Linguistics hanoi university

LINGUISTICS

Staff:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tung Thanh Nguyen
The Department of English
HCMC University of Education

March 2013

1. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
1.1 Segmental
Phonemes
Vowels
- Tongue height
- Frontness or backness
- Lip-rounding
Consonants
- Place of articulation
- Manner of articulation
- Voice
Allophones
1.2 Suprasegmental
- Syllable
- Stress
- Aspects of connected speech (rhythm, assimilation, elision, linking)
- Intonation

Sound system in English
Sound system (44)

Consonants (24) Vowels (20)

Monophthongs Diphthongs
(12) (8)
p b t d k g i: ɪ e æ ɪə eə ʊə
f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒh
ɜ: ə ʌ eɪ aɪ ɔɪ
tʃ dʒ
m n ŋ u: ʊ ɔ: ɒ ɑ: əʊ aʊ
l
w r j

Consonants
Chart of English consonant phonemes
Place of articulation
Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
dental (Post-
alveolar)
Plosive
p b t d kg
Fricative
f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ
h
Manner
of Affricate tʃ dʒ
articulation
Nasal
m n ŋ
Lateral
l
Approximant
w r j

(Roach, 1991, p. 62)

Fig. Bilabial articulation Fig. Alveolar articulation

Plosives or stops (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is
completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop is
then suddenly released; the air escapes with an
explosive sound.
Fricatives (/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/): The air passage is
narrowed at some point to such degree that the air
forcing its way past the obstruction produces audible
friction.
Affricates: (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the
release of the stop is immediately followed by the
corresponding fricative. Affricates are represented by
diagraphs (2 letters) in a phonetic transcription: the first
indicates the stop, the second the fricative glide after
stop.

Nasals (/m, n, ŋ/): The mouth is completely closed at
some point, but the soft palate is lowered so that the air
is free to flow out through the nose.
Lateral (/l/): The centre of the mouth passage is
obstructed by the tongue, but the air is free to pass round
both sides of the tongue. The soft palate is raised.
Semi-vowels or approximants: (/w, j, r/): They are
phonetically like vowels but phonologically like
consonants. From the phonetic point if view, the
articulation of /j/ is practically the same as that of a front
close vowel /i:/, but is very short. In the same way /w/ is
closely similar to /u:/.

Fig. Sub-divisions of the tongue

Fig. Tongue position for i: and æ

Vowels
front central back
high  i:  u:
 ʊ
ɪ
 ɔ:
mid 
e ɜ: ə
ʌ ɒ
 ɑ:
low æ
spread/unrounded rounded

1. English Front Vowels
Tongue position: It is only the front part of the tongue that is

raised or lowered to produce the front vowels.
Height of the tongue:

+ When the tongue is close to the palate and the air passage is
narrow: /i:/ and /ɪ/
+ When the tongue is very low and the air passage is very
wide: /æ/
+ When the tongue is half between its high and low
position: /e/
Shape of the lips: spread.

Length: /i:/ & /æ/ longer than /ɪ/ & /e/

Muscle tension: /i:/ & /æ/: tense; /ɪ/ & /e/: relaxed

2. English Central Vowels
 Tongue position: the middle part of the tongue is used.
 Height of the tongue: Mid position: /ɜ:/, /ə/ & /ʌ/
 Shape of the lips: unrounded

Length: /ɜ:/ long & /ə/ short

Muscle tension: /ɜ:/: tense; /ə/ & /ʌ/: relaxed

3. English Back Vowels
Tongue position: the back part of the tongue is raised or
lowered.
Height of the tongue:

+ Lowest position: /ɒ/ & /ɑ: /
+ Highest position: /ʊ/ & /u:/
+ Mid position: /ɔ:/

Shape of the lips: rounded for /ʊ/, /u:/, /ɔ:/

Length: /u:/ & /ɔ:/ longer than /ʊ/ & /ɒ/

Muscle tension: /u:/ & /ɔ:/: tense; /ʊ/ & /ɒ/:
relaxed

. Allophones
 Allophones are variants of phonemes that occur
in speech.
Reasons: the way a phoneme is pronounced is

conditioned by the sounds around it or by its
position in the word. For example: /t/
[th] tea
/t/ [to] stay
[ t̪ ] get there

