Running head DISCUSSION1DISCUSSION2.docx

Running head: DISCUSSION 1
DISCUSSION 2
Criminal Research
Alexia Bradley
University of Phoenix, eCampus
AJS 514, Steve Nance
November 13, 2018
Criminal Research
Within the United States of America, crime takes many different
forms, but is measured using two statistical programs, and these
are the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and the
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). In order for the
Bureau of Justice to issue accurate crime reports, a research has
to be conducted using these two statistical programs, with
special emphasis on the magnitude, nature, and impact of crime
in the nation. According to the Bureau of Justice, the hierarchy
of crime from highest to lowest is rape, sexual assault, robbery,
aggravated assault, simple assault, burglary, motor vehicle
theft, and theft (Zhang et al, 2016).

From 2015 to 2016 violent crime increased against males and
persons in their mid-20s to mid-30s. Among the male gender,
the rate of violent victimization showed an increase from 15.9
per 1,000 males aged 12 years and above to 19.6 per 1,000,
which was an alarming piece of realization. Among the people
aged 25 years to 34 years, violent victimization showed quite an
increase from 21.8 to 28.4 per 1,000 people. In 2016 alone,
close to 3 million people experienced crime within a period of
six months preceding the period when The Bureau of Justice
gave the 2015-2016 crime statistics. Among the most prevalent
crimes were aggravated assault, rape or sexual assault and
burglary (Zhang et al, 2016).
Some of the social and environmental factors do you believe
influence the crime rate include discrimination and inequality.
Among the American society, many of the minority groups are
labeled as high risk to security, meaning that they are most
prone to committing crime.This is because they experience open
discrimination that denies them decent opportunities to earn a
living like other people. In addition, inequality in income leads
to resentments that cause bitterness and instigate conflict
between the haves and have-nots, hence the latter attack the
former.
Other factors that contribute to crime include poverty and the
police policy. Despite the fact that America has some of the
world’s richest tycoons, there is also a section of people who
live in poverty, and have done so all their life. When people
cannot afford basic needs in life, they are tempted to try and
intimidate or steal from those who seem to be well of in order to
be able to eke a life for themselves and their children. For
example, someone whose children have not had supper for two
nights may not resist shoplifting (Agnew, 2007).
Uncouth policies adopted by the police in dealing with crime
can also be a factor leading to conflict between the locals and
the police. Whenever the local community does not support the
work of police, there is definitely some level of crime that sinks
in the minds of the locals, as some of the people take advantage

of the void to carry out their actions of crime, as well as the
presence of enhanced levels of rebellion. When police favor one
community over the other, those who are not favored may tend
to instigate crime against the members of the favored
community.
The known sources of crime data in the US are the Uniform
Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and the National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS). The advantage of latter is that its
data is credible since it tracks 46 times before giving a
conclusion, and the fact that it contains a comprehensive report
of crime which includes characteristics of victims and
offenders, arrests made, location and others. However, this
source is tiresome due to the magnitude of data collected. The
former source has the advantage is specificity in its reporting,
but may be highly unreliable since it only carries out eight
tracks of crime, and only contains the tally but not specific
details of crime.
Crime research is important since it helps to identify area where
crime is prevalent and the forms of crime where special
attention is necessary. In addition, it helps to identify people
who repeat crime after serving their sentence, hence may be
able to show which area have high degree of recidivism, which
would help to come up with strategies to combat this vice.
Investigating the occurrence of crime through research and
theory development may be done by focusing on specific areas
of forms of crime and trying to look at the trends in that area of
crime in order to draw a time-tested conclusion as a theory.

References
Agnew, R. (2007). Pressured into crime: An overview of general
strain theory.
Zhang, A., Musu-Gillette, L., & Oudekerk, B. A. (2016).
Indicators of school crime and safety: 2015. Washington,
DC: National Center for Education Statistics, US Department
of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice
Programs, US Department of Justice, 1-221.
A Tale of Two Cities (and Classes): Urban Life, ca. 1851-1900

1
The New Urban Environment
Urbanization
Industrial Economies encouraged the growth of cities at an
enormous rate
Overcrowding, disease lead to new sanitation
Cities were laid out/re-drawn
New plans to accommodate housing booms
influx of immigrant/worker populations
maintain social stratification/control by dividing the city into
industrial/commercial/residential (divided by class)

2
The Second Industrial Revolution
Transportation
1. The Railroad
2. The Steamship
Communications
1. Postal Services
2. Telegraph
Mass Communications
1. Lending Libraries
2. Newspapers

The Rise of Physical and Social Sciences – New Ways to
Explain Race and Class
Medicine
Cholera Outbreaks
The 1832-33 cholera epidemic claimed 4,000 to 7,000 victims in
London.
Darwin
The Origin of Species (1859)
Herbert Spencer, Social Darwinism and the
“Survival of the Fittest” and Eugenics
Social Sciences
History
Anthropology
Charles Darwin

5
Haussmannization
Georges Haussmann redesigns the modern (Bourgeois) city
Prefect of the Seine, 1853-1870
Estimates 70% of Parisians live in poverty
destroys the medieval city in favor of pleasing designs
Installs new infrastructure
new sewer and water systems
By 1870, 560 of the capital’s 805 km of streets had sewers
Discharge dangerous to communities downstream.
40,500 houses have running water (up from 6,000)
gas lighting
new, large public buildings
Uniform in height and style
Residential buildings’ interiors unregulated

6
Haussmannization
Goals
prevent Parisians from ripping up the city in rebellion
allowed easy access to the army for putting down rebellion
Eradicate filth and disease
Partly inspired by cholera outbreaks
Eliminate threat of insalubrious, dangerous classes from city
center
Poor, immigrants and working-class driven from their
neighborhoods
Displaced poverty without eradicating it
Creates the modern
Bourgeois café culture of stores/restaurants and people
watching
Formal gardens, linear street grids, and facades of buildings
betray bourgeois discourse of order
Ending the Disorder of the Medieval City

