescents” (Really). BMI is a simple indicator of the relationship between weight and height that it is used to identify obesity in children and adults. It is calculating by dividing children’s weight in kilos by the square of their height in meters BMI = (kg) / Height² (m²). For instance, the WHO uses the BMI-for-age chart for boys for screening for overweight or obesity in the child. As it has shown in figure 1 and 2 respectively, the line labeled 0 on the growth chart is the median or the average. A child whose BMI-for-age is above line 3 is obese, above 2 is overweight and above 1shows the possible risk of overweight. Obesity is interpreted “as an excess of body fat” (Sahoo) because it is understood that the excess of weight is due to the growth of fat cells or the born of the new ones. According to the researchers the prevalence of pediatric obesity in the world has increased at an alarmed rate s from “2% to 6.7% in 2010” (Al-Agha), turning it as the most serious public health challenge of this time.
Fig. 1. Child Growth Standards BMI-for-age BOYS 2 to 5 years old
Fig. 2. Ch ...
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILHOOD OBESITY14CAUSE AND RIMaximaSheffield592
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILHOOD OBESITY
1
4
CAUSE AND RISK FACTORS OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY
Cause and Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity
Lesly M. Ponce Gonzales
Mountain View College
ENGL 1302 - TR -11:00
Abstract
Childhood obesity is a global public health concern and its increasing over the years and it is defined as an increase in body fat and this is related to an abnormal weight gain for their age and height. The obese child is more predisposed to being an obese adult and tends to increase his probability of early mortality. Causes or risk factors are closely related to genetic inheritance, lifestyle, and environmental factors, such as school diet, socioeconomic problems, and technology. It can also cause diseases such as type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, sleep disorders, among others. The causes and risk factors of childhood obesity because it helps to understand the increasing growth of obese children and adults in the world. Knowing the causes or risk factors allows specialists to find or propose solutions for its prevention.
Cause and Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity
Did you know that overweight and obesity in children and adolescents is one of the faster-growing epidemics in the world, that it is not only related to excessive consumption of calories? Although childhood obesity is caused by eating more energy than it is burning, and it is associated with a dietary factor and sedentary lifestyle, exists others less known causes associated with genetic, psychological, family, sociocultural, socioeconomic and environmental factors that develop and increase the risk of the childhood obesity.
As a global health concern, World Health Organization (WHO), classifies if a child is overweight or obese using body mass index (BMI) “systematic reviews have shown that the BMI (…) provides the best simple means of defining obesity in children and adolescents” (Really). BMI is a simple indicator of the relationship between weight and height that it is used to identify obesity in children and adults. It is calculating by dividing children’s weight in kilos by the square of their height in meters BMI = (kg) / Height² (m²). For instance, the WHO uses the BMI-for-age chart for boys for screening for overweight or obesity in the child. As it has shown in figure 1 and 2 respectively, the line labeled 0 on the growth chart is the median or the average. A child whose BMI-for-age is above line 3 is obese, above 2 is overweight and above 1shows the possible risk of overweight. Obesity is interpreted “as an excess of body fat” (Sahoo) because it is understood that the excess of weight is due to the growth of fat cells or the born of the new ones. According to the researchers the prevalence of pediatric obesity in the world has increased at an alarmed rate s from “2% to 6.7% in 2010” (Al-Agha), turning it as the most serious public health challenge of this time.
Fig. 1. Child Growth Standards BMI-for-age BOYS 2 to 5 years old
Fig. 2. Ch ...
food for longevity and better quality of life.pdfPaulClaybrook
Unlocking the secrets of longevity through nutrition, this article delves into key aspects of dietary choices for a vibrant and extended healthspan.
Macronutrient Balance: Exploring the optimal mix of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats for sustained health and vitality.
Micronutrients and Antioxidants: Uncovering the role of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals in cellular defense against aging.
Plant-Based Diets: Highlighting the longevity benefits of a predominantly plant-powered plate and its anti-inflammatory properties.
Caloric Restriction: Investigating the metabolic advantages of consuming fewer calories while maintaining optimal nutrition.
