This document provides an overview of conservation of biodiversity and efforts to preserve species and habitats. It discusses the arguments for conservation, including ethical, aesthetic, commercial, and life support reasons. It compares the species-based and ecosystem-based approaches to conservation and outlines some of the strengths and weaknesses of each. It also describes some of the major governmental and non-governmental organizations involved in conservation efforts, such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Greenpeace, and their roles and activities.

1. Conservation of Biodiversity
IB syllabus: 4.3.1 – 4.3.5
AP Syllabus
Ch. 8, 22,

2. Syllabus Statements
• 4.3.1: State the arguments for preserving species
& habitats
• 4.3.2: Compare the role and activities of
governmental & non-governmental organizations in
preserving and restoring ecosystems and
biodiversity.
• 4.3.3: State and explain the criteria used to design
reserves
• 4.3.4: Evaluate the success of a named protected
area.
• 4.3.5: Discuss & evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the species based approach to
conservation

4. Why should we worry about conservation?
A. Ethics = we know what we are doing and its
negative effects  is it right to continue this?
B. Aesthetics = the natural world is more
beautiful than strip malls and roads  should
we keep it around?
C. Genetic resources = end result of millions of
years of evolution – unique gene combinations
for disease resistance, chemical production,
etc

5. Why should we worry about conservation?
D. Commercial = many of the products we rely on result
from the biotic component of the planet
- opportunity cost  value of the next best alternative
forgone as a result of making a choice
-implies choice of results that are mutually exclusive
E. Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to
survive, soil provides the means for growing food,
organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we
need
F. Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are
all connected  effect one  effect it all

6. Opportunity Costs

7. How can we reduce biodiversity loss?
• 2 main approaches – ecosystem or
species directed
1. Preventing premature extinction of
species
2. Preserving & restoring ecosystems
which provide habitats and resources for
the world’s species

8. The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach
Goal
Protect species from
premature extinction
Strategies
• Identify endangered
species
• Protect their critical
habitats
Tactics
• Legally protect
endangered species
• Manage habitat
• Propagate endangered
species in captivity
• Reintroduce species
into suitable habitats
Goal
Protect populations of
species in their natural
habitats
Strategy
Preserve sufficient areas
of habitats in different
biomes and aquatic
systems
Tactics
• Protect habitat areas
through private purchase
or government action
• Eliminate or reduce
populations of alien
species from protected
areas
• Manage protected areas
to sustain native species
• Restore degraded
ecosystems

9. Protection of Wild species
• CITES – convention on international trade in
endangered species (1975)
• 152 countries – 900 species regulated as
endangered, 29,000 species regulated as
threatened
• Helped reduce international trade in many
organisms, organized international awareness,
protected habitats
• Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak,
Countries have a choice, value of organisms may
increase

13. Protection of Wild species
• CBD – convention on biodiversity extends
CITES to conserve biodiversity in general
172 countries
• Focused on reversing trends in loss of
biodiversity

14. Biodiversity

15. National Legislation
• The Lacey Act – 1900
– Prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals
or their parts across state borders without a
federal permit
• The Endangered Species Act – 1973
– Makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade
in any product made from an endangered or
threatened species unless it is used (1) for
approved scientific purposes or (2) to enhance
the survival of the species

16. Other Means of protection
• Gene banks & Seed banks
• Botanical gardens, Farms
• Zoos & Aquariums
• Captive breeding & Reintroduction
programs
• Aesthetic vs. Ecological value

17. Evaluating Species based
Approaches – Captive breeding
Strengths
1. Organisms safe from
poachers
2. Ensure good chance
of offspring survival
3. Artificial insemination
possible
4. Cross fostering is
possible – raised by
parent of similar
species
Weaknesses
1. It is artificial
2. Organisms not born in
the wild may not be
able to survive
reintroduction
3. Few actually returned
to wild
4. Lack of habitat to
return them to

18. Evaluating Species based Approaches
– Aesthetic value
Strengths
1. Tourism & recreation
– use promotes
interest
2. “Sexy megafauna” get
public interested in
conserving whole
habitats
3. Personal approach
appeals to people
“Save the manatee”
Weaknesses
1. More interactions
with people – more
damage potentially
2. People may
overlook the deeper
values

19. Evaluating Species based Approaches
–Ecological values
What’s good?
1. Shows people the true
critical value of
species
2. See how it effects us
– food web links,
nutrient cycling,
keystone species
What’s bad?
1. May go over the
heads of the general
public
2. May be hard to
quantify this for
some species