Gustave Caillebotte, Paris Street; Rainy Day (1877)
On the Pont de l’Europe
1876–77
Le pont de l'Europe, c. 1876
Camille Pissarro, Avenue de l’Opera (1898)

The Whitechapel Murders
“Jack the Ripper” August-November, 1888
The Five Victims: Nicholls, Chapman, Eddowes, Stride and
Kelly
“With the Vigilance Committee in the East End: A Suspicious
Character”
13 Oct 1888

The Ripper Moment – The Emergence of New Voices
Exposure of the “social ills of ‘Outcast London’”
Bernard Shaw called the Ripper a "solitary genius" for the
murders' by-product of drawing interest to the plight of the
denizens of the East End
FIRST MEMBER OF CRIMINAL "CLASS." "FINE BODY OF
MEN, THE PER-LEECE!"
SECOND DITTO. "UNCOMMON FINE! - IT'S LUCKY FOR
HUS AS THERE'S SECH A BLOOMIN' FEW ON 'EM!!!"
"I have to observe that the Metropolitan Police have not large
reserves doing nothing and ready to meet emergencies; but
every man has his duty assigned to him, and I can only
strengthen the Whitechapel district by drawing men from duty
in other parts of the Metropolis." - Sir Charles Warren's
Statement.
"There is one Policeman to every seven hundred persons." -
Vide Recent Statistics (13 October 1888)

II. The Ripper Moment – The Emergence of New Voices
B. Emergence of new political forces in response to bourgeois
dominance and Liberal Policy
C. Skepticism and Fear of Authorities
1. Science
2. Police
Anti-Semitism
Feminist Concerns

There floats a phantom on the slum's foul air,

Shaping, to eyes which have the gift of seeing,
Into the Spectre of that loathly lair.
Face it--for vain is fleeing!
Red-handed, ruthless, furtive, unerect,
'Tis murderous Crime--the Nemesis of Neglect!
Mocking of glance, and merciless of mien.
Mocking? Ah, yes! At Law the ghoul may laugh,
The sword is here as harmless as the staff
Of crippled age; its sleuthhounds are at fault,
Justice appears not only blind but halt.

It seems to play a merely blinkered gamer,
Blundering about without a settled aim,
Like boys at Blind-Man's Buff. A pretty sport
For Law's sworn guards in rascaldom's resort!
The bland official formula to-day
Seems borrowed from the tag of Nursery play,
"Turn around three times," upon no settled plan,
"Flounder and fumble, and "catch whom you can!"
Improving Conditions for the Working Class
Rise of Working-Class Political Ambitions
Keir Hardie (1892) and the Independent Labour Party

(1893) in England
James Keir Hardie, MP
Mass Politics
Conservatives co-opt nationalist/liberal rhetoric
shift support from working class organization to mass national
parties headed by old elites
Voting rights expanded
1884- 60% of males in Britain have the right to vote (all male
householders and £10 lodgers

West still not fully democratic (no women, 40% of British men)
Radical parties emerge
Play on fears over new immigration and antisemitism
Dreyfus Affair (1890s France)
Limitations of Women – Legislating the Separate Spheres
The Angel in the Household
Social Work: Women in the Public Domain
Charles W. Cope, Life Well Spent, 1862.

Man for the field and woman for the hearth,
Man for the sword and for the needle she;
Man with the head, and woman with the heart;
Man to command, and woman to obey,
All else confusion.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson,
The Princess, 1847

WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SOCIAL
JUSTICE
Western Women remain disenfranchised until World War I
Work for abolition delays efforts for women’s suffrage
Women often relied on liberal politicians to introduce
legislation
Women’s legislation often pushed aside
movement largely ignores working-class women
Increased radicalism
28
The Shrieking Sisterhood – Women and Political Rights
England
National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies
2. The Pankhursts and The Suffragettes

“I thought I had been a suffragist before I became a Poor Law
Guardian, but now I began to think about the vote in women’s
hands not only as a right but a desperate necessity. These poor,
unprotected mothers and their babies I am sure were potent
factors in my education as a militant. In fact, all the women I
came in contact with in the workhouse contributed to that
education.”
-Emmeline Pankhurst
Pankhurst being arrested at a rally in front of Buckingham
Palace
Photo: Museum of London
When we were patient, when we believed in argument and
persuasion, they said, “You don’t really want it because, if you
did, you would do something unmistakable to show you were
determined to have it.” And they when we did something
unmistakable they said, “You are behaving so badly that you
show you are not fit for it.”

Impact of Industrial Society: Politics and Identity

Social Consequences Of Industrialization
Rapid growth of new industrial cities
lack of sufficient infrastructure
Creation of the institutional work day
Mill whistle and the factory clock
Replacement of the artisan with the unskilled worker
Division of Labor, rise of class consciousness
Child Labor
In 1835 40% of mill workers were under the age of 18
2
New Social Figure: The Bourgeoisie

Industrialization created not only factory owners and
management, but also created increased need for lawyers,
bankers, accountants, and merchants
These individuals began to intermarry with the struggling
landed gentry, accumulating capital and credibility
As a dominant source of progress, this class demands more
political power in Britain
3
Liberalism
Rooted in the Enlightenment
in favor of legal equality before the law
religious toleration
freedom of the press
small government: limit the power of government against the
persons and property of individual citizens
governments get powers from the consent of the governed
Those who govern must represent the interests of the governed

Liberalism
Liberals do not believe in universal democracy
system of privilege based on wealth and property
Laissez-Faire Economics:
remove internal barriers to trade and to international commerce.
Corn Laws
opposed minimum wages and pro-labor legislation
Economic liberty provides basis for material progress.