Anti-inflammatory Foods: Decoding the role of omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and other nutrients in quelling chronic inflammation.
Gut Microbiome: Exploring how dietary choices shape the gut microbiome, influencing overall health and longevity.
Through these insights, we uncover the multifaceted pathways by which food choices can promote longevity and enhance the quality of life.
Benson’s Syndrome, also known as Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA), is a rare neurodegenerative disorder. It is characterized by progressive and predominantly visual cognitive impairments. Initially described by Frank Benson in 1988, this syndrome presents with a constellation of symptoms. #alzheimers #alzheimersawareness #alzheimerssucks #superdupernutrition
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/07/29/bensons-syndrome-a-closer-look-at-posterior-cortical-atrophy-pca/
A Closer Look at Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA).pdfPaulClaybrook
Benson's Syndrome, also known as Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA), is a rare neurodegenerative disorder. It is characterized by progressive and predominantly visual cognitive impairments.
#alzheimers #dementia #endalzheimers
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/07/29/bensons-syndrome-a-closer-look-at-posterior-cortical-atrophy-pca/.
In the pursuit of optimal health, individuals often encounter an array of intriguing and unconventional strategies. These so-called “weird health tips” encompass a variety of practices that have gained attention for their potential benefits. From ancient traditions to innovative approaches, these tips offer alternative perspectives on enhancing well-being. While some may raise eyebrows, numerous studies support their potential positive impact. Exploring these unconventional methods can provide valuable insights into improving health and wellness.
#healthtips #health #healthylifestyle
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/05/23/weird-health-tips-top-10/
Sugar is a prevalent ingredient in the modern diet, with many people consuming far more than the recommended daily limit. The abundance of processed foods is one major reason for its prevalence in the modern diet. #CutTheSugar #SugarFreeLiving #SugarAwareness
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/05/12/sugar-and-refined-sugar-in-the-modern-diet/
While some people may find it uncomfortable or embarrassing to discuss, it's essential to know what healthy poop looks like and monitor your poop for any signs of problems
strange berries to improve your health.pdfPaulClaybrook
There are many more types of berries out there than most people realize. For instance, marionberries are common in Oregon, dewberries in Texas and lingonberries in Scandinavia. All of these strange berries are excellent choices for your diet because they are rich in polyphenols. These are plant chemicals that are natural inflammation fighters. This is important as inflammation runs alongside just about every disease in the book.1 You might even find cancer relief as a result of berries.2 Here are a few strange berries to consider:
Your heart is an amazing living pump. Its only job is to move blood through your body. Blood is sent to the lungs to get oxygen and then throughout the body to deliver that oxygen to cells. There are also many nutrients in your blood from the things you eat, drink and breathe in that influence heart health.
The Birth of the School Lunch Program.pdfPaulClaybrook
The Commodity Donation Program of 1936 marked the first time the government became significantly involved in school lunches. Because crop surpluses are harmful to respective commodity prices, the act attempted to eliminate them by allotting excesses, in the form of lunches, to underprivileged school children1. However, many school boards did not espouse the program. They were unwilling to invest in equipment and expansion for a program that was not certain to continue. Additionally, food donation from the government fluctuated with commodity surpluses2. So the 79th Congress considered a legislative proposal to make the Commodity Donation Program permanent. It was signed into law as the National School Lunch Bill1.
get the sleep you need sleep soundly.pdfPaulClaybrook
When you don’t get enough sleep, you lose out. For example, focus, concentration, losing your temper are all tougher to manage. Furthermore, sleep deprivation makes you more irritated, anxious and cranky, which in turn makes it harder to get to sleep at night. It’s a vicious cycle that Neural Balance TM can break!
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
food for longevity and better quality of life.pdfPaulClaybrook
Unlocking the secrets of longevity through nutrition, this article delves into key aspects of dietary choices for a vibrant and extended healthspan.
Macronutrient Balance: Exploring the optimal mix of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats for sustained health and vitality.
Micronutrients and Antioxidants: Uncovering the role of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals in cellular defense against aging.