20. Preserves – If you save a
habitat you get all of the species
• National Parks
• 1,100 parks in 120 countries
• US – established in 1912  55+ total parks
• Supplemented by state, county & local park
systems

22. National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

23. National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

24. Moderate mineral deposits
Rich mineral deposits
Federal land

25. Moderate mineral deposits
Rich mineral deposits
Federal land

26. Park Problems
• Only 1% of parks in developing countries are
actually protected, most are “paper parks”
• Often invaded by people looking for subsistence or
those looking for profit
• Often too small to sustain larger species
• Nonnative invasions
• Parks are too popular  high traffic, pollution
• Lack of funding – overworked underpaid staff, Worn
out facilities
• Nearby activities including logging, mining, grazing,
power production, water diversion

27. Managing Parks successfully
• Currently practice natural regulation, treat as
self sustaining ecosystem
– Often too small to self sustain
– Effected by nearby activities, destruction from
within from unbalanced food webs (elk grazing)
• Conflicting goals (1) conserve nature, (2)
make nature available to public
• Are there solutions?

29. Suggestions for the future
1. Integrate management for parks & nearby federal
lands
2. Increase budget (1) add new parklands near old
(2) buy existing private land within parks (3)
maintenance
3. Locate commercial facilities outside of parks
4. Better surveys of wildlife conditions
5. Raise entry fees
6. Limit number of daily, yearly visitors
7. Encourage corporate sponsorship

30. How much land should be
protected?
• Need a worldwide network of supported,
connected refuges
• At least 20% of earth’s land area should
be preserved – conservationist view
– Areas vital to sustaining life on earth and
continuing adaptation & evolution
• Less than current 10% should be
preserved – developer view
– Areas contain valuable resources to aid in
economic growth

31. Costa Rica’s Example
Nicaragua
Costa
Rica
Pacific Ocean
Panama
Caribbean Sea
Peninsula Osa
Pacifico Central
Cordillera
Volcanica Central
Bajo
Tempisque
Arenal
Guanacastle
Llanuras de
Tortuguero
La Amistad

32. Principles for reserve design
1. Ecosystems are rarely at a stable point –
hard to lock them and protect them from
change (nonequilibrium state)
2. Ecosystems which experience frequent,
moderate disturbance have the greatest
diversity (intermediate disturbance
hypothesis)
3. View most reserves as habitat islands in
a sea of developed or fragmented lands

33. Recall Island Biogeography
theories
• Diversity on islands is a function of size and
distance from mainland (balance extinction
vs. colonization)
• Help determine …
– Areas in greatest danger
– Size of reserve that will be necessary
– How closely must small reserves be spaced to
allow immigration
– Size & # of protective corridors connecting parks

34. The Island Effect
• Isolated ecosystems studied by MacArthur
and Wilson in 1960’s
• Diversity effected by island size & degree
of isolation
• Island Biogeography theory: diversity
effected by
– Rate of species immigration to island
– Rate of extinction on island
– Equilibrium point = species diversity

35. High
Low
Rateofimmigration
orextinction
Equilibrium number
Immigration and extinction rates
Number of species on island
(a)
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

36. Island Biogeography
• Immigration and Extinction Effected by
1. Size:
– small island has less immigration (small target),
– Small island has fewer resources, more extinction
1. Distance from mainland:
– Closer to mainland  more chance of immigration
• Applied in conservation for “habitat islands”
like national parks surrounded by
development

37. High
Low
Rateofimmigration
orextinction
Small island
Effect of island size
Number of species on island
(b)
Large island
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

38. Island Biogeography Data
• South Pacific
Islands study
looked at bird
diversity as
distance from
New Guinea
increased
• Caribbean Island
study found
bigger islands
had more species
diversity than
smaller islands
which were
otherwise similar
100
50
25
12.5
6.25
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,00010,000
Distance from New Guinea (kilometers)
Numberofspecies(percentageofsamplestudied)
NEW GUINEA
100
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Area (square miles)
Numberofamphibianandreptile
species
10
SABAMONTSERRAT CUBA
Hispaniola
Puerto
Rico
Jamaica
Cuba
Montserrat
Saba
Redonda
©2004Brooks/Cole–ThomsonLearning

39. Critical Questions
• What shape should the reserve be?
• Is one large or many small reserves
better?
• Is a heterogenous or homogenous reserve
better?
• Should corridors connect small reserves
together?
• What is the importance of buffer zones
around reserves?

