The document discusses word structure and formation. It analyzes morphemes like roots, affixes, and word classes. Various prefixes and suffixes are classified according to their meanings and functions in deriving new words from root morphemes. Examples are provided to illustrate different types of word formation through affixation.

1. Lecture II: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
I. Word structure
Morpheme
Root M Affixal M( bound )
free M bound M gram/functional M derivational M
boy terrible
table terror (inflections) prefix infix suffix
terrorize girl open unkind salesman kindly
include girls opens mislead fisherman leader
exclude sportsman
conclude washerwoman
doomsday
Word
Simple Derived Compound
(R) ( R+A ) ( R+R )
heart hearty sweetheart
II. Word formation
AFFIXATION
1. Prefixation
Classification of prefixes:
Prefixes Meaning Examples
un-, dis- negative unhappy .unlucky, uneven;dishonest, disunion,
non-, il- disaffection; non-stop, non-party, nonsense
im-, in-, illiterate, illegal, illogical; impossible, improper
ir- inactive, inaccurate, incapable; irregular
irrational, irresponsible.
un-, dis-, reversal, unlock,undo,unpack;disagree,disappear,
de-, re- repetition decentralize, demobilize, decontaminate; rewrite
anti-, opposite, review, retell; antiwar, antiaircraft, antithesis
counter- meaning counter-attack,counter-weight,counter- revolution
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2. anti-,ante relationship antechamber, anticipate; ex-president, ex- champion
ex- fore-, in time, ex-manager; foresee, forecast, forefront
pre-, pre-historic,pre-war, precondition; postwar
post- post-graduate, postposition;
up-, sub- place upstairs, upgrade, uplift; subdivision, submarine,
trans- subtitle; transplant, transatlantic, transcontinental
inter-, manner international, interlace, interrelation, extraordinary
extra-, extramural, extranuclear, withstand, withdraw
with-, co- co-exist, cooperate, co-chairman; endanger
en-, em- enable, enclose, embed, empower, emplacement;
super-, degree superman, supernatural, supersonic;
over-, overflow, overcoat, oversleep; outweigh,
out", outcast, out-distance; undergrowth,
under-, underestimate, undersized; ultraviolet,
ultra ultramodern, ultraradical; polysyllabic,
poly-,bi- quantity polysemantic; bicycle, bilateral,
dis-,duo- dissyllable; duodecimal, duologue,
,mono- state monologue, monosyllabic, monolingual.
a-, evaluation awake, afresh, anew, aloud, alike, alone,
mis- afar, misunderstand, mislead, misbehave
+ Productive and non-productive prefixes
Non-productive a- : arise, apathy, anonymous; amphi-( on,both): amphitheatre,
amphibious; ab-(from, away): abnormal, abstain; ad-(to, toward): admit, admonish; ante-
anti-: antechamber, anticipate; con-, co-(with, together): confrontation, cooperate; de-
( down, away): decrease, depart; dis-, di-: disyllable, diphthong; duo- : duodecimal; en-,
em- (in, make) :enact, encircle, embark, embargo; fore-: forearm, foretell;
forth-:forthcoming, forthright; in-: inmate, insight; on-, (onset, onslaught), per-
(thoroughly): perfect, persuade; poly-: polysyllable, polyglot; re-: retract, return; with-
withstand, withdraw
+ Living (still in use) and dead (out of use) prefixes
Dead prefixes : a- :aware, awaken, ashamed; circum-(around): circumstance,
circumference; op- (against): opposite, oppress
VII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases
(a) a pseudonym : the name that ab author/writer uses instead of their real name
( bí danh , bút danh) Tip : nym~name
(b) arch-rivals: the highest-ranking rivals (đại kình địch)
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3. (c) maladministration : inefficient administration ( quản lý yếu kém , k hiệu quả)
(d) out-size clothes: extra-large clothes (XL) ( quần áo ngoại cỡ)
(e) malnutrition : poor nutrition ( suy dinh dưỡng)
(f) pseudo-religious:pretending to be religious ( giả danh/ lợi dụng tôn giáo)
(g) an arch-villain : ???
(h) to outstay your welcome: stay somewhere too long so that people want you to
leave
VIII. a- (not, without) hyper- (extremely, too) fore- (before, in front of) neo- (new,
revived)
(a) The British Museum was built in the middle of the last century in the neo-classical
style popular at that time  tân cổ điển
(b) Who can ………..tell what the future holds for us?
(c) It's no use asking him about the political system or the parties. He didn’t know or care.
He's completely apolitical ( không quan tâm chính trị , k đảng phái)
(d) It's quite normal to complain if you think something is wrong, but I do feel that you
are sometimes ……….critical.
(e) The authorities are concerned at the activities of a small ………-Nazi movement.
(f) You must be very careful what you say about her poems. She's a…….sensitive person.
(g) She didn’t know the difference between right and wrong She had no conscience of all.
She was simply ……….moral
(h) The police claimed that she had some ……….knowledge of the murder attempt and
could have prevented it
(i) He was standing in the middle, in the ……….ground of the picture.
(j) Young children can sometimes be ………..active, which means that they can’t keep
still.
IX Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) neo-imperialism : the modern form of imperialism ( CNĐG kiểu mới)
(b) an atheist: s.o who believe that God doesn’t exist ( vô thần)
(c) a foretaste : indication of what is to happen in the future
(d) a hypermarket : extremely large supermarket like Melinh Plaza
(e) hypertension : very high blood pressure ( chứng vô cùng cao huyết áp)
(f) a foregone conclusion : a conclusion which was known/expected before
(g) an asymmetrical shape : not symetrical/ irregular shape ( bất đối xứng)
(h) a neo-Fascist: the modern/new form of Facist or s.o who support this form.
X uni-, mono- (one) duo-, bi- (two) tri- (three) quad-, quart- (four) pent-, quin- (five)
sex- (six) sept- (seven) oct- (eight) non- (nine) dec- (ten) cent- (hundred)
Complete the words in the passage below
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4. George Willis was born in 1900 and was too young to go into uniform in the First World
War, which took place in the second decade of the century. Instead he finished his
schooling and went to university. Like most Oxford colleges, his college was built round
a quadrangle and a photograph of him there shows him wearing a monoglass in his eye,
one of his many eccentricities-điểm lập dị. He rode a tricycle, declaring it to be safer and
more stable than a bicycle. His subject was zoology. Initially he studied biology, but soon
tired of two-legged creatures and took an interest in quad…….., developing a special
affection for elephants. However, all animal life fascinated him and he was often to be
seen in the Oxfordshire countryside, observing wildlife through his bi…….. or setting up
his tripod to record it in photographs. Marine creatures also attracted him, especially, for
some reason, the octopus . He was also creative in such diverse fields as engineering (he
proposed a scheme for monorail transport in London) and music (he formed a jazz
sextet , which later became a quintet when the drummer joined the navy, a quartet when
the violinist was run over by a bus and a tritet when the trombonist was imprisoned for
bigamy). He travelled widely and spoke French so well that he was completely bilingual.
He was a fine sportsman and won many prizes in the pentagon. In 1972, although by this
time a septuagenarian, he wrote his first play, a strange piece which consisted of a
dueloge between Shakespeare and Churchill. He is still active and talkative, although
conversations with him tend to be monolog. He talks and others listen. Always optimistic,
he looks forward to continuing his busy
lite as a nonagenarian and to becoming a centuagenarian. He lives with his wife, a
lively octagenarian, and has two sons and a daughter, whose birth as tri in 1927 he
describes as the happiest event in his eventful life.
Bigamy /ˈbɪg.ə.mi/
the crime of marrying a person while already legally married to someone else
Ex: In court, he admitted that he had committed bigamy.
Compare:
Monogamy
Polygamy
XI Explain the meanings of the following words.
(a) bicentenary: a 200 anniversary of an event
(b) pentagon (c) centenary
(d) tricolour: flag with 3 colors ( cờ tam tài)
(e) monotonous (f) decathlon (g) sexagenarian (h) quintuplets
(i) bisect: cut, divided into 2 parts
(j) cent: a hundredth of a dollar
(k) biplane: aircraft with 2 pair of wings
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5. (l) bicameral: lưỡng viện ( House of Lords : thượng viện vs House of Commons : hạ
viện - UK)
In US : +
+
+
King-maker state : bang lập vua
Swing state : bang dao động
(i) unicycle: cycle decided with 1 wheel (n) quadruplets (o) unicorn
Practice:
Decide which following statement are T or F. If T, give an example. If F, give an
explaination
1.The morpheme realization “er” is a derivational morpheme but some cases it is
not simply derivational.  T
( Hình vị được thể hiện / được nhận ra bằng er là hình vị phái sinh nhưng trong nhiều
trường hợp k đơn giản chỉ là hình vị phái sinh)
Example :
