Introduction to Research
Methodology

Research : A Way of Thinking
• Research is not only a set of skills, but also a way of thinking.
• Within this framework of thoughtfulness, we usually get involved in the
following things :
 Question, What we Observe
 Make an Attempt to Explore Further
 Understand and Explain our Observations; and
 Draw Conclusions and Inferences to Enhance our Practice
Skills and Knowledge Base
• Research is thus – An Inquisitive, Critical and Analytical Observation of
our Work or Practice Situation, - To Gain an In-depth Knowledge of its
Rationale, Relevance, Effectiveness and Efficiency.

Research : A Way of Thinking (Cont…)
• A Research-Oriented thought process develops in us an Attitude that :
 Encourages us to Challenge Different Aspects of our Work Situation;
 Question their Purpose, Relevance and Validity;
 Find Strengths and Weaknesses; and
 Investigate Possibilities and Ways for Further Improvements and Refinements
• The Logical, Rational and Analytical Thinking that develops in us, requires us to gain
Knowledge of the Research Methodologies and Skills - To provide ourselves with the
Techniques to Find Answers to our Research Questions
• A Research Orientation can thus become a Part of our Daily Practice, which will
encourage us to Further Observe, Question, Explore, Test and Understand the
Various Aspects

Research : What does it Mean?
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The
dictionary definition indicates that the prefix ‘re’ implies again,
anew or over again, and the latter ‘search’ implying to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Thus, research implies a careful, systematic study and investigation
in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles.

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
Grinnell (1993) mentions that ‘research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable
scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally
acceptable’.
Lundberg (1942) adds ‘the main difference between our day-to-day generalisations
and the conclusions usually recognised as scientific method, lies in the degree of
formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter’
Burns (1997) defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem’
Kerlinger (1986) states ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships between
various phenomena

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
• The formal considerations of the word research indicate that the word can have
multiple meanings and its precise definition varies from discipline to discipline and
expert to expert.
• There, however, seems to exist an agreement across disciplines and experts, with
respect to the functions its performs, i.e., to find answers to your research
questions.
• The research methods may range from the fairly informal to the strictly scientific,
adhering to the conventional expectations of scientific procedures

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
A Formal Research Study should possess the following characteristics:
 It should be undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies;
It should use procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested
for their validity and reliability; and
It should be designed to be unbiased and objective

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
• Our Philosophical Orientation would stem from one of the several paradigms and
approaches in research – positivist, interpretative, phenomenology, participatory,
qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods – and our academic discipline.
• The concept of Validity ensures that correct procedures have been applied to find
answers to our research questions.
• Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides
repeatability and accuracy
• Unbiased and Objective means that we have taken up each step in an unbiased
manner and have drawn each conclusion to the best of our ability without
introducing our own vested interests

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
The degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from
discipline to discipline and so the meaning of research also differs from one
academic discipline to another.
Example : the expectations of the research process are markedly different
between the physical and social sciences. In the former, a research
endeavour is expected to be strictly controlled at each step, whereas in the
latter, rigid control cannot be enforced as we are studying human
behaviour.

Research : What does it Mean? (Cont…)
• Not all research studies are based upon complex and technical
methodologies and have to use statistics and computers.
• Research can be a very simple activity designed to provide answers to very
simple questions related to day-to-day activities.
• On the contrary, research procedures may be complex and well
articulated, and can be employed to formulate intricate theories or laws
that govern our lives.

Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows :
•Descriptive vs Analytical
 The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists
 This is referred to as Ex post facto research, often used by a researcher to measure items,
e.g., frequency of shopping, preferences of people, etc.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 This type of research is used to discover causes of a certain phenomenon, without any
intention to control the variables.
 The methods of research utilised are survey methods and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.

Types of Research (Cont…)
 In case of analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
• Applied vs Fundamental
 The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for a pressing and
immediate practical problem facing a society, industrial or business organisation,
academic institution, etc.
 Fundamental or basic research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory.
 This is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications, and
thus adds to the already existing organised body of scientific knowledge.
 This is gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

Types of Research (Cont…)
 Examples of Fundamental Research : Research concerning some natural phenomenon, pure
mathematics, human behaviour, etc for the purpose of generalisations and formulation of theories.
 Examples of Applied Research : Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may
affect a particular institution, marketing research of a business organisation, evaluation research, etc.
• Quantitative (Structured) vs Qualitative (Unstructured) vs Mixed Methods
 The core difference between these three is the extent of flexibility permitted to the
researcher
 Quantitative research is based on the quantitative measurements of some characteristics.
 This is applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantities.
 In case of qualitative research, there is lack of flexibility in the sense that the objectives, design,
sample, questions, etc are all predetermined whereas in qualitative approach, there exists complete
flexibility in these aspects.

