The document discusses several key aspects of long-term memory including its large but limited capacity, the different mechanisms of encoding and retaining information, and how forgetting and retrieval of memories occurs. It covers seminal studies that explored how memories are encoded semantically or visually and can be retrieved based on environmental or mood context cues. Theories of memory discussed include levels of processing and elaboration likelihood model.

1. Taniya Thomas
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2. CAPACITY

3. CODING

4. RETENTION DURATION

5. FORGETTING

6. RETREIVAL OF INFORMATION

8.  “the knowledge of a former state of mind after it has
once dropped from consciousness.”(William
James,1890)
 Amnesic patients – difficulty to form new memories
but able to recall the past.
 William James (1980)- principles of psychology
 Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)- 3 stored model

9.  virtually unlimited
amount of information
 synapses as a memory
measure and put it in a
range of equivalent to a
million gigabytes
(Merkle,1988).

10.  Wilder Penfield- Gave electrical stimulation -
brain-conscious patients afflicted with epilepsy-
patients sometimes would appear to recall memories
from their childhoods- suggested to Penfield that
long term memories might be permanent.

11.  Permastore- refers to the
very long-term storage of
information, such as
knowledge of a foreign
language (Bahrick, 1984a,
1984b; Bahrick et al., 1993)
and of mathematics (Bahrick
& Hall, 1991).

12.  LTM has a large capacity storage of information
 Information's are not available at once
 It can be linked to failure in retrieval of information.
 Encoding plays a major role in storage

13.  Levels of processing
Experimental findings by Craik and Lockhart
Pictorical and graphical representation of the results
 Experimental findings by Alan Baddeley.
 Fisher and Craik comparison of semantic and acoustic
encoding
 Visual encoding- a study by frost
 Elaborative encoding theory
 ACT Model

14.  It is the process of placing
information into what is
believed to be a limitless
memory reservoir which
can occur for a specific
stimuli as well as for a
general stimuli(Patricia
Casey, Brendan Kelly, 1985)
 Levels of processing (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
 departure from the three-
stores model of memory

15.  4 questions
 Yes or no responses
Is it capital letter table TABLE
Does the word rhyme with weight crate market
Is the word a type of fish Shark heaven
Does the word fit in the sentence “the man peeled the
-------------
orange roof

16. a b c d

17. Graphemic level
Phonetic level
Semantic level
Elaborative level

18. Baddeley experiment (1966)
Participants were given 4 sets of words to recall, set A & C
being the experimental conditions and B & D the control
Set A acoustically similar
Set B acoustically dissimilar
Set C semantically similar
Set D semantically dissimilar
Words in each list had parallel frequency in language use

19.  Participants were presented with a word and then have to
determine whether that word rhymes with another word
(acoustic encoding).
 For semantic encoding, they have to determine whether
that word belongs to a given category or fits into a given
sentence.
 Performance is greater for semantic retrieval than for
acoustic retrieval

20.  People suffering from schizophrenia often
suffer from memory impairments because
they do not process words semantically.
(Ragland et al.,2003).
 in persons with autism, information may not
be encoded semantically, or at least, not to
the same extent as in people who do not have
autism (Toichi & Kamio, 2002).

21.  Self reference effect:high
levels of recall when
asked to relate words
meaningfully to the
participants by
determining whether the
words describe them.

22.  Encoding of information in long-term memory is not exclusively
semantic.
 Participants in a study received 16 drawings of objects, including four
items of clothing, four animals, four vehicles, and four items of
furniture (Frost, 1972).
 Manipulated visual information
 The drawings differed in visual orientation.
 Four were angled to the left, four angled to the right, four horizontal,
and four vertical.
 Items were presented in random order. Participants were asked to
recall them freely.
 The order of participants’ responses showed effects of both semantic
and visual categories.
 These results suggested that participants were encoding visual as well
as semantic information. In fact, people are able to store thousands of
images

23.  elaboration of the trace is assumed to take place
simultaneously in the structural, acoustic and semantic
domains, rather than in sequence
 This theory assumes that any new input will be subjected
to several different types of processing at the same time,
and that depth of processing depends on the amount of
elaboration within each processing domain

25.  Proposed by john Anderson
 Already learned encoding – match- execution
performance loop
 Declarative encoding – storage- retreival
performance loop

26. GENERATION EFFECT
 Generate-Active
production of
information
 Observed phenomenon
that are generated are
more likely to recall
 Repetition of a set of
stimuli over a space of
time is more beneficial
SPACING EFFECT

27.  Attention
 Semantics
 Elaboration
 Personal interest
 Threat
 Motivation
 Emotional state
 Context

28.  Hippocampus- LTM
formation and
consolidation
 Medial temporal lobe-
episodic encoding
 Frontal lobe- elaborative
processing

29.  Modification of
representations
 Sleep cycle
 Medial temporal lobes

30.  How long?
 Hermann ebbinghaus
 CVC trigram
 Forget curve

31.  Bahrick H.P. 1984
 A group of people who studied Spanish in their life
 3-6 yrs after class drastic loss
 6-30 years after class no loss
 30-35 years after the class a little loss of
information

32. 1. Information in long term memory if not rehearsed ,
decay occurs
2. Residual amount is intact
3. The final loss could be of some cognitive deficits due to
aging

33.  Maintenance rehearsal
 Elaborative rehearsal

35.  Refer to Hermann
Ebbinghaus study
 Memory traces decay
 Trace is a physical or
chemical change in
nervous system

36.  Interruption by previously
learned or newly learned
material
 Proactive and retroactive
interference

37.  Information is in the long
term but cant be accessed
 Retrieval cue is absent
 Cue can be external or
internal

38. principle of categorization
This states that material organized into categories or other
units is more easily recalled than information with no
apparent organization.
 Bousfield (1953) presented participants with a list of 60
words. The words came from four categories—animals,
names, professions, and vegetables
 presented in scrambled order.
 participants recall the words in an organized fashion.
 even if the material doesn’t have apparent organization,
asking people to organize it into their own subjective
categories improves recall (Mandler, 1967).

39. BANK BANK

40. Context dependent memory
 Godden and Baddeley (1975)
 presented lists of 40 unrelated words to 16 scuba divers,
all wearing scuba gear.
 Divers learned some of the lists on the shore and the
others 20 feet under water.
 They were later asked to recall the words either in the
same environment where they were learned or in the
other environment.
 Results showed that recall was best when the
environment was the same as the learning environment.

41. State dependent retrieval
 Material learned while someone is chemically intoxicated
(for example, by alcohol or marijuana) is usually recalled
better when the person recreates that state (J. E. Eich,
1980)

42. Mood dependent retrieval
 Bower (1981) claimed that a person would recall more
information if he or she were in the same mood at recall
time as at encoding time

43. Cue overload
 The basic principle here is that a retrieval cue is most
effective when it is highly distinctive and not related to
any other target memories.
 For example, we all remember dramatic, unusual events
better than we do routine events

44.  Capacity of LTM
 Encoding of LTM
 Retention duration of LTM
 Forgetting
 Retrieval of information

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