+villager  grammar morpheme (person living in a certain place)
Or fast-faster
+washerman  derivational morpheme ( infix –trung tố)
2.The morpheme realization “s” is a derivational morpheme but some cases it is not
simply derivational  T
Completely similar to the 1st statement
Example :
+girls
+salesman , sportsman , spokesman ( người phát ngôn) , statesman/stateswoman ( nhà
chính khách, chuyên gia có uy tín lớn của 1 tổ chức )
3.All root morphemes occur in isolation and function as independent words  F
Root morpheme is divided into 2 types : free morpheme and bound morpheme. A free
morpheme like boy, table could be a independent word but bound morphemes like ‘ter’ in
terrible,terror, terrify could not stand on its own.
4.Affixial morpheme is the lexical centre of the word  F
Root morpheme is the lexical centre of the word , affixial morpheme just modifies for
root morpheme
2. Suffixation
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6. Classification of suffixes :
a. According to the parts of speech
+ Noun-forming suffixes
-age (state,place,progress,collectiveness) :village,blockage;
-al,-ial (act) :refusal,burial;
-ance,-ence (act, state, quality, condition)assistance, appearance, existence, audience;
-an,-ian (agent, follower, resident) :republican, guardian, Cambodian;
-ant,-ent (agent) :assistant, student;
-ancy,-ency (state): vacancy, emergency;
-ard (depreciatory) :drunkard, coward;
-ate (agent, function) :advocate, magistrate;
-asm,-ast (state, condition, agent) :enthusiasm, enthusiast;
-cy (state, condition, office) :bankruptcy, agency;
-dom (state, condition, collectiveness) :freedom, kingdom;
-er,-or(agent, instrument, resident) :teacher, cooker, villager, visitor;
-ee,-ey,-y (receiver/object/result of action) :employee, attomey, inquiry;
-eer (person,profession) :pioneer, engineer;
-ess (feminine) :actress, tigress;
-eur (person) : amateur;
-hood (state, condition) :childhood, neighbourhood;
-ice (act, quality, condition) :service, justice;
-ics (art, study, science) :phonetics, linguistics;
-ie,-y (diminutive) :birdie, granny
-ier (agent) -.cashier,
-ing (art, fact, activity) : learning, feeling;
-ion,-tion (condition, state, result, act) :tension, organization, discussion;
-ism,-ist (doctrine, theory, system, result, follower, specialist) :socialism, scientist;
-ity (state) :clarity, similarity;
-let (small, young) :booklet, piglet;
-ling (diminutive) :seedling, duckling;
-ment (act, state, progress, result, manner) :statement, agreement, improvement;
-mony (state, condition, result) :lestimony, ceremony;
-ness (state, quality, condition, degree) goodness, darkness, seriousness;
-ology (study, system) :biology, psychology;
-or,-our (condition, quality) :error, favour;
-ry (state, condition, collectiveness) :machinery .poetry;
-ship(state, condition, quality, office, profession) :friendship, citizenship;
-ster (agent, depreciatory) :youngster, gangster;
-th (state, quality) strength, length;
-tude (state, quality) :latitude, attitude;
-ty (quality, state, condition) : liberty, poverty;
-ure (act, process, state, result, rank) :pleasure, pressure;
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7. +adjective- forming suffixes
-able, -ible (capable of, characterised by quality) :fashionable, possible;
-al, -ar, -ic, -ile (capable of, of the nature of, belonging to) :global, classical, circular,
popular; necessary, secondary; domestic, historic; mobile, infantile;
"an, -ean (originated from, belonging to) :Roman, European;
-ent ,-ant (quality) :independent, different;important,distant;
-ese (resident) :Vietnamese, Chinese;
-fold (having a specified number of): twofold, tenfold;
-ish (having a small degree of like) :reddish, foolish;
-vie (related to, causing) :active, effective;
-less (without, lacking, unable) :useless, harmless;
-ful (full of, characterised by): hopeful, careful;
-like (resembling) :businesslike, comradelike;
-ly (quality, character):friendly, womanly, lovely, lively, silly, sickly, motherly,
cowardly, costly;
-ous (causing, characterised by) :glorious, dangerous;
-some (causing, tending to) :troublesome, lonesome;
-ward (in the direction of) :sideward, northward;
-y( characterised by) :mighty, needy, hearty, lofty;
+ Numeral-forming suffixes
-teen (fifteen), -th (fourth), -ty (sixty)
+ Verb -forming suffixes
-ate (facilitate), -fy (horrify), -en (brighten), -ize (specialize),
vaccinate simplify darken legalize
liberate classify shorten fertilize
+ Adverb -forming suffixes
-ly (coldly), -ward (s) (upward (s), -wise (likewise), -long (sidelong), -way(s) (crossways)
headlong
b. According to the lexico-grammatical meaning
+ Abstract nouns : -age, - ance, - ence, -ancy, -ency, -ation, -doom, -cy, -hood, -ing,
-ion, -tion, -ism, -ice, -merit, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty
+ Personal nouns: -ant,-an, -ian, -ee, -ent, -er, -ier, -ist, -ey,eer
+ Feminine nouns: actress, heroine, suffragette, testatrix
+ Derogatory suffixes: drunkard, underling, gangster, simpleton
+ Diminutive suffixes: auntie, hanky, chicken, booklet
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8. c. Productive and non-productive suffixes:
Non-productive: -ade, -age, -ance, -ant, -ar, -ard, -ate, -cy, -dom, -en, -eer, -ese, - ence,
-ean, -fy, -hood, -ier, -ics, -me, -ic, -ian, -ice, -ive, -long, -ly, -ment, -or, -ster,
-th, -tude, -ward(s), -wise, -y
+ Living and dead suffixes :
Dead suffixes : -t (flight, height), -d (deed), -lock (wedlock)
d. Polysemantic suffixes (a great number)
-er: doer of the action : speaker, player, teacher
person living in a certain place: villager, Londoner
device, tool or instrument: eraser, cooker, boiler, starter, screwdriver
-y : characterized by : windy, rainy
full of, composed of: watery, muddy, sandy, starry
intimate : daddy, mummy, dolly
resembling : bushy, inky, rosy
-ment: state, quality, condition: amazement
action: arrangement
process, manner, government, development
continuance:
Exercises on suffixes
I. Deduce the meaning of the following derivatives from the meanings of their
constituents. Explain your deduction. What are the meanings of the affixes in the
words under examination?
reddish, a. ………………………………………………………………………..
overwrite, v. ……………………………………………………………………..
irregular, a………………………………………………………………………...
illegal, a…………………………………………………………………………..
retype,v. ………………………………………………………………………….
old-womanish, a. …………………………………………………………………
disrespectable, a. …………………………………………………………………
inexpensive, a. …………………………………………………………………..
unladylike, a. …………………………………………………………………….
disorganise, v…………………………………………………………………….
renew, v. ………………………………………………………………………….
eatable, a. ………………………………………………………………………..
overdress, v. ……………………………………………………………………...
disaffection, n…………………………………………………………………….
snobbish, a……………………………………………………………………….
handful, n. …………………………………………………………… …………
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9. tallish, a…………………………………………………………………………..
sandy, a. …………………………………………………………………………
breakable, a………………………………………………………………………
II. Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced from
the same root by means of different affixes. Translate the words into Vietnamese.
watery - waterish, ……………………………………………………………
embarrassed - embarrassing. …………………………………………………
manly- mannish, ……………………………………………………………
colorful - colored, ……………………………………………………………
distressed - distressing, ………………………………………………………
respected-respectful-respectable………………………………………………
exhausting- exhausted, ………………………………………………………
bored -boring, ………………………………………………………………..
touchy - touched - touching. …………………………………………………
III -phobia (fear or hatred of) -cide (killer, killing) -gamy (marriage)
Put each of the above suffixes in its correct place in the sentences below.
(a) Those rose-bushes need protection. Spray them with insecti……. .
(b) He gets very tense and nervous in enclosed spaces like lifts and the underground. He
suffers from claustro……. .
(c) The custom of having more than one wife or husband is known as ‘poly……’
(d) Some people, and some animals, are terrified of water. This aversion is known as
aqua……. .
(e) His problems overwhelmed him and he finally comitted sui…… .
(f) When he was arrested and charged with bi…….., both his wives stood by him.
(g) His Anglo……. comes from some bad experiences he had in England.
(h) Following the man's death, his wife was charged with homi……. .
IV Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) germicide (d) a monogamous society
(b) xenophobia (e) tratricide
(c) patricide (f) agoraphobia
V -maniac (obsessed person) -phile (lover of) -monger (dealer in)
Instructions as above.
(a) A person who makes and exploits war is called a war…….. .
(b) He has always been a biblio……… and has amassed a vast collection of books over
the years.
(c) He has a shop selling pots and pans, tools and other metal goods.He's an iron…. .
(d) He's unbelievably self-centred and arrogant. He's a complete ego…….. .
(e) She loved the year she spent in Italy and has been an Italo…….. ever since.
(f) Some journalists are perfectly honest and well-meaning but she just makes a profit
from gossip and rumour. She’s just a cheap scandal.…….. .
9

