2. Dudes to know:
Ferdinand deSaussure
Claude Levi-Strauss
Roland Barthes
Jacques Lacan
Michel Foucault
Northrop Frye**
3. Context
As a literary theory, developed in the
1950s and 1960s, adopted from
theories other areas such as sociology,
psychoanalysis, anthropology, etc.
**All interrelated!**
Reactionary criticism, attempts to
place literature into a system and
assign value judgments to works.
4. Principles of Structuralism
Meaning occurs through difference
and SIGNS’ relationship to each
other. Ex: woman vs. lady
Much of our imaginative world is
structured in binary sets (opposites)
which assign structure and meaning
to signs. Ex: cruel vs. humane
5. Principles of Structuralism
Forms the basis of SEMIOTICS, the
study of signs.
Sign = union of SIGNIFIER and
SIGNIFIED. Ex: c-a-t, fuzzy critter
that goes “meow”
CODES provide signs with context -
cultural context, literary context, etc.
6. Principles of Structuralism
Emphasizes that humans create
meaning. Structuralism, then, allows
us to examine our relationships with
literature, art, society, etc.
Our sense of self -- our consciousness
-- exists in relation to outside
collective influences. We are NOT
self-contained!
7. Principles of Structuralism
Reality is conventional; our
perceptions of the world around us
are bound up in conventions, codes,
signs, etc. The “social construction of
reality”.
Structuralism’s ultimate argument is
this…
8. There is a connection between our
concept of reality, the self, society,
consciousness, and unconsciousness.
They are all connected to each other
and are bound by the same laws, signs,
and conventions.
9. When reading a “text”:
Look for…
Parallels in plot
Echoes in structure
Reflections/repetitions in
character/motive
Contrasts in situation/circumstance
Patterns in language/imagery
10. Barthes’ five “codes”
Barthes identifies five codes which he
says provide the underlying narrative
structures for all literature.
When reading, attempt to place a work
in the system of codes.
11. The codes are:
1. Proairetic - provides indications of
actions; “reality”. Ex: The ship
sailed at noon.
2. Hermeneutic - poses questions or
enigmas that provide narrative
suspense and involve the reader.
Ex: if the narration indicates a
knock on the door, the reader asks
herself, “Who is it?”
12. Codes continued
3. Cultural - contains references beyond
the text which are considered
common knowledge (allusions,
metonymy). Ex: if a character is
described as driving a hybrid car,
there are certain cultural assumptions
attached to that character.
13. Codes continued
4. Semic - linked to a theme on the
character level, when a series of signs
and ideas surround an individual.
5. Symbolic - linked to theme on a
larger level. Consists of contrasts and
pairings related to the most basic
binary polarities - man/woman,
good/evil, lost/recovered, etc. **
14. Frye’s fictional modes
MYTH - the hero is superior in kind
to other men and the environment of
other men; generally a story about a
god
ROMANCE - the hero is superior in
degree to other men; ordinary laws of
nature are suspended; often has
supernatural powers
15. Fictional modes continued
HIGH MIMETIC - superior to men,
but not to the environment; hero is a
leader. (Often found in epic and
tragedy.)
LOW MIMETIC - Jane Austen’s
bread and butter. Everyday hero;
appeals to our common sense of
humanity. Romantic comedies.
16. Fictional modes continued
IRONIC - hero is inferior to other
men or his environment. Ben Stiller’s
lifeline. Includes satire.
Apply these modes to tragedies and
comedies. Thus, you can have a high
mimetic tragedy (Macbeth) or a low
mimetic comedy (Pride & Prejudice).
17. Archetypes
Definition: a symbol, usually an
image, which recurs often enough in
literature to be recognizable as an
element of one’s literary experience as
a whole (individually and collectively)
18. Apocalyptic vs. Demonic
Apocalyptic: archetypes that reflect
ultimate human desire (roughly
equated with our sense of heaven)
Demonic: archetypes that reflect
everything that society rejects; a total
inversion of the apocalyptic (roughly
equated with our sense of hell)
19. Archetypal forms
Divine world = society of gods
Human world = society of men
Animal world = domesticated flocks
Vegetable world = garden
Mineral world = cities, construction
20. Apocalyptic imagery: divine
• One God
• All ultimate unity
• Idealized world
• Magic
• Emphasis on heavenly bodies
** Mythical AND analogical
21. Apocalyptic imagery: human
One man
Christ (though he operates in a divine
context as well)
3 types of fulfillment: individual, social,
and sexual
Philosopher-kings
Sexual symbolism - two bodies become one
Chaste people, like Sir Galahad
22. Apocalyptic imagery: animal
One flock
King as shepherd
Birds (esp. doves)
Horses and hounds (romance)
Unicorn (emblem of virgins)
Ass
23. Apocalyptic imagery: veggie
One Tree (of Life)
Fruit and leaves on a tree = bread and
wine (communion)
Flowers (esp. flowers)
Enchanted forests of Shakespeare’s
comedies, Robin Hood, etc.
24. Apocalyptic imagery: mineral
One Building, Temple, or Stone
City = “house of many mansions”
Geometrical and architectural images
Stairways, ladders, even Rapunzel’s
hair
25. Demonic imagery: divine
Perversions of apocalyptic imagery are
called MODULATIONS.
Vast, menacing powers of nature
Fate
Sense of human remoteness and
futility
26. Demonic imagery: human
Ego runs rampant
Perversion of the 3 areas of
fulfillment in apocalyptic imagery
Loyalty to a tyrant diminishes the
individual
Sacrificial victim, scapegoat
Mob violence blends the first 2
27. Demonic imagery: animal
Monsters, beasts of prey
Wolf, traditional enemy of sheep
Tiger
Vulture
Serpent
Dragon (soooo contextual)
28. Demonic imagery: veggie
Sinister forest
Heath (recall Macbeth)
Waste land
Scaffold (as a modulation of the tree
of life)
29. Demonic imagery: mineral
Waste land (again)
Cities of sin and destruction (Babel,
Reno, etc.)
Images of perverted work
(instruments of torture or war)
Sinister spirals (maelstrom)
30. Archetypes and Cycles
Images fall into cyclical movements.
1. Divine = death/rebirth
2. Fire-world = heavenly bodies
3. Human = dreaming/waking
4. Animal = life/death
5. Veggie = natural cycles (seasons)
6. Mineral = golden ages, etc.
7. Water cycles
31. Cycles and Genres
4 Mythoi: generic plots
These 4 mythoi can be seen as aspects
of a single unifying myth, which
corresponds this way…
Agon - conflict
Pathos - catastrophe
Sparagmos - anarchy
Anagnorisis - recognition/triumph
32. Mythos of Spring: Comedy
Young man wants young woman.
Resisted by some opposition.
Twist enables the hero to have his
will.
Appearance/adoption of a new society
or social order.
Often paternal figures provide
opposition.
33. Mythos of Summer: Romance
Quest/adventure
Perilous journey, crucial struggle,
exaltation of the hero. (Notice how
the 3-part structure parallels that of
comedy.)
Archetype: dragon-killing, leviathan
Can be applied to Exodus
Connected to fertility rites
34. Mythos of Autumn: Tragedy
Tragedy actually moves cyclically
Hero is on top of the wheel of
fortune; when he declines, his
subordinates do his living for him. In
some tragedies (Adam), the hero
creates new life after the fall.
Sense of natural law and justice
Binary structure instead of tertiary
35. Mythos of Winter: Irony/Satire
Remember that irony is “realistic”;
we are supposed to look down on
characters and events from a higher
position.
Satire is militant irony: wit founded
on a sense of the absurd, and an
object of attack