Plant-Based Diets: Highlighting the longevity benefits of a predominantly plant-powered plate and its anti-inflammatory properties.
Caloric Restriction: Investigating the metabolic advantages of consuming fewer calories while maintaining optimal nutrition.
Anti-inflammatory Foods: Decoding the role of omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and other nutrients in quelling chronic inflammation.
Gut Microbiome: Exploring how dietary choices shape the gut microbiome, influencing overall health and longevity.
Through these insights, we uncover the multifaceted pathways by which food choices can promote longevity and enhance the quality of life.
Benson’s Syndrome, also known as Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA), is a rare neurodegenerative disorder. It is characterized by progressive and predominantly visual cognitive impairments. Initially described by Frank Benson in 1988, this syndrome presents with a constellation of symptoms. #alzheimers #alzheimersawareness #alzheimerssucks #superdupernutrition
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/07/29/bensons-syndrome-a-closer-look-at-posterior-cortical-atrophy-pca/
A Closer Look at Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA).pdfPaulClaybrook
Benson's Syndrome, also known as Posterior Cortical Atrophy (PCA), is a rare neurodegenerative disorder. It is characterized by progressive and predominantly visual cognitive impairments.
#alzheimers #dementia #endalzheimers
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/07/29/bensons-syndrome-a-closer-look-at-posterior-cortical-atrophy-pca/.
In the pursuit of optimal health, individuals often encounter an array of intriguing and unconventional strategies. These so-called “weird health tips” encompass a variety of practices that have gained attention for their potential benefits. From ancient traditions to innovative approaches, these tips offer alternative perspectives on enhancing well-being. While some may raise eyebrows, numerous studies support their potential positive impact. Exploring these unconventional methods can provide valuable insights into improving health and wellness.
#healthtips #health #healthylifestyle
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/05/23/weird-health-tips-top-10/
Sugar is a prevalent ingredient in the modern diet, with many people consuming far more than the recommended daily limit. The abundance of processed foods is one major reason for its prevalence in the modern diet. #CutTheSugar #SugarFreeLiving #SugarAwareness
https://superdupernutrition.com/index.php/2023/05/12/sugar-and-refined-sugar-in-the-modern-diet/
While some people may find it uncomfortable or embarrassing to discuss, it's essential to know what healthy poop looks like and monitor your poop for any signs of problems
strange berries to improve your health.pdfPaulClaybrook
There are many more types of berries out there than most people realize. For instance, marionberries are common in Oregon, dewberries in Texas and lingonberries in Scandinavia. All of these strange berries are excellent choices for your diet because they are rich in polyphenols. These are plant chemicals that are natural inflammation fighters. This is important as inflammation runs alongside just about every disease in the book.1 You might even find cancer relief as a result of berries.2 Here are a few strange berries to consider:
Your heart is an amazing living pump. Its only job is to move blood through your body. Blood is sent to the lungs to get oxygen and then throughout the body to deliver that oxygen to cells. There are also many nutrients in your blood from the things you eat, drink and breathe in that influence heart health.
The Birth of the School Lunch Program.pdfPaulClaybrook
The Commodity Donation Program of 1936 marked the first time the government became significantly involved in school lunches. Because crop surpluses are harmful to respective commodity prices, the act attempted to eliminate them by allotting excesses, in the form of lunches, to underprivileged school children1. However, many school boards did not espouse the program. They were unwilling to invest in equipment and expansion for a program that was not certain to continue. Additionally, food donation from the government fluctuated with commodity surpluses2. So the 79th Congress considered a legislative proposal to make the Commodity Donation Program permanent. It was signed into law as the National School Lunch Bill1.
get the sleep you need sleep soundly.pdfPaulClaybrook
When you don’t get enough sleep, you lose out. For example, focus, concentration, losing your temper are all tougher to manage. Furthermore, sleep deprivation makes you more irritated, anxious and cranky, which in turn makes it harder to get to sleep at night. It’s a vicious cycle that Neural Balance TM can break!