10. (g) A klepto……. is a person who has a compulsive desire to steal.
(h) His fondness for drink became an addiction, and his doctor says he's now a
dipso……… .
VI Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases
(a) a pyromaniac (d) an Anglophile
(b)Francophilia (e) a mania
(a) a fishmonger (f) a film maniac
VII -worthy (deserving, fit for) -like (similar to) -most (furthest)
(a) To me, at 14, the film-stars I saw at my local cinema were god…….. creatures. (b)
John O'Groats in Scotland is the northern…….. town in mainland Britain.
(c) We are pleased to present you with this award for your praise……. work among the
poor of this city.
(d) In the old days it was not considered lady……… for a woman to smoke in public, if
at all.
(e) Architecture during that period was very boring. Almost every building was a box-___
structure, with no variation or decoration to please the eye.
(f) We're looking for an honest, reliable, trust........ person to handle our legal affairs.
(g) He betrayed the inner……. secrets of his country's government to the enemy.
(h) A small accident like that won't appear in the papers. It isn't news……. enough.
VIII Explain the meanings of the following phrases.
(a) a business-like manner (d) a noteworthy comment
(b) his foremost thought (e) a life-like statue
(c) a roadworthy car (f) outermost defences
IX -wards(in the direction of) -esque (like, in the manner of) -some (causing, making)
(a) I have a backache which is a bit trouble………. at times.
(b) He cast his eyes heaven……….. as if imploring God for help or pity.
(c) It's very pictur……… here, with the trees attractively framing the view of the river.
(d) From Colombia we went south…….. through Equador, Peru and Bolivia to Argentina.
(e) Man's first view of the earth from space was an awe…… sight.
(f) The back garden faces sea……. so you can always be sure of a pleasant view.
(g) I'm afraid I find her constant chatter gets a bit weari.......... after a while.
(h) The architecture here is rather Roman……. . Look at the round arches and thick
walls.
X Explain the meanings of the following phrases
(a) quarrelsome boys (d) a downward movement
(b) outwardly confident (e) a tiresome person
(c) a statuesque figure (f) a Kafkaesque novel
XI -scape (scenery) -scope (means of observing) -ette, -let, -ling (small)
(a) Even the most powerful tele…….. does not make the smallest stars visible.
(b) I watched a drop…… of rain move slowly down the window.
(c) His most famous sea…. was painted in 1879 and hangs in the National Gallery.
(d) A gos…….. is a young goose.
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11. (e) The award takes the form of a silver statu……. of the Greek god, Adonis.
(f) The first television picture of the hitherto mysterious moon……. was the most
dramatic sight I have ever seen.
(g) His home is in the country and he's wondering if he can afford to buy a flat…. in
London too.
(h) The crew of a submarine just below the surface can see what is happening above by
looking through the peri…… .
(i) Travelling by car, you have the chance to stop in the countryside to admire the
land……… .
XII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) a microscopic insect (d) a kitchenette
(b) a piglet (e) a marvellous cloudscape
(c) a duckling (f) a booklet
XIII -ist
Make sentences by connecting each person on the left below with the correct phrase on
the right.
(a) An ornihologist …….speaks many languages.
(b) A philatelist ……performs post-mortems on dead bodies.
(c) A feminist ……is interested in birds.
(d) A numismatist ……writes plays.
(e) A philanthropist ……sets fire to property.
(f) A pathologist ……is interested in stamps
(g) A linguist ……stuffs dead animals.
(h) A dramatist ……is interested in coins,
(i) A seismologist ……believes in equal rights for women,
(j) A manicurist ……hates women.
(k) A pharmacist ……is an expert on China.
(l) A meteorologist ……gives targe amounts of money to charity.
(m) An arsonist ……is an expert on earthquakes
(n) A taxidermist ……makes up medicines.
(o) A misogynist ……looks after people's feet.
(p) A somnambulist ……looks after people's hands and fingernails.
(q) A Sinologist ……is a handwriting expert.
(r) A chiropodist ……studies the weather.
(s) A graphologist ……walks in his or her sleep.
III. WORD COMPOSITION
1. Definition :
A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components
of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound
words, one of which has inflections.
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12. e.g.(n) blackboards, store-keepers, mothers-in-law, passers-by
(v) handwash, handwashes, handwashing, handwashed
(adj) heart-breaking, heart-broken, middle-aged, first-rate
(adv) meantime, midway, wherever
(pr) somebody, anything, whoeve
2. Criteria
a. Phonological criterion
+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first component
e.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, to 'whitewash, to'bottlefeed, "snub- nosed,
'forget-me-not, 'mothers-in-law, 'passer-by, 'dancing-girl
cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl
e.g. A : Look at that beautiful dancing 'girl.
B : She's a well-known 'dancing-girl.
If you don't drive the 'bluebottle away, I will throw the blue 'bottle on your face .
+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)
eg. 'good'egg, 'bread-and-' butter, 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born,
"self-'control, 'All- 'Fools- 'Day, 'passenger 'train, 'merry-go- 'round.
+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaning
e.g. 'over-work (viÖc lµm thªm), 'over-'work (viÖc qu¸ søc)
'bookcase (tñ/gi¸ s¸ch), 'book'case (b×a bäc s¸ch)
,man'kind (loµi ngêi), 'mankind (nam giíi, ®µn «ng)
b. Criterion of the structural integrity
Compounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words . Endings are
added to the whole word.
e.g. black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist, blacklegs, red-tape, fair- haired
c. Criterion of semantic integrity
The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is
not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.
e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)
fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)
slow-coach (person who thinks and acts slowly)
chatterbox (person who talks a great deal without saying anything important)
blue-stocking woman (woman who affects literary tastes and learning)
lip-service (superficial service from the lips only)
lip-reading (interpretation of the motion of the lips)
lipstick (a stick of cosmetics for redding the lips)
d. Graphic (spelling) criterion
A compound can be spelt in three ways : with a hyphen between two components, with
break and without break.
e.g. air-line, air line, airline
match-box, match box, matchbox
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13. Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).
e.g. statesman, handicraft, savings-bank, goods-train, Anglo-Saxon
3. Classification
a. Structural classification
+ According to the structure of the immediate components
- simple stems : handbag, film-star
- derived stems : skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager
- abbreviated stems : maths -teacher, H-bomb, X-ray
- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket
- v + adv : break-down, cut-back
+ According to the part of speech
- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown
- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged
- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet- bomb, to streamline
- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently
- compound prepositions : onto, into, hereafter
+ According to the type of composition
- compounds formed by juxtaposition : backache, heart-broken, railroad
- compounds formed by morphological means (with an infix}: spokesman, Affo- Asian,
speedometer.
- compounds formed by syntactical means:
(word group —> compound ): up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry
- compounds formed by morphological and syntactical means :
kind-hearted : with a kind heart
blue-eyed : with blue eyes
teenager : a person in his teens
+ According to the relation between components
- Coordinative components (both are independent) :socio- economical, brainmaster,
mother-earth, parent-teacher
- Subordinative components (one component dominates over the other): wrist-watch,
gate-keeper, spaceship.
b. Semantic classification
+ Non-idiomatic (morphologically motivated): The meaning of the whole can deduced
from the meanings of the components : door-handle, headache, rose-bush, life-boat,
bedroom, sunlight.
+ Idiomatic (non-motivated): no semantic relation between components:
nightmare, lotus-eater, lip-service, eyewash, horse-sense, monkey-business.
c. Phonetic classification:
They are reduplicative compounds which fall into three subgroups :
13

