2. Learning Objectives
2
Define power
Describe the five bases of power
Examine dependency in power relationships
Learn the importance of political perspective
Discuss political behavior in organizations
Review impression management techniques
Defensive Behavior
3. Definition of Power
3
Power refers to a capacity that Ahas to
influence the behavior of B so that B does
something he or she would not do otherwise
10. Politics:
Power in Action
Definition of Importance
Political of a Political
Power Perspective
10
11. Political Behavior
11
Political Behavior in organizations as tho s e
a c tivitie s tha t a re no t re q uire d a s p a rt o f o ne ’ s
fo rm a l ro le in the o rg a niz a tio n, but influe nc e ,
o r a tte m p t to influe nc e , the d is tributio n o f
a d va nta g e s a nd d is a d va nta g e s within the
o rg a niz a tio n
12. Factors Contributing to
Political Behavior
12
Individual Factors
• High self-monitors.
• Internal Locus of control.
• High Match personality.
• Organizational investment.
• Perceived job Alternatives.
• Expectations of success.
13. Factors Contributing to Political
13
Behavior
Organizational Factors
• Reallocation of resource.
• Promotion opportunities.
• Low trust.
• Role ambiguity.
• Unclear Performance evaluation system.
• Zero-sum reward practices.
• Democratic decision making.
• High performance pressure.
14. 14
The process by which individuals attempt to
control the impression others form of them.
John French and Bertram Raven proposed five sources of power. Coercive power depends on fear. One reacts to this type of power out of fear of the negative results that might occur if one failed to comply. It rests on the application (or the threat) of physical sanctions. Reward power is the opposite of coercive power. People comply because doing so produces benefits; anyone who can distribute rewards that others value will have power over them. Legitimate power represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward, because it includes acceptance of a person’s authority by members of the organization. Expert power is influence wielded as a result of experience, special skill, or knowledge. Expertise has become a strong source of influence as the world has become more technologically oriented. As jobs become more specialized, we become more dependent on “experts.” Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or admirable personal traits. It develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. If you admire someone enough to model your behavior and attitudes after him or her, that person has power over you.
Political power in organizations can be defined as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization but that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization . This definition encompasses key elements of what most people mean when they talk about organizational politics, and it includes the following behaviors: withholding key information from decision makers, whistle-blowing, filing grievances, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information about the organization to the media, exchanging favors with others for mutual benefit, and lobbying for or against a decision. It would be nice if all organizations or groups were supportive, harmonious, trusting, collaborative, or cooperative; but the reality is that organizations and groups are political systems. A political perspective can help to explain why some employees withhold information, restrict output, attempt to “build empires,” publicize their successes, hide their failures, distort performance figures, and engage in similar activities which seem to be at odds with the organization’s desire for efficiency and effectiveness.
Researchers have identified certain personality characteristics, needs, and other individual factors that are related to political behavior. Those who are authoritarian, have a high risk-propensity, or possess an external locus of control act politically with less regard for the organizational consequences. A high need for power, autonomy, security, or status is also a major contributor to an employee’s tendency to engage in political behavior.
Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create opportunities for political activities to be nurtured. The less trust there is within an organization, the higher the level of politics. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. If this is the case, there will be few limits to the scope and functions of the political actions of employees. When evaluation systems are ambiguous, political activity is likely. The more that organizations use subjective criteria during the appraisal process, allow significant time to pass between an activity and its appraisal, or emphasize a single outcome measure, the greater the likelihood of political behavior. A zero-sum or a “win-lose” approach to resource allocation promotes politicking. For several decades, there has been a move in North America toward making organizations less autocratic. Managers, therefore, are being asked to behave more democratically. For many mangers, democratic decision making conflicts with their desire for power. So they may use teams, committees, and meetings as arenas for maneuvering and manipulating. Holding employees strictly accountable for outcomes puts pressure on them to “look good.” The more pressure they feel to perform well, the more likely they are to engage in politicking. When employees see the people “on top” engaging in political behavior, especially when they do so successfully and obtain rewards, a climate is created that supports politicking.
Impression management is a process in which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. Individuals use seven verbal-presentation behaviors to manipulate information about themselves. Self-descriptions are statements made by a person to describe such personal characteristics as traits, abilities, feelings, opinions, and personal lives. Conformity is agreeing with the opinion of someone else in order to gain his or her approval. Accounts are excuses, justifications, or other explanations of an event which are aimed at minimizing the severity of the predicament. Apologies are used to admit responsibility for an event while seeking to get a pardon for the action. Acclaiming is used to explain favorable events in such a way as to maximize their desirable implications. Flattery is used to compliment others about their virtues in an effort to make oneself appear likable and perceptive. People do favors for others in the hopes of gaining their approval.