8
How the urban workers live
9
Observations On the Effect of the Manufacturing System etc.,
Robert Owen
The acquisition of wealth, and the desire which it naturally
creates for a continued increase, have introduced a fondness for
essentially injurious luxuries among a numerous class of
individuals who formerly never thought of them, and they have
also generated a disposition which strongly impels its
possessors to sacrifice the best feelings of human nature to this
love of accumulation. To succeed in this career, the industry of
the lower orders, from whose labour this wealth is now drawn,
has been carried by new competitors striving against those of
longer standing, to a point of real oppression, reducing them by
successive changes, as the spirit of competition increased and
the ease of acquiring wealth diminished, to a state more
wretched than can be imagined by those who have not
attentively observed the changes as they have gradually

occurred. In consequence, they are at present in a situation
infinitely more degraded and miserable than they were before
the introduction of these manufactories, upon the success of
which their bare subsistence now depends.
Robert Owen, 1815
I now therefore, in the name of the millions of the neglected
poor and ignorant, whose habits and sentiments have been
hitherto formed to render them wretched, call upon the British
Government and the British Nation to unite their efforts to
arrange a system to train and instruct those who, for any good
or useful purpose, are now untrained and uninstructed; and to
arrest by a clear, easy, and practical system of prevention, the
ignorance and consequent poverty, vice, and misery, which are
rapidly increasing throughout the empire; for, "Train up a child
in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart
from it.”

Liberal Reform: The English Bill, 1832
Borough Reform
Redistribution of parliamentary seats: who gets what?
Franchise Reform
Urban, male, £10 freeholders
Key missing reform?
12
Post-Reform Politics
After the 1832 Reform Bill, the newly enfranchised take a
paternalistic attitude to the new “working class”
Increased state focus on the condition of the workers
Living conditions
Working conditions
Sanitary conditions: cities with over 50,000 people had twice
the death rates of the countryside

13
Post-Reform Politics
1834: New Poor Law
Poor Law introduced during Renaissance
outdoor relief
Difficult to get help
conditions of workhouses
Workhouses built in every parish
14
Reaction to the Bill

The Workhouse
19
Socialism
Socialism

Economic planning
greater economic equality
state regulation of property
Utopianism: burden falls on middle class to help the poor
Marxism: middle class and working class interests opposed to
each other
Socialism
Socialists questioned the right to private property and argued
for rights for industrial workers
Before the mid-19th Century, there were few national unions.
Most labor movements sought higher wages and better working
conditions.
Chartism in Great Britain called for universal male suffrage in
1838

21
21
Workers and Marx
Marx’s theory says that
social hierarchy is based upon work
how that work is done is called the mode of production.
The mode of production shapes all other aspects of social life
Dialectical materialism
Hegel’s idea that each age is characterized by a set of ideas,
which produces opposing ideas that will result in a new
synthesis
Marx’s theory proclaimed that economic relationships were the
driving force of historical change
Marx’s vision for Change
History as class struggle
The bourgeoisie vs. the proletariat
Class consciousness
Violent overthrow of the bourgeois, capitalist system
Abolition of capitalist property
The dictatorship of the proletariat
Withering away of the state
Communism

collective ownership of property
organization of labor for the common advantage of all members
Marx, Economic & Philosophical Manuscripts, 1844
“The laborer becomes poorer the more wealth he produces,
indeed, the more powerful and wide-ranging his production
becomes. Labor does not only produce commodities, it produces
itself and the laborer as a commodity, and in relation to the
level at which it produces commodities. The product of labor is
labor, which fixes itself in the object, it becomes a thing, it is
the objectification of labor.”
From The Communist Manifesto, 1848:
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and

serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and
oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried
on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that
each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of
society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending
classes. In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost
everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various
orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we
have patricians, equites, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages,
lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in
almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.
From The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Masses of laborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like
soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed
under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and
sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and
of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the
machine, by the foreman, and, above all, by the individual
bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this
despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty,
the more hateful and the more embittering it is.

From The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social
validity for the working class. All are instruments of labor,
more or less expensive to use, according to their age and
sex....The growing competition among the bourgeoisie, and the
resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever
more fluctuating. The unceasing improvement of machinery,
ever more rapidly developing, makes their livelihood more and
more precarious...The modern laborer, instead of rising with the
progress of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the
conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper,
and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and
wealth....
The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They
have a world to win.
WORKERS OF THE WORLD: UNITE!!
A Tale of Two Cities (and Classes): Urban Life, ca. 1851-1900

28
The New Urban Environment
Urbanization
Industrial Economies encouraged the growth of cities at an
enormous rate
Overcrowding, disease lead to new sanitation
Cities were laid out/re-drawn
New plans to accommodate housing booms
influx of immigrant/worker populations
maintain social stratification/control by dividing the city into
industrial/commercial/residential (divided by class)

29
Transportation
1. The Railroad
2. The Steamship
Communications
1. Postal Services
2. Telegraph
Mass Communications
1. Lending Libraries
2. Newspapers

32
Haussmannization
Georges Haussmann redesigns the modern (Bourgeois) city
Prefect of the Seine, 1853-1870
Estimates 70% of Parisians live in poverty
destroys the medieval city in favor of pleasing designs
Installs new infrastructure
new sewer and water systems
By 1870, 560 of the capital’s 805 km of streets had sewers
Discharge dangerous to communities downstream.
40,500 houses have running water (up from 6,000)
gas lighting
new, large public buildings
Uniform in height and style
Residential buildings’ interiors unregulated

33
Haussmannization
Goals
prevent Parisians from ripping up the city in rebellion
allowed easy access to the army for putting down rebellion
Eradicate filth and disease
Partly inspired by cholera outbreaks
Eliminate threat of insalubrious, dangerous classes from city
center
Poor, immigrants and working-class driven from their
neighborhoods
Displaced poverty without eradicating it
Creates the modern
Bourgeois café culture of stores/restaurants and people
watching
Formal gardens, linear street grids, and facades of buildings
betray bourgeois discourse of order
Ending the Disorder of the Medieval City