14. + reduplicative compounds proper: hush-hush, pooh-pooh, murmur, quack-quack, puff-
puff, fifty-fifty.
+ ablaut combinations: the second basic morpheme is repeated with a different vowel:
sing-song, chit-chat, ding-dong, ping-pong, zip-zag, tip-top.
+ rhyme combinations: two pseudo- morphemes is joined to rhyme : walkie-talkie, willy-
nilly, hotch-potch, hurry-scurry, lovey-dovey.
How to make Compound words
A compound word is formed by the juxtaposition of two or more words together to make a new
one.
1. Compound nouns
a) Noun and noun b) adjective and noun
Horse-race sweetheart
Race-horse gentleman
Football midnight
Moonlight quicksilver
c) Verb and nouns d) Gerund and noun
Tell-tale looking-glass
Pickpocket dotting -paper
Stopcock reading -clamp
Railroad writing- table
e) Participle and noun. f) Verb and adverb.
Singing-bird drawback
Running-hand keepsake
Flying-machine send-off
Moving-pictures go-between
g) Adverb and verb h)preposition(or adverb) and noun
Income afternoon
Outcome forethought
Upstart upland
Offshoot inside
i,Several words together
forget-me-not
note-of-hand
stick-in-the-mud
2. Compound adjectives
a) Noun and adjective b) noun and present participle
Sky- blue money-making
Homesick man-eating
Airtight heart-rending
14

15. c) Noun and past participle d)noun and imitation of past participle
Hand-made earth-coloured
Heart-broken lion-hearted
Horse-drawn long-tongued
e) Adjective and adjective f) adjective and present participle
Ready-made ill-smelling
Red-hot sweet-smelling
High-born dull-looking
g) Adjective and past participle h) adjective and imitation of past participle
Ill-bred old-fashioned
Ill-gotten quick-eared
White-washed slow-witted
i) Adverb and present participle j) adverb and past participle
Hard-working out-spoken
Long-suffering well-worn
Ever-lasting well-known
k) Several words together
Up-to-date Up-to-the-minute Well-to-do
Hole-and-glove Hand-to-hand
3. Compound verbs
a) Noun and verb b) adjective and verb
Waylay whitewash
Typewrite safeguard
Henpeck dry-clean
c) Adverb and verb d) verb and adverb
Upset turn over
Backslide put on
Overhear switch off
4. Compound adverbs
a) Adjective and noun b) adverb and position
Midway herein
Otherwise therefore
Meantime hereabout
c) Noun and noun
sidewards Lengthways Clockwise
IV. SHORTENING
A very productive way of word building used in colloquial speech, documents and
advertisements.
15

16. Types of shortening:
1. Abbreviation
a. Acronyms: words built from the initials of components
+ Monograms:
UK: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
GB: Great Britain
USA: The United States of America
UNO: United Nations Organization
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Emergency Fund
UNFPA: United Nations Fund for Population Activities
ESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
WHO/OMS: World Health Organization/ Organization Mondiale de la Sante'
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
TV: television
VIP: very important person
MP: Member of Parliament, Military Police, Mounted Police
GNP: gross national product
GDP: gross domestic product
SOS: Save our souls
POW: prisoner of war
MIA; missing -in-action
GPO: General Post Office
GIs, GI's: government issues, US soldiers
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
VOA: Voice of America
RAF: Royal Air Force
USAF; United States Air Force
SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
F: Fahrenheit
C: Celsius, centigrade
41BC: the year 41 before Christ
AD185: (L. Anno Domini) in the year 185 of the Christian era
H: hydrogen
O: oxygen
Cl: Chlorine
Na: (L. natrium) sodium
etc.: etcetera; and so on
i.e.: (L. id est) that is (to say)
eg. (L. exempli gratia) for example
ibid. ( L. ibidem) in the same book, chapter, page, etc. quoted before
16

17. op.cit. (L. opere citato) in the work cited
et al. (L. et alii) and others
viz. (L. videlicet) that is, namely
Nos. : numbers
c/o: care of
v/vs: versus
w/o: without
am: (L. ante meridiem) before noon
pm: (L. post meridiem) after noon
h: hour
min: minute
sec:second
ml: millilitre
kg: kilogramme
cc: cubic centimetre; chapters
pp: pages, past participle
ll: lines
ff: following (pages, lines, etc.)
nn: notes
cf: compare
R.S.V.P./ r.s.v.p.: (Fr. Reppondez s'il vous plait) please reply
COD/c.o.d.: cash on delivery
f.o.b.: free on board
Co.: company
Corp.: corporation
Inc. included, including, incorporated
Ltd.: limited fax (facsimile)
BA: Bachelor of Arts
BSc: Bachelor of Science
MA: Master of Arts
MSc: Master of Science
Litt.B.: Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Literature
MBA's: Master of Business Administration
Ph.D.: Doctor of Philosophy
MFA: Master of Fine Arts
FDR: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) 32nd US President.
JFK: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) 35th US President.
I.O.U: I owe you
Jeep: general purpose car
Radar: radio detection and ranging
Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Sonar: sound navigation and ranging
17

18. Scuba: self-contained under-water breathing apparatus
+ Homonymy-based acronyms: I.O.U
b. Clipping
+initial: car (motor car), plane (air plane), phone (telephone), bus(omnibus) drome
(airdrome).
+ final: exam(examination), lab(laboratory), prof (professor), doc(document), ad
(advertisement), ref(reference, referee, refund, reformer),vet (veteran, veterinarian),pop
popular), prefab(prefabricated building materials), fig (figures, figurative), fan(fanatic),
veg (vegetarian), gym(gymnastics), bull(bulletin), str(street), sec(second), h(hour),
min(minute), Co(Company), Corp(Corporation), Inc.(Incorporated) , incl(included,
inclusive), repoff (representative office), Lat(Latin), Gr(Greek), BrE(British English),
AmE(American English); Jan(January), Feb(February), Nov (November) ;
Hon(Honorable), Rev. (Reverend), rev.(revenue)Sen-(Senator, senior), Jr.(junior), Esq.
(Esquire)
+ inito-final: fridge( refrigerator), flu(influenza), tec(detective).
+medial: maths(mathematics), specs(spectacles), V-day(Victory Day), H-bomb(Hydrogen
bomb), fancy(fantacy), Mr.(Mister), Mrs., Mmes. Ms.(Messrs, Messieurs), Dr(Doctor),
St(Saint), Rd(Road), ma'am(madam), sec'y(secretary), ass'n (association), dep't
(department), agcy(agency), ltd.(limited)
+ elliptic-conversational: sit-down(demonstration), pop(popular music),
perm(permanent wave, prelim(preliminary examination), coed(coeducational school or
college), pram(perambulator), demob(demobilization).
2. Blending: parts of two words merge into a new word: brunch (breakfast + lunch),
smog( smoke+fog), telecast(tele-broadcast), medicare ( medical care),telex (telegramme
express), motel (motorists' hotel), transreceiver (transmitter-receiver), fruice (fruit juice)
V. CONVERSION
Process of coining a new word in a different part of speech without adding any element
(zero derivation). Reason : lack of affixes
Types of conversion :
1. Substantivation of adjectives : (adj n) and verbs ( v n)
- a native , a female, a relative, a daily, elastic, a private, an intellectual, a criminal, a
conservative, a radical, a red, a grown-up.
- the blind, the rich, the happy, the good.
- a go, a find, black-out, take-over, a stand, a must, a walk, a move.
18

