1. Observations in general
Observation studies involve watching listening and recording what is going
on. Ideally it will be free flowing natural behavior that is not affected in
any way by the observers presence, but this is an ideal we can rarely
achieve. There is almost nothing else that can be said in general about
observations because there are a number of types that to some extent can
be mixed and matched to give different strengths and weakness.
If you decide to record your observations in a qualitative way rather than a
quantitative way that will be the most defining feature of your research,
so you should learn the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and
quantitative research separately and apply them accordingly. The other
types of observation are:-
o Naturalistic observation
o Structured observation
o Participant observation
o Non-participant observation
o Overt observation
o Covert observation
With naturalistic and structured observation we are mainly talking about
the setting of the study, but again the real issues about the study will
depend on whether or not its overt,covert,participant or non-participant,so
I will just give a brief description of naturalistic and structured and then
move on.
Naturalistic observation
This is a study conducted in the natural setting which obviously adds to the
ecological validity of the research.
Structured observation
Is where we set up a situation often it is done in order to break down
aspects of behaviours noted during a previous observation. (Which may
have been unstructured or purely naturalistic) This is rarely used in
sociology as setting up a situation is seen to interfere too much with
the natural flow of behavior. It is used more in psychological studies
and is often part of an experimental procedure.

2. Non participant observation Overt
 This is when you watch people from the sidelines with their
knowledge it may be in a natural setting or it may be structured and
behind a 2 way mirror even if they do know.
 You usually have a behavior categories sheet that you fill in
throughout.
 you may take time samples which means you might watch for 10mins
every half an hour or at random times.
 You may take event sampling which means you watch specifically at
times when something interesting is happening eg meal times, play
time.
 Can be used in experiments; as a measure of the dependant variable,
 As a research method in its own right, there is no manipulated
variable. observers collect data without interfering .
Advantages:
 More objective and impartial than Pp observation.
 Easier to make records than covert Pp observation; records are
likely therefore to be more accurate (valid)
 Easier to repeat procedures than covert pp obs.so can check
reliability
 Ethical.
Disadvantages
• may not fully understand what they are seeing they don’t have the
full context and you cant really ask people what they mean without
upsetting the flow. Also it would be hard to remember it all if
covert as they may need to record it retrospectively.
• Catagories may actually create a bias depending on what you choose
to include.
• Less valid as highly susceptible to demand characteristics or just
plain showing off people are unlikely to behave in exactly the same
way they would if they did not know they were being watched.
• Observer's presence is likely to affect the validity of the behaviour
observed
Non participant observation covert
 This is when you watch people from the sidelines without their
knowledge it is usually in a natural setting

 you may take time or event samples which means you watch for
10mins every half an hour or at random times or you watch

3. specifically at times when something interesting is happening eg meal
times,play time.
 Can be used in experiments; as a measure of the dependant variable.
 As a research method in its own right, there is no manipulated
variable. observers collect data without meddling.
Advantages:
 Behaviour is naturally occurring and unrestrained; not distorted by
demand characteristics; more ecologically valid.
 Behavior unaffected by anxiety or a need to impress.
 Includes the full context of the behavior; rich source of
information; speech, actions, interaction, body language etc.
Disadvantages:
 less control over extraneous variables
 Observer may have trouble remaining hidden (affects validity)
 subjective interpretation of events a problem.
 if coding system too rigid, may not record interesting and relevant
behavior
 may forget things if have to record at a later time to avoid
detection
 Ethics because no informed consent given.
Participant observation Covert
 This is being undercover as part of the group or situation and
secretly watching free flowing behavior and recording in some way
what you see.
 As a research method in its own right, there is no manipulated
variable and usually little control; observers collect data without
interfering with anything as far as is possible.
 You may have a behaviour categories sheet that you fill in
throughout if you can or later, you may take time or event samples
but covert participant observation usually collects qualitative
languge based recording of the behavior and try to explain it in
context as far as possible.
Advantages
 High ecological validity; behaviour not affected in same way as it
would be in a non-participant overt observation.

4.  Highly rich source of information; access to information likely to be
much greater see things you wouldn’t otherwise see which is good
for validity.
Disadvantage
 may not fully understand what they are seeing they don’t have the
full context . Also it would be hard to remember it all as covert
they may need to record it retrospectively.
 observer's presence is likely to affect the validity of the behaviour
observed even if they don’t know why you are there ,but would try to
avoid this.
 Once involved in the situation it may be difficult to be objective
 May become distracted from observation due to role taken within
the group. (a
 Reliability hard to assess as quality of data obtained relies upon the
relationships that the individual is able to form with the group
members which is difficulto replicate.
 May go native
 Can be dangerous at times
 Ethical issues in the deception involved.
Participant observation overt
 This is joining a group in some capacity and watching and recording
behaviour while the people involved know that you are doing it.
 As a research method in its own right, there is no manipulated
variable and usually little control; observers collect data without
meddling!
 You may have a behaviour categories sheet that you fill in
throughout if you can .
 you may take time or event samples.
 Often you would use qualitative methods of recording with this
method..
 You may have a behavior categories sheet that you fill in throughout.
 you may take time or event samples which means you watch for 10mins
every half an hour or at random times or you watch specifically at times
when something interesting is happening eg meal times,play time.
Advantages:
• Easier to make records than covert Pp observation; records are
likely therefore to be more accurate (valid)
• Easier to repeat procedures than covert pp obs.

5. • Ethical.
• More likely to get a good context on what you are seeing than you
would be watching it from the sidelines.
Disadvantages.
 Less valid as highly susceptible to demand characteristics or just
plain showing off people are unlikely to behave in exactly the same
way they would if they did not know they were being watched.
 Observer's presence is likely to affect the validity of the behaviour
observed especially if participating in the activity you would try to
avoid this but it would be difficult.

6. • Ethical.
• More likely to get a good context on what you are seeing than you
would be watching it from the sidelines.
Disadvantages.
 Less valid as highly susceptible to demand characteristics or just
plain showing off people are unlikely to behave in exactly the same
way they would if they did not know they were being watched.
 Observer's presence is likely to affect the validity of the behaviour
observed especially if participating in the activity you would try to
avoid this but it would be difficult.