Gustave Caillebotte, Paris Street; Rainy Day (1877)
On the Pont de l’Europe
1876–77
Le pont de l'Europe, c. 1876

Camille Pissarro, Avenue de l’Opera (1898)
The Whitechapel Murders
“Jack the Ripper” August-November, 1888
The Five Victims: Nicholls, Chapman, Eddowes, Stride and
Kelly
“With the Vigilance Committee in the East End: A Suspicious
Character”
13 Oct 1888

There floats a phantom on the slum's foul air,
Shaping, to eyes which have the gift of seeing,

Into the Spectre of that loathly lair.
Face it--for vain is fleeing!
Red-handed, ruthless, furtive, unerect,
'Tis murderous Crime--the Nemesis of Neglect!
Mocking of glance, and merciless of mien.
Mocking? Ah, yes! At Law the ghoul may laugh,
The sword is here as harmless as the staff
Of crippled age; its sleuthhounds are at fault,
Justice appears not only blind but halt.
It seems to play a merely blinkered gamer,
Blundering about without a settled aim,
Like boys at Blind-Man's Buff. A pretty sport
For Law's sworn guards in rascaldom's resort!
The bland official formula to-day

Seems borrowed from the tag of Nursery play,
"Turn around three times," upon no settled plan,
"Flounder and fumble, and "catch whom you can!"
Improving Conditions for the Working Class
Rise of Working-Class Political Ambitions
Keir Hardie (1892) and the Independent Labour Party
(1893) in England
James Keir Hardie, MP

Mass Politics
Conservatives co-opt nationalist/liberal rhetoric
shift support from working class organization to mass national
parties headed by old elites
Voting rights expanded
1884- 60% of males in Britain have the right to vote (all male
householders and £10 lodgers
West still not fully democratic (no women, 40% of British men)
Radical parties emerge
Play on fears over new immigration and antisemitism
Dreyfus Affair (1890s France)

Limitations of Women – Legislating the Separate Spheres
The Angel in the Household
Social Work: Women in the Public Domain
Charles W. Cope, Life Well Spent, 1862.
Man for the field and woman for the hearth,
Man for the sword and for the needle she;
Man with the head, and woman with the heart;
Man to command, and woman to obey,
All else confusion.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson,
The Princess, 1847

WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SOCIAL
JUSTICE
Western Women remain disenfranchised until World War I
Work for abolition delays efforts for women’s suffrage
Women often relied on liberal politicians to introduce
legislation
Women’s legislation often pushed aside
movement largely ignores working-class women
Increased radicalism

55
The Shrieking Sisterhood – Women and Political Rights
England
National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies
2. The Pankhursts and The Suffragettes
“I thought I had been a suffragist before I became a Poor Law

Guardian, but now I began to think about the vote in women’s
hands not only as a right but a desperate necessity. These poor,
unprotected mothers and their babies I am sure were potent
factors in my education as a militant. In fact, all the women I
came in contact with in the workhouse contributed to that
education.”
-Emmeline Pankhurst
Pankhurst being arrested at a rally in front of Buckingham
Palace
Photo: Museum of London
When we were patient, when we believed in argument and
persuasion, they said, “You don’t really want it because, if you
did, you would do something unmistakable to show you were
determined to have it.” And they when we did something
unmistakable they said, “You are behaving so badly that you
show you are not fit for it.”

World War I
THE GREAT POWERS IN EUROPE
Germany
Rapid industrialization and modernization after unification
Bismarck extends vote to all adult males
weakens the middle-classes
introduces socialist legislation to pre-empt socialist politicians
essentially an authoritarian regime
emperor at the helm
Parliament/military filled with upper-middle-class, aristocratic
leaders
brought a new balance of power to the Continent
strengthened the cause for imperial ventures
2
France
French found new competition with/second place power position

to Germany difficult
Political and cultural conflicts develop, including the Paris
Commune, another revolution
political division between monarchists and republicans on the
national stage
3
Great Britain
Increased suffrage by 1884
almost all males had the right to vote and could do so
democratically
Had difficulty extending resources and infrastructure to the
empire in both the isles and abroad
feared the growing economic strength of the U.S. and Germany
in the late 19th Century
4
Russia and Austria-Hungary
Both weakened by nationalism
very ethnically diverse empires

Russia remained economically “backwards”
Stays authoritarian
Alexander’s successors resist all forms of social change
Russia’s weakness (politically, economically, militarily)
exposed in Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05
Austro-Hungarian Empire deeply divided along ethnic lines
efforts to maintain empire by force in Balkans creates political
tension in Russia that would have disastrous effects
5
The West Outside of Europe
The United States
late 19th Century a period of dramatic economic/social growth
Immigrants poured into the country, fueling industrialization
40 million between 1880 and 1920
By 1900 is the world’s leading industrial power
absence of government intervention and immigration
6
The Concert of Europe
Established in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna
Quadruple Alliance
Russia
Prussia

Austria
Great Britain
Collective Defense
Metternich
7
Europe, 1815
8
Europe, 1900
The Arms Race
Wilhelm II and German aggression
Realpolitik versus Weltpolitik
Global role for Germany
Navy
Empire

Influence
Military Buildup
The Navy
Wilhelm II models his fleet after Royal Navy
England develops new class of ships, “Dreadnought”
New Mobilization speeds
France: 3 days
Germany: 2 days
10
The Arms Race
Land forces
Germany: 4, 800,000 men
Britain: 380,000 men
Russia Rebuilds
1905 defeated by Japanese
Refortification and new railways to the West
Between 1904 and 1913
French and Russian arms expenditures increase 80%
German arms expenditures increase 120%
Austro-Hungarian expenditures increase 50%
Italian expenditures increase 100%
Britain raises naval spending from $50 million in the 1870s to
$130 million in 1900