19. 2. Adjectivization of nouns (n adj)
a silver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife.
3. Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj v)
to hand, water, land, pocket, arm, elbow, silence, skin, bottle, railroad, honeymoon,
rubber-stamp, machine-gun, head, eye, finger, fish, shoulder, better, black, up, down,
lower, narrow, clear, clean, cool, quiet
4. Adverbalization of adjectives (adj adv)
fast ,long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead
5. Partial conversion
to have a look/ talk/ smoke/ swim/ wash/ chat/ drink/ sleep/ dance/ rest
to give a ring/kick/ blow/ cry/ laugh/ whistle/jerk/jump/start/ answer
to take a ride / walk/ the lead
to make a move/dive/request/suggestion/ attempt/agreement
6. Individual coinage in conversation
'Hello, dear!' He hello-deared everybody.
I'm tired of his 'hello-dear'.
VI. SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE
1. Sound interchange
food-feed, speak-speech, life-live, advice-advise, bath-bathe, belief-believe, proof-prove,
loss-lose; long-length, wide-width, deep-depth, strong-strength, full- fill, sing-song, high-
height.
2. Stress interchange
'accent(n) ac'cent(v) 'frequent(adj) fre'quent(v)
'conduct con'duct 'absent ab'sent
'decrease de'crease 'perfect per'fect
'object ob'ject 'concrete con'crete
However, many disyllable verbs and nouns have the same stress :
- on the first syllable : exile, figure, preface, quarrel, focus, process, program, triumph,
rivet, etc...
- on the second syllable : accord, account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt,
concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research, etc...
VII. SOUND IMITATION (onomatopoeia / echoism)
- Sound and movement of water : babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash, etc...
- Sound and movement of things :bang, boom, bump, clash, crash, clink, hum, rattle,
rustle, smack, thud, tinkle, whack, whick, whip, etc...
19

20. - Sound expressing human feelings : babble, chatter, coe, jabber, giggle, grumble, grunt,
hum, murmur, mutter, smack, whine, whisper, titter, etc...
Sound produced by animals, birds, insects:
bee-buzz, hum tiger-roar wild goose-honk
frog - croak dog- bark, woof cock- crow
crow-croak cat-mew, purr hen-cackle
snake-hiss mouse-squeak cow/ox-moo
bird-twitter, chirp pig-squeak, grunt buffalo-snort
wolf- howl duck - quack horse- neigh
lion- roar goose- honk mosquitoes-buzz
monkey-jabber
VIII. BACK FORMATION/ BACK DERIVATION:
Building of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affix from the existing word:
beggar to beg house-breaking to house-break
baby-sister to baby-sit house-keeping to house-keep
editor to edit tape-recorder to tape-record
escalator to escalate trouble-shooter to trouble-shoot
brainwashing to brainwash window-shopping to window-shop
air-conditioner to air-condition
More exercises on word formation
I. Rewrite the following sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlined
words.
1. Then entered a man with a pale face
2. She has just bought a pair of gloves knitted by hand
3. He went hunting but returned with his hand empty
4. They have just invented a material proof against fire
5. The man was proved to be a murderer thirsty for blood
6. He behaves like a man with a mind of a child
7. The crow was stricken with panic by the storm
8. She felt sick from the sea travel as she was on the voyage for the first time
9. The southern off shore waters were found rich of oil
10. Their teacher was a man with kind heart
11. She was wearing shoes with high heels
12. This coat in expensive because it is proof against bullet
13. He only works part of the time
20

21. 14. This is a piece of work that consumes a lot of time.
15. Suddenly appeared a beautiful girl with curly hair.
II. Explain the meaning of the underlined words.
1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly.
2. An aggressive man battled his way to Stout's side
3. How on earth do you remember to milk the cows ?
4. Restaurants in all large cities have their ups and downs.
5. Ten minutes later I was speeding along in the direction of Cape Town
6. "A man could be very happy in a home like this if he didn't have to poison his
days with work,"said Jimmy.
7. The desk clerk handed me the key.
8, The upshot seemed to be that I was left to face life with the sum of $ 124
9, My seat was in the middle of the row .I couldn't leave without inconveniencing a
great many people , so I remained.
10, Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish
which his waiter had brought.
III. Replace the underlined words by one word.
1. He was nominated to be at the head of the army.
2. She wanted to be a star in a new film
3. They decided to lay the resolution on the table
4. They put up prices as inflation increased.
5. She turned a cold shoulder on him.
Word Forms
Fill each space in the sentences below with the correct form of the word in bold print
above it.
E.g. decide
(a) We must come to a …….. very soon.
(b) We beat them ……….. . We won 7-0.
(c) He can never make up his mind. He's very ……….
Answers: (a) decision (b) decisively (c) indecisive
1 beauty
(a) She is very ………….
(b) She's training to be a ………….
(c) They're going to…………… the town with more trees and parks.
2 pay
(a) To buy this car I made a monthly ………….of $280 for two years.
(b) Please make your cheque ………….. to John Watson.
(c) The person a cheque is made out to is called the …………..
21

22. 3 receive
(a) She works as a ………… at a hotel in Scotland.
(b)' Ask for a ………………when you buy something, in case you need to return it.
(c) I made several suggestions to improve production, but the management was not very
……………… to my ideas.
4 hero
(a) He received a medal for his ………………..
(b) They fought …………. in the war.
(c) She was described as a……………..
5 produce
(a) …………… of the new sports car has been halted by a strike.
(b) China is one of the world's leading …………….. of rice.
(c) I'm afraid the talks were totally…… . We didn't reach agreement on anything.
6 explain
(a) An …………….. leaflet is given to all purchasers of the machine.
(b) His disappearance is very strange, in fact quite …………………. .
(c) I think you owe me an ……………….. for your behaviour.
7 compare
(a) This is ……………… better than that. In fact, there is really no……………….. .
(b) Scientists have made ………………. tests on the new drugs.
8 advise
(a) Until the situation has settled down, it is ………………… to travel to that country.
(b) The government set up an ……………… body on 'he upc of drugs in sport.
(c) I doubt the …………of drinking alcohol while undergoing that medical treatment.
9 admire
a) She was a pleasant, attractive girl, always surrounded by ………………...
(h) I am full of ……………… for what she has achieved.
(c) I approves of him wholeheartedly. He is an ………………… man.
10 stable
(a) To ……………… the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight.
(b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings. It was
a time of great …………………… .
(c) The exchange rate is going up and down dramatically. It's very …… at the moment.
11 economy
(a) We're spending too much. We must …………………...
(b) This car uses a lot of petrol. It's terribly ……………………..
(c) The Chancellor (Minister of Finance) is responsible for ………………….. affairs.
22