RULES FOR ENGLISH CONSONANT ALLOPHONES

1. Initial voiceless stops are aspirated. [h]
pie [phai] tea [thi:] key [khi:]
2. Voiceless stops are unaspirated after /s/ at the
beginning of a syllable. [o]
stay [st˚ei] sky [sk˚ai] speak [sp˚i:k]
3. Stops are unexploded when they occur before
another stop. [o]
apt [æp˚t] rubbed [rʌb˚d] looked [luk˚t] stopped [stɔp˚t]

4. Approximants /w, r, j/ and the lateral /l/ are devoiced
.
when they occur after initial /p, t, k/. [o]
̥
play [plei] ̥
queen [kwi:n] ̥
twin [twi:n]
5. Voiceless stops become glottal stop plus voiceless
stops when they are syllable final and after a vowel.
tip /tiʔ/ kick /kiʔ/ pit /piʔ/
6. Voiced obstruents (stops and fricatives: /b, d, g, v, ʒ,
z/) are devoiced when they occur at the end of an
utterance or before a voiceless sound. [--o]
̥
improve /impru:v/ big /biɡ̥/ ̥
add two /ædtu:/

7. Voiced stops and affricate /b, d, g, dʒ/ are voiceless
.
when syllable initial, except when immediately
preceded by a voiced sound. [--o]
dog /d̥ɔɡ/ big dog
8. /n/ becomes syllabic [.] at the end of a word when
immediately after obstruents (stops + fricatives).
garden /̍ɡɑdn/
̩ ̍ ̩ ̍ ̩
listen /lisn/ reason /ri:zn/
Notes: /n/ does not become syllabic after /m, n, tʃ/
e.g. question /kwestʃən/ salmon /sæmən/
̍ ̍

9. The lateral /l/ becomes syllabic [.] at the end of a word
.
when immediately after a consonant.
̍ ̩
paddle [phædl] castle [khɑ:sl]
̍ ̩ noble [nəʊbl]
̍ ̩
Note: /l/ does not become syllabic after /dʒ/ and /tʃ/.
satchel [sætʃəl]
̍ angel [eindʒəl]
̍
10. Alveolars become dentalized [ ̪ ] before dentals.
eighth [eitθ] tenth [thenθ] wealth [welθ] get there [ɡetðeə]
̪ ̪ ̪ ̪
11. Velar stops become more front as the following vowel
in the same syllable becomes more front. [+ ] [+] [-] [-]
cat [khæt] get cook good

12. The lateral /l/ is velarized when after a vowel or
before a consonant at the end of a word. [ɫ ]
well [weɫ] dealt [di:ɫt]
13. Vowels become shorter before voiceless
consonants in the same syllable.
̌
neat [ni:t] pace get back
14. Vowels become nasalized before nasals [ ͂ ]
song [sɔ͂ŋ] ban [bæn]
͂

Syntagmatic relationship
pre- initial post- VOWEL pre- final post- post- post-
initial initial final final final final

1 2 3
ONSET CODA
pre- initial post- VOWEL pre- final post- post- post-
initial initial final final final final
1 2 3

‘fifths’ fɪ - f θ s -
‘prompts’ prɒ m p t s -
‘sixths’ sɪ - k s θ s
‘texts’ te - k s t s
(Roach, 1991, p. 72)

Topics in phonological contrastive studies:
According to Lado, three types of questions can
be asked about individual sounds compared
in isolation:
(1) Does the native language have a
phonologically similar phoneme?
(2) Are the variants of the phonemes similar in
both languages?
(3) Are the phonemes and their variants similarly
distributed?
(as cited in Krzeszowski, 1990, p. 52)

Aspects of connected speech

1. RHYTHM

English: stress-timed rhythm  stressed syllables
tend to occur at relatively regular intervals

1 2 3 4 5
Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca'nal

2. ASSIMILATION
 A significant difference in natural connected

speech is the way that sound belonging to one
word can cause changes in sounds belonging to
neighbouring words
 More likely to be found in rapid, casual speech

and less likely in slow, careful speech
 Assimilation of

(1) place of articulation
(2) manner of articulation
(3) voicing

1. Assimilation of place of articulation
 alveolar t becomes p before a bilabial consonant:

+ that person  ðæp
+ light blue  laɪp
+ meat pie  mi:p
 t becomes k before a velar consonant:

+ that case  ðæk
+ bright colour  braɪk
+ quite good  kwaɪk

2. Assimilation of manner of articulation
 A final plosive becomes a fricative or nasal:

+ that side  ðæs
+ good night  gʊn
 A word-initial ð follows a plosive or nasal at

the end of a preceding words:
+ in the ɪn ðə  ɪnnə
+ get them get ðəm  gettəm
+ read these ri:d ði:z  ri:ddi:z