40. Core
Core
Both Reserves are the same
area
Which do you think would be
better? Why?

42. The everglades a case study
The value of wetlands
1. Flood control / water storage
2. Habitat for many species
3. Recharge for aquifer
4. Water filtration / purification
Inland and coastal Wetlands are protected
because of their value in terms of biodiversity, and
the ecological & economic services they provide

43. Slight changes in elevation (only inches), water
salinity, and soil create entirely different
landscapes, each with its own community of
plants and animals.
Everglades Habitats

44. Everglades II
• Permits are required to fill or disturb wetlands in
US > 3 acres
• Current attempts to weaken protective
measures, small percentage even still remain
• Now trying for a zero net loss of wetlands 
mitigation banking: destroy one, rebuild another
• Restoration & protection projects are often
successful
• Also created for farm & sewage waste
treatment

45. Everglades III
• South Florida – once 100 km wide knee deep
sheet of water moving from Lk. Okeechobee to
FL Bay
• On its way south it created various wetlands
with a wide variety of species
• Sawgrass is the dominant plant species
• Today 56 endangered & threatened species
reside there
• Supplies drinking water directly or through
Floridian & Biscayne aquifers for 6-10 million
people

48. Everglades IV
• Since 1948 most of water flow has been diverted by
2,250 km. of canals, pumping stations, etc.
• In 1960s meandering 103 mile long Kissimmee R.
reformed into straight 84 mile canal by army corps of
engineers
• Below Okeechobee intensified agriculture of sugar
cane developed
• Now seeing (1) greater inputs of nutrients from
fertilizer use (nitrogen & phosphorous)
• (2) Decreased volume of water, moving faster
through the system
• (3) Increases in exotic & invasive species

49. ( )
( )
GULF OF
MEXICO
Naples
Fort Myers
FLORIDA
Florida Bay
Everglades
National
Park
Key Largo
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Miami
Fort
Lauderdale
West
Palm
Beach
Lake
Okeechobee
Unchannelized
Channelized
FLORIDA
Area of
detail
Agricultural area
Treatment marsh
Water
conservation area
Canal
miles
kilometers
0
0
20
20
40
40 60
60
Kissimmee
River

50. Everglades V
• 1947 Everglades National Park established to
preserve the lower end of the system
• Contains 20% remaining everglades
• Didn’t work because of all of the influences on
the water to the north
• 90% of parks wading birds have disappeared
• Other vertebrate populations are down 75-90%
• Now the country’s most endangered national
park
• Florida Bay suffering from less fresh water as
well as cultural eutrophication
• Threatens reefs & fisheries in the Keys

51. • 1990 state & federal government agreed upon
38 year $7.8 billion restoration project
1. Restore curving flow of the Kissimmee River
2. Remove 400 km of canals blocking water flow
south of Lk. Okeechobee
3. Buy 240 km2
of farmland & allow it to flood to filter
agricultural runoff before it reaches Everglades
National Park (ENP)
4. Add land adjacent to ENP eastern border
5. Create a network of artificial marshes
6. Create 18 reservoirs & drill wells for storage &
aquifer recharge in rainy season
7. Build new canals & reservoirs to capture current
water lost & return it to ENP

53. But…
• ENP does not benefit from the first 10
years, $4 billion of the project
• Plan seems to favor agricultural /
consumer uses of water over restoring the
actual habitat
• The plan does not specify how much of
the water moving south will actually go to
ENP
• Somehow we must undo 120 years of
agricultural & urban development in the
area until it is too late

54. Evaluation
1. Has the protection of the everglades
been successful thus far?
2. Does the local community support it?
Think about the farmers in the area, the
cities of south east FL, etc.
3. Is there enough funding?
4. Where did the research fail in the past?
Where might it fail in the future?

55. Organizations supporting
Conservation

56. WWF: World Wildlife Fund
• Established in 1961
• “to conserve the natural environment and
ecological processes worldwide”.
• WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of
the planet’s natural environment and to build
a future in which humans live in harmony with
nature, by:
– conserving the world’s biological diversity
– ensuring that the use of renewable natural
resources is sustainable
– promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful
consumption.