23. 12 reside
(a) Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official ……………………. in London.
(b) There's no industry or entertainment here. It's a …………………….. district.
(c) All ………………….. of the neighbouring houses were warned of the gas leak.
13 comfort
(a) In that tense situation I found the good news very ………………………
(b) I felt rather ……., so I put a soft cushion behind me.
(c) She sat in terrible ………………….. on the hard chair for over an hour
14 dead
(a) The increasing number of ….. in traffic accidents is alarming.
(b) Be careful! That's a ………….. poison!
(c) The doctor gave him an injection to ………….. the pain.
15 demonstrate
(a) The ………………… marched through the streets chanting slogans
(b) Grandfather rarely showed the affection he felt for his family. He was a very
…………………. person.
(c) What you say is ……………….. false. Let me show you the facts.
16 imitate
(a) The bag is made of …………………. leather.
(b) Small children are very …………… in their behaviour. They just copy what they see.
(c) His acting style is …………………. No one can copy him.
17 argue
(a) She had an ……………….. with her husband last night.
(b) He's s very bad-tempered, ……………………. chap. He's always quarrelling
(c) She is ……………….. the finest pianist in the world.
18 repeat
(a) He lost his temper and used disgusting, ………………… language.
(b) In this essay you've said the same thing several times. It's very ………………….
(c) I hope there will be no …………….. of this shocking behaviour.
19 fall
(a) She is very efficient and ………polite to the customers.
(b) He considered himself a……….. He had succeeded in nothing.
(c) It was difficult to see much in the ……………….. light.
20 courage
(a) His friends tried to ………………… him from attempting the dangerous climb.
(b) She ………………… stood in the way of the escaping robbers.
(c) His parents gave him a lot of …………………… in his studies.
21 real
23

24. (a) I think it's a bit ……………….. to hope that world peace can be gained so easily.
(b) He spends all his time in romantic daydreams. He's lost touch with ……………….
(c) Ladies and gentlemen, I am a ……………. and I think we must face facts.
22 false
(a) She was accused of ………………….. the financial accounts.
(b) It is a ………………. to say he did it when you know he didn’t.
(c) The ………………….. of his argument was obvious to everyone.
23 prophesy
(a) I am not a ___ and I would not like to make a …………. on whether the world can
survive this age of nuclear weapons.
(b) What he wrote in 1930 was ………… . Much of what he described has come true.
24 describe
(a) The damage caused by the earthquake cannot be imagined. It was ………………...
(b) The teacher asked them to write a ………… passage about their home towns.
(c) The witness was able to give a full ………………….. of the wanted man.
25 friend
(a) The ………………… between the two soon developed into love.
(b) In London she was ……………………by a rich woman who looked after her and
helped her.
(c) The desert is a dangerous, ……………………. place.
26 sense
(a) He felt a strange, painful …………………… in his back.
(b) Even the most …………………… person ought to appreciate the beauty of this
music.
(c) What an idiotic, ……………………. thing to do!
27 famous
(a) The ………………….. of the Beatles soon spread outside Britain.
(b) The day of the massacre will go down in history as a terrible, ……………. day. It was
a day of …………………………….
28 defend
(a) I just want to ask you a few ordinary questions, so why don't you relax? Why are you
so ……………………?
(b) The government's policy on arms is shocking. It is quite …………..
(c) We must do all we can for the ……………….. of this nation against possible attack
29 agree
(a) What an unpleasant, ………… old woman she is!
(b) We finally reached ………………….. on the matter at midnight.
(c) I liked the place. I found the people, the weather and the food very …………..
24

25. 30 possess
(a) In his will he left all his money and ………………….. to his wife.
(b) She was a very ……………… mother. She gave her son very little freedom.
(c) The actor playing the main part should be the ………………. of a very good voice,
good looks and a very strong physique.
31 different
(a) I'm afraid I have to …………………. . I don't agree with you at all.
(b) Politeness is one thing. Real kindness is another. You must learn to ………….
between the two.
(c) We get along pretty well, although of course we have our ……………….. from time
to tine.
32 active
(a) The firm maintained that the strike was organized by a group of political …………...
(b) The fire-prevention system is ……………… by any small increase in temperature.
(c) It is quite safe to go near the volcano. It has been ……………… for years.
33 form
(a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ………..
years.
(b) The slight ……….. in his left hand was corrected by surgery.
(c) The police are considering the ……………….. of a new anti-drugs unit.
34 compel
(a) Military service is no longer .............. in Britain
(b) Membership of the Students' Club is entirely voluntary. There is no …………
whatsoever.
(c) All staff should attend the meeting. Only the most ……… reasons for absence will be
accepted.
35 enthusiasm
(a) They threw themselves ………… into the new project
(b) He's a real golf …………… . He loves the game
(cj They didn't really ………… over my idea. In fact there was some opposition.
36 create
(a) lan Fleming, the ………... of James Bond, died in 1964.
(b) Although she is very able technically, she isn't …… enough forthis kind of work.
(c) The ………... of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization took place in1949.
37 necessary
(a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………….a reduction in our work
force.
(b) I sympathize with his point of view, but I don't always…… agree with him,
25

26. (c) He lives very simply, with just the basic ........ of life,
38 destroy
(a) The control centre is deep underground and completely ……….except by a direct hit
from a nuclear missile.
(b) War plans include the immediate ………….... of all enemy military bases.
(c) His criticism of my work was entirely ………... There was nothing useful or
constructive in it at all.
39 manage
(a) Talks between workers and ……………… have broken down and a strike now seems
unavoidable.
(b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him …………………..
(c) To improve his qualifications he's taking a course in …………………. skills.
40 believe
(a) It was an incredible story, quite …………………...
(b) She is a person of very strong religious ………………………...
(c) His explanation was obviously false and the judge made no attempt to hide his …….
CONVERSION
1. Explain the meanings of the underlined nouns
1. He is a liberal. 2. He is such a dear. 3. We are all equals. 4. You needn't go into
particulars of the case. 5. There are two large stands for paper in the room . 6. It was
always a must with him. 7. The night watch rushed to his help. 8. She couldn't turn the
switch. 9. The station is half-an-hour's walk from our house. 10. You are still worrying
yourself with stupid ifs and wheres.
2. Express the following in one word :
to become/make quiet to become/ make dull to become pale
to make empty to make tame
3. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs:
1- He cleaned the suit. 2. The bright light blinded him. 3. The trees began to thin out. 4.
Their methods were bettered. 5. She busied herself with papers.
4. Express the following in one word :
1. to strike with a hammer ; 2. to stir with a spoon ; 3. to fasten something with buttons 4.
to mark with a brand; 5. to cover something with sand.
5. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs :
26

27. a. to anger one's mother; to chair a meeting; to book a passenger; to elbow one's way; to
head a delegation
b. She upped and threw a teapot at him. He upped and awayed to London. 3. He had
never outed before. 4. They downed the tools. 5. The boy downed his drink.
6. Form partial conversion with the following verbs, using the verbs 'to have', 'to take',
"to give', 'to make'
to smile ........................ to drink ...............................
to kiss............................... to attempt.............................
to breathe ....................... to sleep .…………………..
to advice .......................... to request…………………
to support...................... to suggest…………………
Lecture III: SEMASIOLOGY (SEMANTICS)
Semasiology (Gr. semasia-signification + sema-sign) a branch of language study dealing
with the word meaning, esp. lexical meaning only.
I. Type of meaning
Word meaning
Gram.meaning Lexical meaning
functional words notional words
Lexical meaning
27

28. Denotational connotational
(denote) (how to denote)
abstract things concrete things
significative demonstrative
beauty table
emotion: daddy-fathers
speaker's evaluation: clique-group
intensity: adore-love
social stylistic colouring:
sphere lay-kill
semantic structure
Monosemantic words polysemantic words
( few ) (majority )
primary/direct/ secondary/indirect/
literal meaning derived/transferred
figurative meaning
(no context) (in context/combined with other words)
head head
table table
e.g. He's the head of the army.
He did his best to keep the table amused.
Motivation of words
Motivation
28

29. (direct relationship)
Morphological M. Phonetical M. Semantic M.
(morph. structure+ (phonetic structures + (direct/literal meanings+
meaning) meaning) indirect/ figurative meaning)
teacher bang the foot of the mountain
aircraft carrier tick-tack the head of a page
(easily guess the mew the heart of the matter
word's meaning) (imitate the sound) (figurative meaning)
II. POLYSEMY
1. Polysemy and Context
Context: - environment which helps us to understand the meaning of a word.
- the minimal stretch of speech that determines each meaning of a word.
Context
linguistic non- linguistic
(situational)
lexical grammatical
eg.+ Grammatical context (syntactical structure)
I couldn't make him understand a word I said.
Yesterday I gave her a ring and asked her to go out with me.
She went to visit her aunt in late summer.
+ Lexical context (polysemy)
black thoughts/despair (sad, dismal)
black days/period (unhappy, full of hardships)
yellow look/mood/feelings (jealous, envious, suspicious)
the yellow press (unscrupulously sensational)
+ Non- linguistic context (actual situation)
Polysemy exists only in language, not in speech. A word can only have one meaning in
speech.
eg. to set has 126 meanings in maximum
I won't set my foot in his house.
You must set your name to this document.
The machine was set in motion.
29