3. Assimilation of voice
+ cats
+ jumps
+ Pat’s
+ dogs
+ runs
+ pams

3. ELISION
 Loss of weak vowel after p, t, k

+ potato, tomato, canary, perhaps, today
ph th kh ph th
 Weak vowel + n, l, or r becomes syllabic consonant

+ tonight tnaɪt, police pli:s, correct krekt
 Avoidance of complex consonant clusters

+ George the Sixth’s throne sɪksθrəʊn
In clusters of three plosives or two plosives plus a
fricative, the middle plosive may disappear:
+ acts æks; looked back lʊk bæk; scripts skrɪps
 Loss of final v in ‘of’ before consonants: lots of them,
waste of money
 Contractions of grammatical words

Questions
1. What are the criteria for classifying English
consonants? Give examples for illustration.
2. What is assimilation in the English language? State
the types of assimilation with examples for illustration.
3. What is the difference between the monophthongs and
diphthongs in the English language? Give examples for
illustration.
4. What is a phoneme? How many phonemes are there in
the English language? How many types are they often
divided into? Give examples of each type.

5. Write the English words represented in the
transcriptions below:
6. What is elision in English? Give examples.
7. State the differences between affricatives and
fricatives in English in terms of manner of production.
8. Copy these words to your test paper and mark their
stress(es).
Economically referee impact (noun) consecutive
opportunity obstacle hello legitimate circuit helicopter
9. What makes an English plosive different from an
English fricative? Give examples for illustration.
10. What are the criteria for classifying English vowels?
Give examples for illustration.

11. What is liaison in the English language? State the
types of liaison and give examples for illustration.
12. Give narrow transcription of the following sentence:
They demanded that the health-insurance negotiation
start on Tuesday.
13. What does “manner of articulation” refer to?
Describe in brief the manner of articulation in producing
stops and affricates. Give one or two examples of each.
14. State the functions of intonation in English.
15. What is the difference between the voiced and
voiceless consonants in the English language? Give your
examples for illustration.

16. Give the phonetic transcription of the following
sentence: Mrs. Margaret and her husband are leaving for
Hong Kong tomorrow.
They have seen that interesting film for years.
17. Define the patterns of simplification in informal
spoken English. Give two examples of each.
18. What does a “distinctive feature” refer to? What is
the distinctive feature between the two sounds /p/ and /b/
in English?
19. What is the difference between fortis and lenis
consonants in English? Give examples.

20. What often happens to the voiceless alveolar stop /t/
when it is followed by the nasal sound /n/? Give two
examples of the phenomenon.
21. There are two mistakes in the following sentence
which gives the definition of a diphthong. Copy the
sentence to your test paper, circle and correct the
mistakes.
A diphthong is a pure vowel sound consisting of one
vowel elements, pronounced so as to form a single
syllable.
23. What is a minimal pair in English? Give at least 3
examples for illustration.

1. What are the criteria for classifying English
consonants? Give examples for illustration.

Criteria:

1. Voicing

2. Manner of articulation

3. Place of articulation

1. Voicing

Voiceless p t k f θ s ʃ tʃ h
Voiced b d v ð z ʒ dʒ m n ŋ w r j l

g

2. Manner of articulation

1 Plosives/stops: 6 p b t d k g
2 Fricatives: 9 fvθðszʃ ʒh
3 Affricates tʃ dʒ
4 Nasals mnŋ
5 Lateral l
6 Semi-vowels / wjr
approximants

3. Place of articulation
1 Bilabial p b m w
2 Labio-dental f v
3 Interdental θ ð
4 Alveolar t d s z n l
5 Alveo-palatal ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ
6 Palatal j
7 Velar k g ŋ
8 Glottal h

2. What is assimilation in the English language? State
the types of assimilation with examples for illustration.

Definition:
Assimilation may be defined as a phonetic
process in which one speech sound is changed to
become resemble or identical with a
neighbouring soud.
Examples: news /z/ but in newspaper /s/
butter /t/  /d/

There are three types of assimilation:
1. Assimilation of place
2. Assimilation of manner
Two words are combined; the first ends with a
single consonant (Cf); the second starts with a
consonant (Ci ).
Cf Ci
Regressive assimilation: Cf is affected by Ci
Progressive assimilation: Ci is affected by Cf