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Antimicrobial stewardship to prevent antimicrobial resistanceGovindRankawat1
India is among the nations with the highest burden of bacterial infections.
India is one of the largest consumers of antibiotics worldwide.
India carries one of the largest burdens of drug‑resistant pathogens worldwide.
Highest burden of multidrug‑resistant tuberculosis,
Alarmingly high resistance among Gram‑negative and Gram‑positive bacteria even to newer antimicrobials such as carbapenems.
NDM‑1 ( New Delhi Metallo Beta lactamase 1, an enzyme which inactivates majority of Beta lactam antibiotics including carbapenems) was reported in 2008
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
DISSERTATION on NEW DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF DRUG DISCOVERYNEHA GUPTA
The process of drug discovery and development is a complex and multi-step endeavor aimed at bringing new pharmaceutical drugs to market. It begins with identifying and validating a biological target, such as a protein, gene, or RNA, that is associated with a disease. This step involves understanding the target's role in the disease and confirming that modulating it can have therapeutic effects. The next stage, hit identification, employs high-throughput screening (HTS) and other methods to find compounds that interact with the target. Computational techniques may also be used to identify potential hits from large compound libraries.
Following hit identification, the hits are optimized to improve their efficacy, selectivity, and pharmacokinetic properties, resulting in lead compounds. These leads undergo further refinement to enhance their potency, reduce toxicity, and improve drug-like characteristics, creating drug candidates suitable for preclinical testing. In the preclinical development phase, drug candidates are tested in vitro (in cell cultures) and in vivo (in animal models) to evaluate their safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Toxicology studies are conducted to assess potential risks.
Before clinical trials can begin, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application must be submitted to regulatory authorities. This application includes data from preclinical studies and plans for clinical trials. Clinical development involves human trials in three phases: Phase I tests the drug's safety and dosage in a small group of healthy volunteers, Phase II assesses the drug's efficacy and side effects in a larger group of patients with the target disease, and Phase III confirms the drug's efficacy and monitors adverse reactions in a large population, often compared to existing treatments.
After successful clinical trials, a New Drug Application (NDA) is submitted to regulatory authorities for approval, including all data from preclinical and clinical studies, as well as proposed labeling and manufacturing information. Regulatory authorities then review the NDA to ensure the drug is safe, effective, and of high quality, potentially requiring additional studies. Finally, after a drug is approved and marketed, it undergoes post-marketing surveillance, which includes continuous monitoring for long-term safety and effectiveness, pharmacovigilance, and reporting of any adverse effects.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
the childhood obesity epidemic of great proportions.pdf
1. The Big, Fat, Childhood Obesity Epidemic
By: Paul Claybrook, MS, MBA
2. This work examines the childhood obesity epidemic, its foundations, and strategies for reducing
its prevalence. There is currently a plethora of information, opinions and sometimes
contradictory data surrounding the subject. Although overweight and obesity has existed
presumably since the dawn of mankind, it has been relatively uncommon in most
societies. Historically, only the wealthy have had the ability to overindulge.
However, in the last several decades the incidence of obesity has increased substantially among
adults and children. Thus, it is clear that something(s) about our society creates an environment
in which obesity is commonplace. But what and to what extent is not as clear. Consequently,
this review seeks to consolidate the literature by addressing the causes and effective treatments
for childhood obesity prevention in a way that provides an accurate informational resource for
stakeholders who may include health professionals, parents and community members with a
commitment to engage this challenge. We need to find solutions for childhood obesity.
Is Childhood Obesity an Epidemic?