30. They set the value of this picture at a sum of USD 20,000.
2. Types of polysemy:
a. Radial polysemy: all the transferred meanings are formed on the basis of one
literal/direct meaning.
eg: table
2 1. a thin flat piece of stone/metal/wood with four legs
2. part of a machine tool, on which the work is operated
3<— 1 —> 5 3. a level area, a plateau
4. the persons seated at a table
4 He made the whole table roar with laughter
eg. table 5. the food on a table
b. Chain polysemy: the second meaning is formed on the basis of the first, the third on the
basis of the second, and so on.
eg. head 1 2 3
1. part of the body; 2. a human being; 3. a leader/chief
There is semantic relation between different meanings (lit + fig) of a word.
III. HOMONYMY
1. Definition
Homonyms (Gr. homes (similar) + onoma (name)): words identical in pronunciation
and/or spelling, but different in meaning. They are not connected semantically (They have
no semantic relation). They are quite different words.
eg. He ran fast (quickly)
They stand fast. (firmly)
Who feasts till he is sick, must fast till he is well. (go without food) (proverb)
A clean fast is better than a dirty breakfast (proverb)
2. Types of homonyms
Homonyms are classified into:
a- according to form:
+ Full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling. They
are of the same part of speech.
e.g. ball: a round object used in games.
ball: gathering of people for dancing
seal: a sea animal
seal: a design printed on paper by means of a stamp.
+ Partial homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and/or spelling. They are
homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms. They may be
found both within the same part of speech and in different parts of speech.
eg. to found - (he) found
pail (n) - pale (adj)
30

31. lie, lied, lied lie, lay, lain lay, laid, laid
b. according to meaning:
+ Lexical homonyms: words of the same part of speech, but of different meanings and
there is no semantic relation between them.
eg. match: que diªm; trËn ®Êu
board: tÊm v¸n, boong tµu, ñy ban
spring: mïa xu©n, suèi, lß so
+ Grammatical homonyms: words of different parts of speech .
eg. work (n) - work (v) asked (simple past) - asked (PII)
brothers - brother's light (n) - light (adj)
From a different angle, homonyms are classified into:
+ Homophones: words identical in pronunciation, but different or coincidental in spelling.
eg. son - sun air - heir night - knight
ear - ear not - knot buy - by - bye
race - race piece - peace write - right - rite
+ Homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation.
eg. tear/ti∂/ - tear /te∂/ bow /b∂u/ - bow / bau/
wind/wind/ - wind/waind/ lead /li:d/ - lead / led /
3. Discrimination between polysemy and homonymy
In some cases it is rather difficult to tell polysemantic words from homonyms.
Different criteria of discrimination can be used.
a. Semantic criterion: connection between meanings
Homonyms Polysemantic words
game: trß ch¬i, cuéc thi ®Êu hand: part of body
game: thó s¨n help
skill
pointer of a clock
b. Derivational criterion: homonyms have their own derivation.
eg. air - aircraft, airfield, airline
air (suggestive appearance) - no derivatives
to have an air of importance
to put on airs
to put on an air of innocence
c. Criterion of synonyms: homonyms have different synonyms.
eg. bay (n) - syn. gulf
bay (n) syn. barking
d. Criterion of combination: homonyms have different valency (combination ability) or
different paradigms.
eg. game, games: trß ch¬i, thi ®Êu long(adj)- longer, longest
game: thó s¨n long (v)- longed, longing
31

32. IV. SYNONYMY
1. Definition
Synonyms are words (two or more) of the same part of speech, similar in their
denotational meaning, but different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational
meaning and combinability.
eg. to help, to aid, to assist to succour
main, chief, principal
Usually in such a synonymic group, there is a synonymic dominant which is the most
general, neutral word.
English vocabulary is extremely rich in synonyms, mainly due to the abundant amount of
borrowings- There are about 8,000 synonymic groups in English.
2. Types of synonyms
+ Absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings.
They are few in number. This is a result of borrowing and territorial synonyms.
eg. Br E - team (in a football match) Am E - squad
luggage baggage
autumn fall
lift elevator
flat apartment
+ Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaning
eg. beautiful, pretty, good-looking, nice, lovely, fair
to ask, to beg, to entreat, to ask, to question, to interrogate
+ Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive
value, expressiveness.
eg. policeman - bobby (colloq.) - cop (sl)
father - dad (colloq.) - daddy (colloq., emotional)
man - fellow, chap (colloq), lad
to begin - to commence (lit., official)
- Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notions or
processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire not to hurt other people's
feelings.
eg. to die - to pass away, to depart this life/world
dead - late, deceased to dismiss —to sack, fire,
corpse - remains poor - underprivileged
crisis -recession, slow-down, depression drunk-merry, intoxicated
+ Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic
aspect.
eg. house - shack, slum, pad (sl.)
to dismiss, to sack, to fire, to expel, to lay off, to kick out (sl)
+ Phraseological synonyms: words differing in their combinability.
eg. do exercises make money
native tongue foreign language
32

33. to raise/lift a finger to raise prices/wages/questions
to say smth (to sb) to tell sb smth
V. ANTONYMY
1. Definition
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning.
Many words, especially those denoting concrete objects (chair, tree, tiger) have no
antonyms. Usually adjectives denoting qualities, verbs denoting actions or state and
abstract nouns have antonyms
eg. old - young ; give - take ; joy - sorrow
Polysematic words may have different antonyms for different meanings.
eg. a dull pupil - a bright pupil
a dull book - an interesting book
a dull knife - a sharp knife
dull colours - bright colours
2. Types of antonyms
a. Antonyms proper: words of different forms and having completely opposite meanings
eg. old - young; kind - cruel
b. Derivational antonyms: two words of the same root, one of which having a negative
affix.
eg. appear - disappear pleasant - unpleasant
logical - illogical regular - irregular
useful - useless normal - abnormal
VI. DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING (SEMANTIC CHANGE)
Although many words appear in the English language by means of word building proper
(word derivation and word composition), a still greater number of new words are created
by means of the so-called semantic change or development of meaning.
A. Main ways of semantic change.
1. Extension /generalization of meaning
Extension: the number of meanings of the same word can be expended, which leads
to polysemy.
eg. ready - OE (be prepared for a ride) - Mod E ready (be prepared for anything)
pipe - OE pipe (a musical instrument) - Mod E pipe (any long hollow tube)
Generalization: not only the word widens its meaning but passes from specialized
vocabulary into commonly used one.
eg. camp (mil): place where troops are lodged in tents temporary quarters.
greedy : hungry eager to obtain and keep
boot - legger: an illegal dealer in liquor an illegal dealer
2. Narrowing/ specialization of meaning
33