11
“New Imperialism” and Crisis
First Moroccan Crisis
Wilhelm II in Tangiers, March 1905
The Bosnian Crisis
Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary,
October 1908
Serbia seeks aid from Russia, Austria-Hungary from Germany
Second Moroccan Crisis
German “Panther” sent to port at Agadir, July 1911
Sparks fear in Britain, anger in France
France subsequently establishes a full protectorate over
Morocco
12
Diplomacy and New Tensions
New Alliance Systems
Three Emperors’ League, 1873 (A-H, R, G)
Dual Alliance, 1879 (G, A-H)
Triple Alliance, 1882 (+Italy)
Strong ethnic ties between Germany and Austria-Hungary
Italy wants territory in Greece, Turkey, and the Balkans
Entente Cordiale, 1904
Triple Entente, 1907

13
The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente
14
The Outbreak of War
Sarajevo, 28 June 1914
Austrian Crown Prince Assassinated by Bosnian nationalist
28 July Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
Belgium, 4 August 1914
Tensions escalated by tensions with Russia over Austro-Serbian
conflict
Preemptive Strike as Germans push to Paris
15

1914
Germany invades Belgium.
Britain declares war on Germany.
Russia Invades Prussia, 17-19 August
New allies
Japan joins the Allied forces 23 August
Turkey joins the Central Powers 29 October
War spreads to the seas
Battle of the Marne, 6-10 September 1914
French push Germans back 45 miles
Germans capture industrial North in France
Marks the beginning of the trench deadlock
1915
Total War
Women take up men's jobs.
Nurses, clerks, postal workers, government workers, auxiliary

soldiers, police officers, bus and railway conductors
3 out of 4 munitions workers women
Stalemate continues on the Western Front.
London attacked from the air by German Zeppelins
Bombardments begin 19 January
The Lusitania passenger liner is sunk, with 1,200 lives lost.
7 May
American passengers aboard, creates diplomatic crisis between
US and Germany

1916
Conscription for men aged between 18 and 41 in Britain.
A million casualties in ten months: Germany aims to 'bleed
France white'.
Battle of Verdun, 21 February-July 1916
400,000 casualties on each side
Battle of the Somme, 1 July-13 November
British and French attack on Germans
Bombard the German line for one week with 1.6 million shells
20,000 British soldiers dead the first day; 60% of the Officers
involved that day die
Total Losses: Britain, 420,000; France, 195,000; Germans,
650,000.

1916-1917
At sea the Battle of Jutland takes place.
31 May to 1 June
Largest naval battle at that time
No apparent victor
United States joins the war and assists the Allies.
US declares war on Germany on 6 April

First US troops land in France, 26 June
1917
Battle of Passchendaele, 31 July-6 November 1917
2 week bombardment, 4.5 million shells from 3,000 guns.
Early august to 20 September: stalemate (weather)
Casualties: Allied, 325,000; German, 260,000
Five-mile gain
German Army retreats to the Hindenburg Line.
Tank, submarine and gas warfare intensifies.
1918
Germany launches major offensive on the Western Front.
March 1918
Allies launch successful counter-offensives at the Marne and
Amiens.
600,000 US troops cross Atlantic
355,000 British Reserves sent to Continent
Armistice signed on November 11, ending the war at 11am.

The Path to WWI
Germany
emperor at the helm
leaders

2
France
national stage
3
Great Britain
democratically
4

Stays authoritarian
tension in Russia that would have disastrous effects (the reason
for the outbreak of WWI)
5
The United States
6

The Concert of Europe
Established in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna
Quadruple Alliance
Russia
Prussia
Austria
Great Britain
Collective Defense
Metternich
7
Europe, 1815
8
Europe, 1900

The Arms Race
Wilhelm II and German aggression
Realpolitik versus Weltpolitik
Global role for Germany
Navy
Empire
Influence
Military Buildup
The Navy
Wilhelm II models his fleet after Royal Navy
England develops new class of ships, “Dreadnought”
New Mobilization speeds
France: 3 days
Germany: 2 days
10
The Arms Race
Land forces
Germany: 4, 800,000 men
Britain: 380,000 men
Russia Rebuilds
1905 defeated by Japanese
Refortification and new railways to the West
Between 1904 and 1913
French and Russian arms expenditures increase 80%
German arms expenditures increase 120%
Austro-Hungarian expenditures increase 50%
Italian expenditures increase 100%

Britain raises naval spending from $50 million in the 1870s to
$130 million in 1900
11
The Bosnian Crisis
October 1908
Morocco
12
Diplomacy and New Tensions
New Alliance Systems
Three Emperors’ League, 1873 (A-H, R, G)
Dual Alliance, 1879 (G, A-H)
Triple Alliance, 1882 (+Italy)

Strong ethnic ties between Germany and Austria-Hungary
Italy wants territory in Greece, Turkey, and the Balkans
Entente Cordiale, 1904
Triple Entente, 1907
13
The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente
14
The Outbreak of War
Sarajevo, 28 June 1914
Austrian Crown Prince Assassinated by Bosnian nationalist
28 July Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
Belgium, 4 August 1914
Tensions escalated by tensions with Russia over Austro-Serbian
conflict
Preemptive Strike as Germans push to Paris

15
Nation Building: War and Unification, 1860-1890
1
1848: A Summary
In 1848, demonstrations and uprisings toppled governments
forced rulers to flee
offered revolutionaries a chance to put liberal ideals (and
socialist and nationalist ones too) into practice.
Popular sentiment became important
growing nationalist fervor convinced many of the need for a
united Germany and Italy, among others.
Only Great Britain and Russia remained untouched
In the end all the revolutions failed
conflict between liberals, nationalists and workers
ability of nobility and conservatives to put down popular
rebellion but also adapt to change.
Reality; or, 19th Century Nationalism in Practice