Obesity is a condition in which an individual
suffers from an excess of body fat and associated
health disparities. Since its prevalence is
becoming continuously more frequent in the
developed world, it raises concern. Consequently,
in the United States childhood obesity statistics
are quite appalling. 16.9% for children. Perhaps
this is little surprise given that 34.9% of adults
are obese. Thus, the World Health Organization
defines it as a global epidemic. 1, 2, 3
Becoming obese is easier than ever, particularly
for children. Activity levels in general have been
declining for decades and foods high in sugar and
fat are more common than ever before. 4
In fact,
the rate of obesity among children in the United
States in 1963 was a mere 4.2%. It then grew to 15.3% by the turn of the century. It is not only
3. a significant cause of disease and ultimately death in the United States, but is also very
costly. At the present time, healthcare expenditures corresponding to obesity are $190 billion
annually in the United States. 5
Childhood obesity is of particular interest as children that are
overweight are as much as 6.5 times more likely to remain so in their adulthood years. 6
A Thorough Review of the Available Literature
Consequently, a review of the literature reveals three general factors which contribute to
childhood obesity. Specifically, they are genetics (including the phenotypic manifestation
resulting from environmental factors) , overeating and limited exercise. Research also suggests
that, although not a simple task, managing each is practical given the proper resources and
support.
The Causes - Is Childhood Obesity the Parent's Fault?
Childhood Obesity Genetic Factors
Not surprisingly, genetics play a role in obesity and determine the level of predisposition that one
possesses for the disease. Humans have a natural propensity to store fat for use as energy, but in
the modern world it is much easier to consume many more calories than can be (or are)
expended, thus promoting fat storage. 7
This feature of the human race is clearly more prominent
in some individuals than others, but only rare cases of hormonal imbalances virtually guarantee
the afflicted will suffer from obesity. 8
Familial Studies and What They Show About Obese Kids
Furthermore, multiple studies of twins, siblings and adoptees, indicate that genetics contributes
from 40%-70% of inter-individual variation with respect to obesity. Thus, the obese phenotype
clearly runs in families with some family units that tend to struggle with weight problems and
others that do not. While there is no doubt that genetics contribute to weight loss, it is still not
clear what genes are involved and to what extent. The genes that probably affect obesity only
contribute a very small amount toward the actual disease, approximately 0.17kg/m2
according to
one study. So far 42 genes have been identified as “likely” being associated with BMI and more
are expected to be discovered. 9
4. How Dopamine Affects a Child's Weight
Additionally, the influence that genetics have on BMI can be seen through one study that found a
correlation between dopamine release and obesity. Those with a greater genetic tendency to
activate the “reward circuitry” of the brain through the
release of dopamine tended to have a higher BMI than
those whose stimulation-level was lower. 10
Another
study suggests that levels of leptin release, the hormone
that determines fat storage levels and is ultimately
controlled by genetic factors, plays a role as
well. Consequently, children born with abnormal leptin
levels quickly gain weight. And although the condition
can be treated by injections, those who suffer from leptin
deficiency experience hyperphagia (abnormally large
appetite), impaired satiety (feeling of fullness) and fat
deposition. These effects of course lead to an increased
intake in calories and fat storage and result in childhood
and later adult obesity. 3(p.37)
Accordingly, what is known for certain is that genetics is a contributing factor in childhood
obesity. Precisely which genes play a role and to what extent still remains somewhat
unclear. Surely further studies will tell. 11
Sedentary Lifestyles Contribute Immensely To the Childhood Obesity Epidemic
in America
Many children overeat, whether they have a genetic tendency toward obesity or not. A
commonly sedentary lifestyle only provokes the circumstances and society additionally provides
many temptations. For instance, these may include fast food, high-fat, low nutrient school
lunches , vending machines full of treats and soda in schools and unhealthy snacks at home.
12
The CDC reports in a 2013 study that poor eating practices that are thought to promote obesity
such as drinking soda, avoiding fruits and vegetables and skipping breakfast are common among
today’s youth. 13
Furthermore, research has linked this mode of lifestyle to an increase in
calories and fat and a corresponding decrease in the consumption of fruits and vegetables. This
5. pattern seems to be established prior to adolescence. 12, 14
Such frequent exposure to so many
unhealthy, but appetizing options establishes an environment that makes the battle against
childhood obesity difficult to win.