Examples:
1. length /ŋ/  /n/
2. congress /n/  /ŋ/
3. that person /t/  /p/
4. quite good /t/  /k/
5. this shoe /s/  /ʃ /
6. those years /z/  / ʒ /

Examples:
1. length /ŋ/  /n/ (velar  alveolar)
2. congress /n/  /ŋ/ (alveolar  velar)
3. that person /t/  /p/ (alveolar  bilabial)
4. quite good /t/  /k/ (alveolar  velar)
5. this shoe /s/  /ʃ / (alveolar  palato-alveolar)
6. those years /z/  / ʒ / (alveolar  palato-alveolar

Examples
1. that side /t/  /s/
2. good night /d/  /n/
3. in the /ð/  / n/
4. get them /ð/  /t/
5. read these /ð/  /d/

Assimilation of manner is much less noticeable
and is only found in the most rapid speech.
Examples
1. that side /t/  /s/ (plosive  fricative)
2. good night /d/  /n/ (plosive  nasal)
3. in the /ð/  / n/ (fricative  nasal)
4. get them /ð/  /t/ (fricative  plosive)
5. read these /ð/  /d/ (fricative  plosive)

Assimilation of voice is found but only in a
limited way. Regressive assimilation is found
across word boundary.
Examples
news /z/ newspaper /s/
north /θ/ northern /ð/
have /v/ have to /f/
it /t/ It is /d/
good /d/ Good girl /g/

word/ without assimilation trigger type of change
combination assimilation
(Lancashire) alveolar plosive
[hɒt|pɒt] [hɒppɒt] bilabial plosive
hotpot ⇒ bilabial plosive
alveolar fricative
palato-alveolar
apprenticeship [əpɹɛntɪs|ʃɪp] [əpɹɛntɪʃʃɪp] ⇒ palato-alveolar
fricative
fricative
alveolar plosive
good bye [gʊd|baɪ] [gəbbaɪ] bilabial plosive
⇒ bilabial plosive

alveolar plosive
good point [gʊd|pɔɪnt] [gəbpɔɪnt] bilabial plosive
⇒ bilabial plosive

alveolar plosive
good night [gʊd|naɪt] [gənnaɪt] alveolar nasal
⇒ alveolar nasal

alveolar nasal ⇒
ten points [tɛn|pɔɪnts] [tɛmpɔɪnts] bilabial plosive
bilabial nasal

alveolar nasal ⇒
thin coat [θɪn|kəʊt] [θɪŋkəʊt] velar plosive
velar nasal
labio-dental
give me [gɪv|miː] [gɪmmi] bilabial nasal fricative ⇒
bilabial nasal

http://www9.english.cityu.edu.hk/martin_weisser/phonetics/connect/assimilation.html

3. What is the difference between the monophthongs
and diphthongs in the English language? Give examples
for illustration.
A diphthong is a combination of two vowels
produced within one syllable. The first element is
stronger and much longer than the second
element, so the loudness of the sound decreases.

4. What is a phoneme? How many phonemes are there
in the English language? How many types are they often
divided into? Give examples of each type.

Definition:
The phoneme is the smallest segment of speech
sound that can make a difference in meaning
among forms.
/sɪn/ and /sɪŋ/
/n/ and /ŋ/ contrast in the same emvironment, so /n/
and /ŋ/ are two different phonemes.

5. Write the English words represented in the
transcriptions below:

1.
a. /kɜ:nəl/ b. /sɜ:fɪs/ c. /pɜ:pəs/
d. /saɪkaɪətrɪ/ e. /prəʊtəkɒl/ f. /ʌvn/
g. /nɒkaʊt/ h. /lepəd/
2.
a. /medsn/ b. /weɪ/ c. /gædʒɪt/
d. /leʒə/ e. /nɒb/ f. /lɔ:fl/
g. / wɔ:/ h. /eksɪt/

6. What is elision in English? Give examples.

Elision means under circumstances in speaking
sounds disappear. Phonologically speaking, in
certain circumstances a phoneme may be realised
as zero, or have zero realisation, or be deleted.
Elision is typical of rapid, casual speech.
So, elision is the omission or slurring over of a
vowel or a consonant when we are speaking
quickly.