Types of Research (Cont…)
 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, those that are involving quality or kind-
is of particular importance in behavioural sciences, in which the aim is to analyse human behaviour
 ‘Motivation Research’ is an important type of qualitative research – aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires behind human behaviour – analysing the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner, or to like or dislike a particular thing.
 Attitude or Opinion Research is a type of qualitative research – designed to find out how people feel or
think about a particular subject.
 The techniques used are in depth interviews, word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
 The mixed methods approach uses the strengths of qualitative and quantitative approaches, with an aim
to select the best combinations of methods, to find answers to the research questions.

Types of Research (Cont…)
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Mixed Methods
Based on the Philosophy of
Rationalism
Based on the Philosophy of
Empiricism •Uses the Strengths of both
Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
•Combines two or more methods to
collect and analyse date pertaining
to the research problem
•Could be either a mix of methods
belonging to the two types or
belonging to the same paradigm
•Objective is to obtain the Best
Outcome for a research study
Combining Both Approaches or
using More than One Method
Follows a Rigid, Structured, and
Pre-determined set of Procedures
Follows an Open, Flexible and
Unstructured Approach
Aims to Quantify the extent of
variation in a phenomenon
Aims to Explore Diversity rather
than to quantify
Emphasises on the Measurement
of the Variables and the
Objectivity of the Process
Emphasises the Description and
Narration of Feelings, Perceptions
and Experiences
Emphasises on the Substantiation
of the Results on the basis of a
Large Sample Size
Does not Stress on Large Sample
Size
Communicates Findings in an
Analytical and Aggregate manner
Communicates Findings in
Descriptive and Narrative manner
Draws Conclusions and Inferences
that can be Generalised
Place Less or No Emphasis on
Generalisations

Types of Research (Cont…)
• Conceptual vs Empirical
 Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or theory – generally used to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation – data-based research coming up with
conclusions, which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
 Empirical research is also referred to as experimental type of research, characterised by the
researcher’s control over the variables
 A researcher must have a working hypothesis or guess the probable results
 He then works to get enough data or facts to prove or disprove his hypothesis
 He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the concerned persons or
materials, so as to bring forth the desired information

Types of Research (Cont…)
• Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect others in some way
• Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies are considered
to be the most important or powerful support possible for testing a given
hypothesis.
Other Types of Research
Some other type of research are :
• One-time research or longitudinal research. Single time-period, or over
Several time-periods.
• Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
• Research can also be historical.

Types of Research (Cont…)
• The different types of research can be broadly categorized based on the
following three perspectives :
 Application Perspective, i.e., applications of the findings of the research study;
 Objective Perspective, i.e., objectives of the research study; and
 Mode of Enquiry Perspective.
• From the perspective of application, there are broadly two categories – pure
or fundamental research and applied research
• From the objective perspective, research can be descriptive or analytical –
exploratory, correlational or explanatory
• From the mode of enquiry perspective, the types are quantitative or
structured, qualitative or unstructured, and mixed methods.

Types of Research (Cont…)
• It is to be noted that the classification of the types of research is not
Mutually Exclusive-
for example, a research project may be classified as pure or applied,
descriptive or analytical, and as quantitative, qualitative or mixed
methods.

Research Methods vs Research Methodology
• Research methods or techniques, refer to the methods the researchers use
in performing research operations.
• A distinction is also made between research techniques and research
methods.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments that we use in
performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data, techniques of processing data and the like.
Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting
and constructing research technique
E.g. Focus Interview is the research method, whereas, the research technique would be that
the interviewer focusses attention on a given phenomenon and its effects.

Research Methods vs Research Methodology
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem.
• When we talk of research methodology, we consider not only the
research methods but also the logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study
• We explain why we are using a particular method or technique and
why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

• Mixed methods is an approach, rather a philosophy, to social enquiry that
uses two or more methods, processes and philosophies in undertaking a
research study
• Mixed methodologists present an alternative to the quantitative and
qualitative traditions, but using whatever methodological tools are
required to answer the research questions
• Mixed method studies combine the quantitative and qualitative
approaches into the research methodology of a single study or multi-
phased study

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