Kids that are Obese are Almost Never Getting Much Exercise
Correspondingly, the third risk factor for childhood obesity is lack of exercise. The activity–
level of children has been declining since the 1970’s and currently only about one-third of
children are ‘at play’ for at least 60 minutes. Not surprisingly, the children of today illustrate
this perpetual deterioration quite well. In fact, a recent study in which the aerobic capability and
endurance level of youngsters was tested illustrates this. Researchers discovered that their young
subjects took 90 seconds longer to run one mile than they did in the 1970’s. 15
A poor emphasis on physical activity in school and at home are major contributing factors to this
trend as well as a decrease in “grass roots” sports and time spent in physical activity during and
after school. 16
In fact, the CDC reported on a survey of high school students and found that
14% are obese. Yet more than half did not attend a physical education class in a typical week
and fewer than 50% played on at least one sports team throughout the school year. 13
Television Watching Contributes to a Sedentary Lifestyle and Lack of Exercise
Additionally, television has been a major contributor to the childhood obesity epidemic. It
promotes a sedentary lifestyle that often continues into adulthood and also leads to an increased
risk of smoking and high cholesterol. According to the Kaiser Family Foundation report of
2010, children watch an enormous 10.45 hours of media per day, 50.4% higher than in 1999.17
The level of inactivity associated with television viewing for greater than two hours per day
during childhood and adolescence is attributable to approximately 17% of the overweight
problems. It also accounts for 15% of the poor fitness, 17% of the smoking and 15% of high
cholesterol among 26-year olds, according to a study done by Hancox et al 18
. Other studies
have shown that children who watch television for more than five hour per day are at a risk of
obesity as much as five times greater than those that watch two hours or less per day. 3
6. Advertising in Television Targets Children
While not all studies find a strong positive correlation between television viewing and childhood
obesity, advertising may explain this relationship. Since children and adolescents see the
obesity-promoting food and drinks through advertiements, they ultimately obtain and consume
them. Thus the problem is perpetuated beyond the simple sedentarianism associated with
television viewing 19, 20(p.123)
. This theory is further bolstered by a 2012 study that involved
12,600 children in grades 5-10 that found that kids who watched the most TV tended to have the
worst eating habits. Of course this does not prove that TV causes poor eating, but rather that a
strong correlation exists between the two. However, this is a figurative one-two punch since
television watching by its nature is a sedentary activity, therefore promoting obesity. But poor
eating habits associated with watching television also fosters even further weight gain. 20(p.123), 21
Who Has More of an Obesity Problem, Boys or Girls?
There are also a number of contributing factors that play a role in the genetics, diet and activity
level of children including sex, socio-economic status and race. Studies have shown mixed
results on whether boys or girls as a group tend to be more obese. Nevertheless, there are clear
distinctions among views and actions regarding diet and exercise. 22, 23
Girls tend to place a
greater value on nutrition as a way to influence their health whereas boys eat more fast
foods. Girls also show fewer tendencies to exercise than boys, reporting fewer role models,
greater barriers and fewer perceived benefit. 22, 24
Are Poor Kids Fatter? - The Childhood Obesity Epidemic and Poverty
Socio-economic status (SES) also correlates strongly in the childhood obesity epidemic. In
particular, one study by Wang and Lim in 2012 indicates a linear relationship among SES and
obesity.25
Moreover, these results show that the lower the SES, the higher prevalence of obesity
and greater the risk of adulthood obesity and additional health problems associated with the
condition. Specifically, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, psychological disorders and
hyperlipidemia are just a few. 25, 26, 27
Black and Hispanic children, who often come from lower
income homes, are also more likely to have a television in their bedroom, consume more sugar-
sweetened drinks and eat more fast food than white children. This of course fosters a higher risk
for obesity. 28
7. Childhood Obesity by Race
Research has additionally demonstrated that race is a significant risk factor for childhood
obesity. This is presumably in part because of its strong association with socio-economic
status. Blacks and Hispanics both have a higher risk associated with childhood obesity than
whites. 29
This even begins prior to birth with a higher incidence of maternal depression among
these minority groups. Following birth, children of minorities are more likely to experience
rapid weight gain, receive solid foods prior to four months of age, and display higher rates of
maternal restrictive feeding habits. 28
Although the reason is not clear as to why the early
introduction of food may promote obesity, a study of 847 infants found that weaning prior to
four months had a significantly higher risk of developing obesity by the age of three years. 30
Does What You Eat as an Infant Have Anything to do with Obesity?