57. • Role – Promoting awareness & conservation of
wildlife
• Activities – Directed mostly at wildlife conservation,
work with companies like Nike in reducing CO2
emissions, Aid
• Use of the media – International, internet,
newsletters
• Speed of Response – stays current on issues
• Diplomatic constraints – international law &
coordination
• Enforceability – Limited, no real governmental
power, but broad passive influence

58. Greenpeace
• Greenpeace exists because this fragile earth deserves a voice.
It needs solutions. It needs change. It needs action.
• Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, with a presence in 40
countries across Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.
• To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept
donations from governments or corporations but relies on
contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants.
• As a global organization, Greenpeace focuses on the most
crucial worldwide threats to our planet's biodiversity and
environment.
• We campaign to:
--Stop climate change
--Protect ancient forests
--Save the oceans
--Stop whaling
--Say no to genetic engineering

59. The current Rainbow Warrior was
launched on 10 July 1989. The original
vessel was sunk in 1985 by agents of
the French government in an attempt to
foil protests of their nuclear weapons
testing in the Pacific.
The plan backfired, sparking worldwide
outrage, and the rebuilt ship proved that
"you can't sink a rainbow" when it
returned to battle successfully against
the testing programme. Nuclear testing
ended at Moruroa in 1996.
The ship's name was inspired by a
North American Indian prophecy which
foretells a time when human greed will
make the Earth sick, and a mythical
band of warriors will descend from a
rainbow to save it.

60. • Role - More extreme environmental activist group
• Activities – Greenpeace's history began in 1971. A group of
ecologists opposed to the war in Vietnam contested US
nuclear testing in the north Pacific. They decided simply to
position themselves in the middle of the testing zone.
• Use of the media - Embarked on a campaign to save the
whales. Using Zodiac inflatables, they put themselves
between the whales and the harpoons, generating images
too sensational not to broadcast and creating new public
pressure.
• Speed of Response – rapid, high profile, technological
approach
• Diplomatic constraints – Nonviolent but radical group -
Greenpeace's scientific and market research becomes
pressure tools.
• Enforceability - Creative nonviolent action mobilizes public
opinion against the unsustainable practices of governments
or corporations. The objective is to obtain as much coverage
as possible through the media in order to mobilize public
opinion on certain issues.

61. UNEP: United Nations
Environment Programme
• Established in 1972
• To provide leadership and encourage
partnership in caring for the environment by
inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and
peoples to improve their quality of life without
compromising that of future generations.
•

62. • Role – negotiate, monitor, implement
environmental treaties
• Activities – focus on consumption issues, energy,
food, youth programs
• Use of the media – limited, website
• Speed of Response – slower, through government
action
• Diplomatic constraints – tied to the UN
• Enforceability – underfunded, undersupported

63. World Conservation Strategy - 1980
• The World Conservation Strategy clarified the ideas of sustainable
development. Its concerns were with the link between the economy and the
environment. The environmental programme (UNEP) together with the
International Union of the Conservation of the Nation (IUCN) and World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) posed ideas to conserve nature. Therefore, suggesting
that economic development and growth should be used to enhance the
ability of societies to conserve nature. The main aim of the Strategy was to
explain how development and conservation of the environment can work
together.
• The World Conservation Strategy had a focus on conservation and in
placing the main focus on this it does not place as much emphasis on
political, social, cultural and economic issues. This was different to the
United Nations Conference on Human Environment which was held in 1972.
Another difference between the World Conservation Strategy and UNCHE is
that the World Conservation Strategy developed ideas on how they could
implement and develop sustainable development.
• Quote from the Conference:
• "This is the kind of development that provides real improvements in the
quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and
diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable.
Today it may seem visionary but it is attainable. To more and more people it
also appears our only rational option".
(The World Conservation Strategy, IUCN, UNEP, WWF 1980)

64. • World Conservation Strategy (1980)
– Secretariat/focal point: IUCN/UNEP/WWF
Aim/comment: To help advance the achievement of
sustainable development through the conservation of
living resources. The Strategy:
• explains the contribution of living resource conservation to
human survival and to sustainable development;
• identifies the priority conservation issues and the main
requirements for dealing with them;
• proposes effective ways for achieving the Strategy's aim.

65. World Conservation Strategy
Summary Points
1. Maintenance of essential life support
systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and
ecological processes
2. Preservation of genetic and species
diversity
3. Sustainable use of species and
ecosystems

66. References
• www.iucn.org
• http://www.panda.org (WWF site)
• www.unep.org
• http://www.greenpeace.org/international/
• http://www.cbd.int/