Failed revolutions in 1848 convinced many politicians to reject
nationalist idealism and favor a doctrine of Realpolitik
Realpolitik is tough-minded realism about how states should be
formed and strengthened to maintain social order
Unification of Germany and Italy not by popular consensus
by violent war and top-down politics and diplomatic strategy
Nationalism’s purpose changes
continue economic development by fostering national identity
and common purpose among population to encourage social
order and thus productivity, wealth, bureaucratic centralization,
modernization
3
Europe Circa 1850
Britain in the throes of Victorian stability under Queen Victoria
Identity rooted in middle-class culture
“cult of domesticity”
France headed by another Napoleon
Authoritarian government with forward-thinking economic
strategies
Italian city-states remain divided
Germanic states locked in a stalemate
Italian Unification, 1859-70

Between 1815- and 1848, several proposals for a united Italy
were offered
Giuseppe Mazzini: republic
Gioberti: presidency of a progressive pope
King Vittoria Emmanuel II: liberal constitution
5
Italian Unification, 1859-70
After 1848, many Italian nationalists looked to King Victor
Emmanuel of Sardinia-Piedmont and his minister Count Camilo
Benso di Cavour
Cavour first sought a united Italy that excludes the South
popular general/revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi unexpectedly
unites the South (Sicily and Naples) and so the new Italy would
include the South too
France abandons authority over Rome in 1870
France struggles against Germany in Franco-Prussian War
This allows Rome to become new capital of a united Italy

7
German Unification, 1860-1870
1848, Prussian liberals force Frederick William IV to grant a
liberal Constitution
By 1849 William is in a position to refuse it
8
1862 Parliament rejects the military budget
Parliament dominated by middle-class liberals
William responds by appointing Otto von Bismarck
Bismarck is supposed to head new ministry and defy parliament
He declares that government will rule without parliament’s
consent
Bismarck uses dispute over territory with Denmark to go to war

and rally domestic support
Waging wars helps Prussia lead Germany
with Austria in 1866
Franco-Prussian War in 1870
Declaration of the German Empire
11
1870-1900
Remaking the West

Motives For Empire, 1880-1914
Political Motives
Cultural Motives
Economic Motives
Take up the White Man's burden--
Send forth the best ye breed--
Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
To wait in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild--
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half-devil and half-child.
In patience to abide,
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech and simple,
An hundred times made plain
To seek another's profit,
And work another's gain.
The savage wars of peace--
Fill full the mouth of Famine
And bid the sickness cease;
And when your goal is nearest
The end for others sought,
Watch sloth and heathen Folly

Bring all your hopes to nought.
Take up the White Man's burden– No tawdry rule of kings,
But toil of serf and sweeper--
The tale of common things.
The ports ye shall not enter,
The roads ye shall not tread,
Go mark them with your living,
And mark them with your dead.
And reap his old reward:
The blame of those ye better,
The hate of those ye guard--
The cry of hosts ye humour
(Ah, slowly!) toward the light:--
"Why brought he us from bondage,
Our loved Egyptian night?"
Ye dare not stoop to less--
Nor call too loud on Freedom
To cloke your weariness;
By all ye cry or whisper,
By all ye leave or do,
The silent, sullen peoples
Shall weigh your gods and you.
Have done with childish days--
The lightly proferred laurel,
The easy, ungrudged praise.

Comes now, to search your manhood
Through all the thankless years
Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom,
The judgment of your peers!
India and the New British Empire, 1750-1870
More direct method of rule in response to the American
Revolution
British East India Company
Raj and Rebellion, 1857
British Bureaucracy and Elite Institutions
Sepoy Mutiny
British Government seizes control
The Scramble for Africa
1880: Europe controls 10% of African continent
1900: only Ethiopia and Liberia remain independent
West Africa
France
Britain
Spain
South Africa
Britain
Belgium
Germany

Scramble for Africa
Bismarck and Imperial powers decide in 1884:
Borders of colonial states
Who can have what?
Methods of control
Treatment of indigenous groups
Political and Social Ramifications
Indigenous Resistance
Ethiopia and Italy
Disruption of Indigenous life
Remaking African Culture
Britain
Rhodes and the Transvaal 1896
Boer War, 1899-1902
Spanish American War, 1898
Loses Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Philippines
Italy
Ethiopia, 1896
The Bosnian Crisis

October 1908
Morocco
10
Germany
emperor at the helm
leaders
11

France
national stage
12
Great Britain
democratically
13

Stays authoritarian
tension in Russia that would have disastrous effects (the reason
for the outbreak of WWI)
14
The United States
The Challenge of Social Change in the Wider West
Immigration
Between 1500 and 1760, African slaves had accounted for the
vast majority of “immigrants” in the western hemisphere
In the 19th Century, Europeans (Irish, German, Italians, Slavs,
Russians, and Jews) accounted for the majority of new
immigrants
Asian immigration increased significantly in the United States
Despite the tremendous benefits that immigrants brought,

hostility/discrimination toward immigrants increased
At best, the “immigrant question” was addressed by state efforts
to force immigrants to abandon their own culture and assimilate
At worst, immigrants were met with vicious, discriminatory
laws and violence (Dawes Act in the U.S., pogroms in Russia
and eastern Europe)
16
Uncle Sam’s Lodging House
17
“Can I come in?”
…I ‘spose you can; there’s no law to keep you out.
18
American Imperialism
Colonial Experiences of “imperialism”
Monroe Doctrine-1823
European powers must not meddle in the affairs of any

developing nations in the Western Hemisphere
1866-US in Mexico and Latin America
1867-Purchase of Alaska
1898-Annexation of Hawaii
1898-Spanish-American War
Cuba
Guam
Philippines
White-Man’s Burden
American Imperialism
The United States approached imperialism in several ways:
Cultural imperialism
Political imperialism
Economic imperialism
For the documents, assess the following as a group:
Which mode of imperialism does each group member’s
document(s) represent?
What imperial actions is the US engaging in/being accused of?
How is US imperialism like/unlike European modes of empire?
If your group were to write an essay on American versus
European imperialism, what would the main argument be?
What would your key pieces of evidence/quotes be?
Japan
Japan had little contact with the outside world until the 1850s