Minorities are also less likely to receive exclusive breastfeeding, another factor that may help
determine the risk of childhood obesity. Accordingly, the study just mentioned, the breastfed
infants, even those that were weaned as early as four months, did not have a higher risk of
developing obesity by age three. However, those who were never breastfed, those whose
mothers stopped breastfeeding prior to four months and those who were introduced to solid food
prior to four months had a higher chance of becoming obese by age three; six times greater than
those that were exclusively breastfed for at least four months. 30
Fatigued vs. Energized
Black and Hispanic children are also more likely to get less sleep than white children. Thus, they
are more likely to be obese as a child and an adult. 31
So while sleep deprivation is a risk factor
that is common among all races, minorities experience disproportionate amounts of
fatigue. Further studies have linked a lower adulthood BMI to children who get more sleep and a
higher adulthood BMI with those that get less. 32
Review of the Causes of the Childhood Obesity Epidemic in
America
It is clear that one cannot blame parents for entirely for their children being obese. There is little
question that factors such as genetics are outside of their influence. However, there are a
8. multitude of factors that parents can control. Limiting television time and junk food as well as
choosing breastfeeding and encouraging activity are some ideas. After all, while there is a
disparity between races and financial resources, this only represents an average. Race and access
to money themselves do not make a child obese.
Potential Childhood Obesity Prevention
1. Early Detection
In the first place, it may come as no surprise that early detection is an important factor in
determining if a child is at risk for obesity. Consequently, pediatricians may perform a simple
test known as the body mass index (BMI). Consequently, this can be easily done by comparing
the weight to the height of the child. 33
A BMI in the 85th percentile or higher constitutes
overweight status. Of course, these kids are at high risk for various health
disparities. Furthermore, a measure within the 95th percentile indicates obesity and significant
health-related risk. Appropriate action should be taken, even for children approaching the 85
percentile because intervention is likely to fail once a child has become obese. 34
2. Childhood Obesity Interventions
Whether a child is already overweight or obese or at risk of becoming so, reversing the trend is
entirely feasible. But positive results require effort on the part of healthcare providers, policy-
makers and parents. 1
Few, if any children will take matters into their own hands. And although
solutions for childhood obesity can be a challenge to implement, they can be successful with the
right support. 35
In one study that utilized family involvement and incorporated a calorie goal,
self-monitoring of food intake and physical activity, mean weight loss was 2.4lbs. after 15
weeks. The control group actually gained a mean weight of 3.45lbs. 36
Similarly, findings from a number of studies that utilize multiple lines of support indicate a
similar trend. Interventions that include school, community and home-base support are typically
most effective at reducing overweight and obesity. On the other hand, school or home-base only
interventions tend to be ineffective. Thus, the trend indicates that with more support comes more
success. 37
9. 3. Lifestyle Changes can Affect the Childhood Obesity Epidemic in America
Interventions should not only attempt to help the child lose weight, but adopt new lifestyle
changes that continue into adulthood. If these attempts fail long term, particularly in the age
group of 12 years old and under, there is evidence that such can lead to eating disorders. For
instance, in one study of 588 participants, researchers found a strong association between weight
loss attempts in childhood and the development of binge eating disorder (BED) in
adulthood. Participants were only eligible if they had a BMI of more than 25kg/m2
or 24kg/m2
and at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The risk associated with the development
of BED as a result of weight loss attempts in childhood proved linear with respect to age of first
attempt. Therefore, the younger the child at their first attempt to lose weight, the greater the risk
of developing BED. 38
4. Healthy Eating is Hard to get Kids to do but is a Huge Factor in Their Health
Children who are at risk for being overweight or obese should also be taught healthy eating
habits. Following these practices will reduce their risk of obesity and many other health
disparities. 39
The earlier this happens, the less likely the child will have weight problems as an
adult. Additionally, this should take place in the home. This is the “first line of defense,” where
success is most likely. 3
Few children, particularly younger ones, will prove capable of managing food intake in a