Possibilities of elision:
1. Loss of weak vowels // or // after /p/, /t/, /k/
potato /phtheɪthəʊ/
perhaps /phhæps/
tomorrow /thmɒrəʊ/
today /thdeɪ/
canary /khneərɪ/
2. Weak vowel + /n/, /l/, or /r/ becomes a syllabic
consonant
tonight /thnaɪt/
police /phlɪs/
correct /khrekt/

3. Avoidance of complex consonant clusters
George the Sixth’s throne/ks θr/
acts /ks/
looked back /k b/
scripts /ps/
4. Loss of /v/ and /l/ before consonants
lots of them /ts ə(v)/
waste of money /t ə(v)/
all right /ɔ: (l) r/
5. In contractions
I had  I’d It is  It’s She has  She’s
do not  don’t We are we’re

word/combination no elision elision
asked [ɑːskt] [ɑːst]
lecture [ˈlɛktʃə] [ˈlɛkʃə]
desktop [ˈdɛskˌtɒp] [ˈdɛsˌtɒp]
hard disk [ˌhɑː dˈdɪsk] [ˌhɑːˈdɪsk]
kept quiet [ˌkɛptˈkwaɪət] [ˌkɛpˈkwaɪət]
kept calling [ˌkɛptˈkoːlɪŋ] [ˌkɛpˈkoːlɪŋ]
kept talking [ˌkɛptˈtoːkɪŋ] [ˌkɛpˈtoːkɪŋ]
at least twice [əˌtliːstˈtwaɪs] [əˌtliːsˈtwaɪs]
straight towards [ˌstɹeɪtˈtʊwoːdz] [ˌstɹeɪˈtəwoːdz]
next to [ˈnɛkstˌtʊ] [ˈnɛksˌtə]

want to [ˈwɒn t ˌtʊ] [ˈwɒnˌtə] or [ˈwɒnə]

seemed not to notice [ˈsiːmdˌnɒttəˈnəʊtɪs] [ˈsiːmˌnɒtəˈnəʊtɪs]

for the first time [foːðəˌfɜːstˈtaɪm] [fəðəˌfɜːsˈtaɪm]

http://www9.english.cityu.edu.hk/martin_weisser/phonetics/connect/elision.html

7. State the differences between affricatives and
fricatives in English in terms of manner of production.

Affricates (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the release
of the stop is immediately followed by the corresponding
fricative (the fricative formed at the same place in the
mouth as the stop). Affricates are represented by diagraphs
(2 letters) in a phonetic transcription; the first indicates the
stop, the second the fricative glide after the stop)

narrowed at some point to such degree that the air forcing
its way past the obstruction produces audible friction.

8. Copy these words to your test paper and mark their
stress(es).

Economically referee impact (noun) consecutive
opportunity obstacle hello legitimate circuit helicopter

9. What makes an English plosive different from an
English fricative? Give examples for illustration.

Plosives or stops (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is
completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop
is then suddenly released; the air escapes with an
explosive sound.

narrowed at some point to such degree that the air
forcing its way past the obstruction produces audible
friction.

10. What are the criteria for classifying English vowels?
Give examples for illustration.

Vowels may be classified according to the
following principles:
1. Positions of the tongue
2. The height of the tongue
3. Lip positions
4. The length of the sounds
5. Muscle tension

11. What is liaison in the English language? State the
types of liaison and give examples for illustration.

Definition:
Liaison or linking is the linking of the final
sound of a word with the initial sound of the
following word for the convenience of speaking.

There are two types of liaison:
1. Link consonant with vowel
2. Link vowel with vowel

1. Link consonant with vowel
1.1 The words ending in /p, t, k, b, d, g/ and
followed by a word beginning with a vowel:
Drop it in this box.
A big umbrella
Red and white
1.2 Link /f, v, s, z, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, θ/ to a vowel
following them
I want to move into a flat with my friend.
The bus is coming.

2. Link vowel with vowel
2.1 Introduce /r/ between two vowels
Here is Formula A Papa isn’t here
2.2 Link the words ending in /ɪ/ or /i:/ to a vowel
following by using the sound /j/
Very interesting Mary and I are
2.3 Link the words ending in /ʊ/ or /u:/ to a
vowel following by using the sound /w/ b/c it is
the closest consonant to /u:/
I couldn’t do it Who is it?
It’s difficult to do it.

12. Give narrow transcription of the following sentence:

They demanded that the health-insurance
negotiation start on Tuesday.

13. What does “manner of articulation” refer to?
Describe in brief the manner of articulation in
producing stops and affricates. Give one or two
examples of each.