Japanese leaders began embracing western institutional ideas
The new Meiji government modeled their system on imperial
Germany
encourage rapid industrialization
Japanese expansion into Asia fueled parallel imperialism in the
East
Japan subordinate to western claims on Asia
forced to give up imperial gains (China) when success
threatened western dominance over trade markets
The Revolutions of 1848
1

Why 1848?
19th Century Liberals push for more representative government.
poor harvests in Europe in 1846 and 1847
1848, there was a general economic recession.
The Famine
The Potato is introduced to Ireland in 1600
Irish Population growth:
1780: 4 million
1840: 8 million
1845-48: The Potato Blight
The Famine
The consequences
One million deaths
Starvation
Dysentery

Typhus
Emigration
1.5 million people go abroad
Stereotypes of the Irish in the 19th century
SKIBBEREEN.--In the parish of Kilmoe, fourteen died on
Sunday; three of these were buried in coffins, eleven were
buried without other covering than the rags they wore when
alive. And one gentleman, a good and charitable man, speaking
of this case, says--'The distress is so appalling, that we must
throw away all feelings of delicacy;' and another says--'I would
rather give 1s. to a starving man than 4s. 6d. for a coffin.' One
hundred and forty have died in the Skibbereen Workhouse in
one month; eight have died in one day! And Mr. M'Carthy
Downing states that 'they came into the house merely and solely
for the purpose of getting a coffin.' The Rev. Mr. Clancy visits
a farm, and there, in one house, 'he administered the last rites of
religion to six person.' On a subsequent occasion, he 'prepared
for death a father and a daughter lying in the same bed.' Dr.
Donovan solemnly assures a public meeting that the people are
'dropping in dozens about them.' Mr. Marmion says that work
on the public road is even more destructive than fever; for the
unfed wretches have not energy enough to keep their blood in
circulation, and they drop down from the united effects of cold
and hunger--never to rise again.
From the London Illustrated News, 1847

"The first Sketch is taken on the road, at Cahera, of a famished
boy and girl turning up the ground to seek for a potato to
appease their hunger. 'Not far from the spot where I made this
sketch,' says Mr. Mahoney, 'and less than fifty perches from the
high road, is another of the many sepulchres above ground,
where six dead bodies had lain for twelve days, without the
least chance of interment, owing to their being so far from the
town.'"
Illustrated London News, February 20, 1847.
Louis Philippe’s “Bourgeois Monarchy”
Louis XVIII (1814-1824)
Charles X (1824-1830)
Louis Philippe Reigns 1830-1848
Accepted symbols of a republic
Reality

A Second French Revolution
Liberals meet (advertised as banquets) to criticize King Louis
Philippe for ignoring calls for electoral reform
In response, the King forbade further banquets.
How do the crowds of Paris react to Louis Philippe?
Who makes up the two sides?
On February 24, 1848, out of fear Louis Philippe abdicates
What is instituted in the Louis’s vacated position?
Workers demanding relief confront the new liberal government
Late April: Election to replace the provisional government
Warfare followed
June Days
3,000 people die in fighting
Who wins?

Gustave Courbet, Les Casseurs de pierres, 1849-50
Constituent Assembly creates a strong executive
Elect Louis Napoleon (nephew of the Emperor) to throne
What drives his popularity? Why do the people accept him?
Louis Napoleon acts as an economic liberal and an authoritarian
dictator
December 2, 1851 seizes power in a military coup
people overwhelmingly approved his actions
becomes Emperor Napoleon III
Austria
Hungarian nationalists attacked Austrian domination of Hungary
National autonomy
Full civil liberties
Universal suffrage
Riots break out in Vienna
Student groups
Workers
Peasants in countryside
Emperor Ferdinand and Metternich flee Vienna
Hapsburg government emancipates serfs

Why? What is the result?
In territory after territory, the Hapsburgs made concessions to
the liberals
later, repudiated them after gaining popular peasant support.
Why else does this revolution break down?
Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly
Prior to 1848 middle-class Prussians sought a liberal
constitutional monarchy
News of Louis Philippe’s overthrow inspires Berlin
Prussia and the Frankfurt Parliament
Demonstrations in Berlin put down by the royal army in March
1848
King Frederick William IV promised to call an assembly and
draft a constitution and adopt the German nationalist flag
Prussia and the Frankfurt Parliament
Nationalist goals take precedence over labor/socialist agenda

Frankfurt Parliament offers Frederick William a constitutional
monarchy,
“crown from the gutter”
Austria forces Prussia to renounce all unification attempts in
1850
Italy
King Charles Albert of Piedmont (a northwestern state in Italy)
wants to be constitutional monarch of a united Italy
rebels against Austria but was defeated and made peace.
Uprising in Rome
radicals proclaim a Roman Republic
drive Pope from the city
Charles Albert supports effort but is again defeated and then
abdicates
Foreign troops quelled most uprisings.
French troops occupy Rome and restored Pope
1848: A Summary
Liberal, socialist, and nationalist ideals put into practice.
growing nationalist ideas call for united Germany and Italy
Great Britain and Russia remained untouched
Why?
All the revolutions failed due to ideological confrontations
Divided revolutionaries fall prey to strong conservative

alliances
Europe after the French Revolution
1
The Death of an Emperor
Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815
The Concert of Europe is created through
The settling of boundaries of European states
The determining of rulers of each nation
The creation of a new framework for international relations
Five major powers: Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain, and France
2
Conservatism and Religion
Edmund Burke leads the Conservatives (Tories)
What do Conservatives call for?
Return to Europe’s religious roots

Catholicism
Evangelicalism
Great Awakening
New Ideologies
Nationalism
Each people had its own genius and its own cultural unity
Turn cultural unity into political reality
Liberalism
Liberty and equality
Bentham and utilitarianism
The Romantic Movement
Individualistic
the full development of one’s unique potential the supreme
goal of life
Reject materialism
Seek spirituality through art
See history as the art of change over time
Nature is awesome and inspirational: “Nature is Spirit
Visible”—John Constable
Human beings should accept the natural laws in place
Flee from industry’s attack on nature

Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer Looking over a Sea of Fog
(1815)
John Constable, Salisbury Cathedral from Bishop’s Grounds
(1823)
William Wordsworth, “Daffodils”
The waves beside them danced, but they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:-
A poet could not but be gay
In such a jocund company:
I gazed-and gazed-but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:
For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude,
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the Daffodils.
-1815
I wandered lonely as a Cloud
That floats on high o'er Vales and Hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
What is nationalism?
Nationalism can mean many things:
Patriotism
Jingoism
National over international concerns
Desire for national independence (Kosovo)
Emotional attachment to a territory
Being Part of a Nation
Similarities
Race
Religion
Language
Common experience
A feeling of economic or political community
Separation from a group that is “different” than yours

Nationalism in 19th Century Europe
Nationalists wanted to turn cultural “unity” into political reality
Closely connected to ideas of liberalism and democracy in early
half of century
Belief that like people, nations had a right to develop their own
national character and strengths
Ideas of ethnic superiority are closely connected to nationalist
arguments
Roots of Nationalism
2 Theories
organic, slow development of “national” identity through a
common language, history and culture.
Sudden development in the 19th Century because of the idea of
the “nation-state”
“A nation-state is a sovereign POLITICAL entity… based on
representing a unified people”
Other Roots of Nationalism
The French Revolution and Napoleonic Civil Codes
provided the ideologies and bureaucracies to form a modern
nation-state.
Industrialization and liberal politics
Economic and Political Unity: German Zollverein
Invention by elites
How do you create consensus when trying to form a nation
state?

Liberalism
Rooted in the Enlightenment
in favor of legal equality before the law
religious toleration
freedom of the press
small government: limit the power of government against the
persons and property of individual citizens
governments get powers from the consent of the governed
Those who govern must represent the interests of the governed
Liberalism
Liberals do not believe in universal democracy
system of privilege based on wealth and property
Laissez-Faire Economics:
remove internal barriers to trade and to international commerce.
Corn Laws
opposed minimum wages and pro-labor legislation
Economic liberty provides basis for material progress.
Liberal Reform: The English Bill, 1832
Borough Reform
Redistribution of parliamentary seats: who gets what?
Franchise Reform

Urban, male, £10 freeholders
Key missing reform?
16
Reigns 1830-1848
Accepted symbols of a republic
Constitutional Charter of 1814
Red, white, and blue flag of the Revolution
“king of the French people”
Reality
Increased franchise from 100,000 to 170,000 citizens
Wealthy elite tighten control
Louis Philippe’s “Bourgeois Monarchy”
Revolutions of 1848: A Summary
Liberal, socialist, and nationalist ideals put into practice.
France
Austria
Prussia
growing nationalist ideas call for united Germany and Italy
Great Britain and Russia remained untouched
Why?
All the revolutions failed due to ideological confrontations
Divided revolutionaries fall prey to strong conservative
alliances

I’m asking that you write a 700-1000 word essay in response to
the following:
The Oxford English Dictionary defines modernity as “An
intellectual tendency or social perspective characterized by
departure from or repudiation of traditional ideas, doctrines,
and cultural values in favour of contemporary or radical values
and beliefs.”[1] Historians look at the French Revolution and
the Industrial Revolution as the “Dual Revolution,” the moment
the modern came into existence and when tradition began to be
challenged in many ways. New notions of government, liberty,
nationhood, cities, empire, social class, economics, and war
took center stage in public and political discussions. In the
exam, please answer the following: Describe how the French
Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and the creation of the
modern nation state led to significant ideological, political and
social developments in the Modern West. You should consider
the roles of different groups and people, such as social activists,
urban planners, political scientists, politicians, imperialists,
etc. In answering this question consider the reactions
represented by different ideologies: Romanticism, Socialism,
Nationalism, Liberalism, etc. Make sure you make clear to
which aspects of modernity different writers are reacting.
Primary sources you must consider, discuss and use direct
evidence from in your essay exam:
Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto
Mary Shelley, Frankenstein
Secondary Sources you must consider and use as background in
your exam:

B. A. Pavlac’s Supremacies and Diversities
Don’t use other sources except these
essay should have an introduction that helps your reader (me)
identify your response to the essay prompt. Think of the
introduction as a roadmap—it will tell me exactly what you plan
to talk about in your exam. Make sure you have a main thesis
statement—one sentence that describes what your essay will
argue about how people reacted to and experienced modernity in
the nineteenth century. Did they react well? Badly? In different
ways? Make that clear in your thesis.
Each part of your answer should follow in supporting
paragraphs. Each of these must have an easily identifiable topic
sentence that describes how the paragraph supports your main
point. Each paragraph should also provide evidence. Evidence
must be drawn from the primary sources listed above. For this
exam you must provide primary source evidence in the form of
paraphrasing AND direct quotations from Frankenstein, and
Communist Manifesto. Supporting, or secondary, evidence must
come from your textbook and lectures, (and from library
resources if you need them). That is how you’ll fill in the
chronology and background information.
Every time you use a piece of evidence, either in the form of
paraphrasing, summary, or direct quotation, you need to provide
me with a citation—a reference that indicates where you got the
information, who wrote that information, etc. A guide to proper
citations for history papers is available on Moodle. You must
use this guide as your write your exam. If you do not cite your
sources properly, you will receive no credit for that portion of
the exam.
Finally, your essay should have a conclusion. The point of a
conclusion is to summarize your main argument. It reminds the
reader of what your main point was and how you demonstrated
the correctness or viability of your argument. Just as the
introduction tells a reader where you’ll be going in the exam,

the conclusion should tell the reader where they’ve just been. It
can feel repetitive, but it is important for you as a writer to
reflect on what you’ve just accomplished, and it is important for
the reader to have a nice wrap-up of your argument.

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