responsible and effective manner. Thus, parents must take an active role.40
However, they must
be cautious in their level of control as children who are shown too little or too much control are
likely to develop problematic eating habits. So, they should begin at infancy teaching children
proper eating practices and providing wholesome foods at predictable and agreeable times. This
allows more autonomy as they grow. Slowly, children will learn to make healthy food choices
for themselves as they mature into adulthood. 41
5. Parental Involvement is a Deal Breaker in Terms of a Child's Success
Research has shown success is much more likely when there is parental involvement. One meta-
analysis for example shows that parental involvement was largely effective, at least in the short-
term. This happened over the course of fifty studies involving obese children ages 0-6. 42
In
another study that relied on parental paticipation to help reduce the weight of their 4-11 year-old
10. children, all 101 participants maintained intervention effects after one year. 43
A 2014 meta-
analysis of 36 randomized, controlled studies of child weight-reduction interventions that
required parental involvement resulted in an average BMI of nearly 1.2 kg/cm2 less than
children in the control groups. 44
Many studies illustrate the importance, and arguably necessity of parental involvement in weight
reduction for obese children. Although few have shown to be effective in long-term weight
maintenance. This may be due to lack of parental skills more than parental participation. In
other words, ONLY during interventions do parents usually receive coaching. Yet once the
intervention ends, their lack of skills may allow their child to return to previous behaviors. 42
6. Exercise
Finally, all children need exercise to improve their health and decrease their risk of health
disparities. Since many are already overweight or obese, they have an even greater need.
45
Physical exercise burns calories that otherwise would likely end up in fat stores, but also
engages health-promoting processes that benefit the entire body. 46, 47
Not all studies have shown
a strong negative correlation between exercise and obesity in children. But all those done in
conjunction with dietary programs have, providing one of the best solutions for the childhood
obesity epidemic3
Still, parental inclusion is key once again as children are far more likely to
engage in physical activity when parents are motivators. The children will feel empowered
through supportive autonomy that minimizes pressure and control. 45, 48
Conclusions Regarding the Childhood Obesity Epidemic
There are many factors that determine obesity in children. Yet all fit into the classification of
genetics, diet or activity-level. Genetic factors determine what an ideal bodyweight is for a
given individual and does vary from child to child. However, few children have a genetic
guarantee that they will be obese (BMI above 30). 8
So although genetics may make it
impossible for a particular individual to obtain a ‘super-model figure’, diet and exercise remain
factors that one can manage. In order to avoid obesity and improve health, children must be
taught proper diet and exercise habits. This necessitates parental involvement that ideally
includes other stakeholders. For example, teachers and healthcare professionals who provide
guidance and help the child to learn to manage their own nutritional and physical needs are
11. essential. 3, 40, 41, 45, 48
Implementing the principles herein, although easier said than done, can
eliminate the childhood obesity epidemic.
This pioneering publication presents compelling
evidence indicating that children experience
excessive weight gain primarily due to the
manner in which they are fed, rather than solely
the nutritional content of their diet. Satter's
composed, pragmatic, and meticulously
substantiated discourse emboldens readers to
cultivate healthy feeding practices, effective
parenting strategies, and facilitate children's
development of bodies that align with their
individual needs. Rich with Satter's widely
acclaimed anecdotes on feeding, "Your Child's
Weight" furnishes comprehensive direction
suitable for both professionals and parents alike,
aiming to address the multifaceted aspects of
childhood weight management.
While it may be tempting to attribute your
child's overeating to a transient phase, the
consequences of inactivity in addressing this
issue are considerable. By employing Dr.
Maidenberg's comprehensive set of 53
strategies, grounded in principles of
mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral therapy,
and acceptance and commitment therapy, you
can empower your child to overcome
overeating tendencies or obesity while
bolstering their self-assurance. Recognizing
your child's innate capacity for change, you
possess the agency to provide invaluable
support in this transformative journey.
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