Stops or plosives (/p, b, t, d, k, g/): The air passage is
completely closed (or stopped). The closure or stop is then
suddenly released; the air escapes with an explosive sound.
Affricates (/tʃ, dʒ/): A kind of plosive in which the release
of the stop is immediately followed by the corresponding
fricative (the fricative formed at the same place in the
mouth as the stop). Affricates are represented by diagraphs
(2 letters) in a phonetic transcription; the first indicates the
stop, the second the fricative glide after the stop)

14. State the functions of intonation in English.

Definition:
The primary function of intonation is to convey
the meaning and attitude of the speaker
Forms in intonation:
Five tones:
Falling 
Rising 
Falling-rising 
Rising-falling  
Level

Falling tone: It gives the feeling of ‘finality’ of
the end of the sentence or of ‘definiteness.
Rising tone: This tone conveys an impression that
something more is to follow or invitation to
continue.
Falling-rising tone: The tone is used to describe
as ‘limited agreement’ or ‘response with
reservation’.
Rising-falling: used in alternative questions
Level tone: It conveys the feeling of saying
something routine, uninteresting, or boring.

Falling
1. Statement or declarative sentence
This is the end of the news.
Have you seen Jane? - No.
2. Command
Go to your room.
3. Wh-questions
Who’s your friend?
4. Tag-question:
Doctor Boyle is very good, isn’t he? (The
speaker is certain and expects the other person to agree.)
5. Correcting:
- Her birthday is on the tenth of December.
- No, it’s on the fifth of December.

Rising
1. Yes-no question in statement form: He’s gone?
2. Yes-no question in question form: Is it over?
3. ‘More to follow’: I phoned them right away (and
they agreed to come).
4. Encouraging: It won’t hurt.
5. Listing: What time are the busses?
7 o’clock, seven thirty and eight
6. Impatient: Why not get a car?
7. Echo question: The speaker repeat sth said by another
person while he thinks what to reply.
- Have you got any postcards?
-Postcards? Yes, they are in the drawers with
the envelopes

Falling-rising
1. Uncertainty or doubt:
You may be right. –Really?
2. Requesting:
Can I borrow your car?
3. Reservation:
Will the children go?
4. Polite phrases:
Excuse me?
5. Correcting:
- Our English teacher is Jay Frazer.
- No. It isn’t Jay Frazer. It’s May Frazer.

Rising-falling
1. In alternative questions:
He’s a teacher of Mathematics or Physics?
2. To convey rather strong feelings of approval,
disapproval or surprise:
- You wouldn’t do an awful thing like that, would
you?
- No.

15. What is the difference between the voiced and
voiceless consonants in the English language? Give
your examples for illustration.
Consonants are:
Voiced: when the vocal words are brought

together and voicing begins
Voiceless: the vocal words are separated and

voicing ceases.

Voiceless p t k f θ s ʃ tʃ h
Voiced b d v ð s ʒ dʒ m n ŋ w r j l

g

16. Give the phonetic transcription of the following
sentences:
1. They have seen that interesting film for years.
2. Mrs. Margaret and her husband are leaving for Hong
Kong tomorrow.

17. Define the patterns of simplification in informal
spoken English. Give two examples of each.

18. What does a “distinctive feature” refer to?
What is the distinctive feature between the two
sounds /p/ and /b/ in English?

Distinctive feature between the two sounds /p/
and /b/ in English: voice

19. What is the difference between fortis and lenis
consonants in English? Give examples.
Labio- Dental Alveola Alveo- Glottal
dental r palatal
Fortis f θ s ʃ h
(voiceles)
Lenis v ð z ʒ
(voiced)
With the exception of the glottal, each place of articulation
has a pair of phonemes; one is fortis, and one lenis.
The fortis fricatives are said to be articulated with greater
force than the lenis, and their friction noise is louder.
The fortis fricatives have the effect of shortening a
preceding vowel as do fortis plosives

20. What often happens to the voiceless alveolar stop /t/
when it is followed by the nasal sound /n/? Give two
examples of the phenomenon.

The voiceless alveolar stop becomes a glottal
stop (or glottalized) when it is followed by the
nasal sound /n/
beaten
fatten /fæʔn/ /t/ becomes /ʔ/ before /n/
kitten
button
mitten

23. What is a minimal pair? Give two examples for
illustration.

A minimal pair is a pair of two forms that are
identical in every way except for one sound
segment that occurs at the same place in the
sequence.
laugh /lɑ:f/calf /kɑ:f/
it /ɪt/ eat / i:t/
mink /mɪŋk sink /sɪŋk/
tan /tæn/ pan /pæn/

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