34. Narrowing: the narrowing of the number of meanings that a word expresses
eg. meat: - OE mete (food in general) - Mod E meat (animal flesh as food)
queen: -OE swen (wife) - Mod E queen (king's wife)
deer : -OE deor (animal) - Mod E deer (con h¬u)
Specialization : development of meaning from the more general to the more specific
eg. girl: -OE gor - ME girle (child) - Mod E (female child/young woman)
starve: -OE steofan (die) -Mod E starve (die of hunger/suffer from hunger/feel
very hungry).
3. Degradation of meaning
Some words have got less nice emotive meaning
eg. knave: - OE cnafa (boy, servant) - Mod E knave (unprincipled or dishonest man)
artful: L artis (art) - OE - ME - Mod E artful (of person/action; crafty, deceitful)
4. Elevation of meaning
Some words have got more pleasant ant nicer emotive meanings.
eg. noble : L (g) nobitis - OFr - ME - (aristocratic) - Mod E (lofty)
minister : L minister (servant, attendant) - OFr - ME - Mod E (head of a state
department/ministry)
B. Transference of meaning
A word is said to be used in a transferred meaning when it is meant to refer
simultaneously to the object or, notion which it generally denotes and to another object or
notion which is in some way related with the first one on the basis of similarity or
association.
Transference from literal meaning to figurative meaning is expressed by the figures of
speech.
The most popular figures of speech are : metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole and irony
1. Metaphor (Gr .meta = change +phero = bear)
Metaphor : a figure of speech based on similarity (hidden comparison between the
object/notion generally denoted by the word and the object/notion in question.).
Metaphor gives freshness and vivacity to speech.
a. Types of similarity
+ similarity of appearance: (like part of the body)
leg of a table, needle's eye, arm of a chair/a river, mouth of a river, tongues of a flame.
+ similarity of shape: head of cabbage, teeth of a saw, nose of a plane, bottle neck.
+ similarity of size: midget submarine, elephantine task, jumbo jetplane.
+ similarity of position: foot of the mountain/hill /page, head/ tail of a procession,
bottom of a page. + similarity of movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm, foxtrot
+ similarity of function: head of school/delegation/army, key to the mystery/ a problem
+ similarity of colour: an orange coat, rosycheeks, lips
+ similarity of sound : The room rang. The hall roared with laughter
+ similarity of quality : a lion, a fox, a bee/beaver, a filmstar
34

35. + similarity of behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a wirepuller,
an Othello, a Cicero.
+ Some metaphoric words are the result of the transfer of space relation upon
psychological and mental notions (relation between concrete and abstract) : to catch/grasp
an idea, to take a hint, to throw light upon life span.
b. Types of metaphor
+ Living metaphor; expression of individual vision or in poetry
'She lent wings to his imagination...' (J. London)
'Peace is our fortress'
... And the winds are rude in Biscay's sleepless bay
And beyond them stood the forest,
Stood the groves of singing fine-trees
Green in summer, white in winter,
Ever sighing, ever sighing.
(H. Longfellow)
+ fade (trite) metaphor: that has lost its freshness.
Her voice is sweet, fruitful effort
He's an Othello, golden youth
+ dead metaphor: no longer felt as a metaphor
to ponder : L. ponderare (to weigh) - Mod E (to think over, to consider
+ sustained /prolonged metaphor: the image/is expanded /prolonged
'Mr Pickwick paused, bottle up his vengeance and corked it down.'
'Mr Dumbay's cup of satisfaction was so full at the moment that he felt he could afford a
drop or two of it contents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little
daughter'. (Ch. Dickens)
2. Metonymy (Gr. metonymia-meta(change)+onoma (name)
Metonymy: a figure of speech based on contiguity (proximity) or close relation between
two objects or notions.
Types of relation:
+ Relation between container and the thing contained:
eg. The kettle is boiling.
He drank two glasses.
+ Relation between parts and the whole:
eg. Two heads are better than one.
She has got good ear for music.
I used to live without a roof over my head.
+ Relation between the notion and its symbol:
eg. Grey hair should be respected,
from the cradle to the grave,
the White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Fleet Street, Downing Street, the crown
(monarchy).
+ Relation between the place and its inhabitants:
35

36. eg. the town, the city, the House of Commons, the House of Lords
The hall burst into applause.
+ Relation between the material and the thing made of it:
eg. an iron, eye glasses, the silver, the brass.
+ Relation between the instrument and its function:
e.g.- to knife, to eye
+ Relation between proper names and common names:
- name of place and name of products made there
china, champagne, tweed, havana, bikini, morocco
- name of inventor and name of the invention
sandwich, mackintosh, pullman, volt, ampere, ohm, diesel, watt, wellington, victoria.
- name of the author and name of his works
to read Dickens, to possess a complete Shakespeare.
3. Hyperbole: a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration
e.g. I beg a thousand pardons.
I haven't seen you for ages.
I'm dying of hunger
I'd give the world to see him
She's got a sea of troubles.
4. Irony: Its contextual meaning is contrary to the literal meaning for the sake of ridicule,
sarcasm.
e.g. He speaks English so well that nobody can understand.
What a nice mess !
It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.
Exercises on lecture III: Semantic
1.Explain the meanings of the underlined words.
make
She makes 200 cakes a day. ( produces/manufactures)
The news made her happy.(caused)
We made a good breakfast before leaving.(had/ate)
This won't really make any difference.(create)
He soon made a fortune on the stock exchange. (earned/ gained)
run
Tired as I was, I began to run frantically home.(go quickly)
I caught the bus that runs between C and B.(travels)
It makes the blood run cold.(becomes)
This self-service shop is run by the co-op.( operated/managed)
Don't leave the engine running.( working)
I can't afford to run a car.(own)
Rivers run into the sea.( flow)
I can run you up on to town.( take/ drive)
36

37. The car runs on petrol.( uses)
Your nose is running.( liquiding)
paper
Give me a sheet of paper.
Have you read the evening papers?
He's writing a paper on pollution.
This applicant looks good on paper.
The exam paper is difficult.
face
The stone struck him on the face.
Her face is her fortune.
They disappeared from the face of the earth.
He was wearing a long face when I met him.
They pretended to be on good terms so as to save their faces.
II. HOMONYMY
1. Comment on the type of homonyms.
can (v) - can (n) mine (n) - mine (pr)
case (n) - case (n) park (n) - park (v)
drill (n)- drill (v) saw(n) - saw (past. II)
fair (adj) - fair (n) train (n) - train (v)
grave (n) -grave (adj) well (adj) - well (n)
2. Comment on the following words, whether they are polysemantic (P) or homonymous (H)
1. She is a good match for you.
The match ended in draw. / /
2. The bride and the bridegroom exchanged rings at the wedding ceremony.
The people were standing in a ring. / /
3. Don't spit in the well, you may need its water.
All is well that ends well. / /
4. The voting was done by the show of hands.
There were 100 hands employed at that firm- / /
5. He struck his enemy a heavy blow on the head.
Give your nose a good blow. / /
3. Give the homophones of the following:
allowed........... nose .......... caught ............
berry ........... principle.......... die ............
blue .......... saw .......... board ............
higher ........... stares ........... guest ............
male ............. way ............ whether............
III. SYNONYMS
1. Give synonyms to the underlined words
1) He merely closed the programme and held it.
2) Does he realise his error yet?
37

38. 3) She felt timid at having to address the man.
4) The building consisted of four tall redbrick blocks.
5) He stood there so quiet.
2. Comment on the types of synonyms
biscuit - cookie merry- gay-jolly
pair - couple house - dwelling - residence
much - many petrol - gasoline - gas
to answer - to reply gather - collect-assemble
to continue - to go on strike - stay-out - walk-out.
3. Give euphemisms of the following words.
to die - pass away / on, be no more, go to heaven, breathe one's last, bite the
dust/ground/sand (colloq.), kick up one's heel,; turn up one's heel; join the majority, go
the way of all flesh, kick the bucket, (sl),
mad " crazy, insane, mentally deranged.
toilet - W.C, lavatory(Am), loo, retiring room, public comfort station,
go to the bathroom, wash one's hands.
servant - help , maid-
pregnant - in the family way
Euphemisms
To avoid referring too directly to unpleasant, embarrassing or personal matters we often
prefer to use more indirect words or phrases, which are called euphemisms.
1 Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the euphemisms, in italics, with more
simple, direct words or phrases.
(a) I'm afraid Mrs Wild passed away last night.
(b) Excuse me, where's the nearest public convenience?
(c) Senior citizens are entitled to free bus travel.
(d) Sadly, my grandmother is no longer with us.
(e) In the middle of the exam I had to answer a call of nature.
(f) His hat had seen better days.
(g) We had to have our dog put to sleep.
The following sentences are very direct. Rewrite them, replacing the parts in italics
with euphemisms.
E.g. She's very old.
She's not as young as she was/getting on/advanced in years.
(a) He's fat and ugly. (d) You were drunk last night.
(b) I'm going to vomit. (e) This work is very careless.
(c) She's a terrible cook. (f) Grandpa can hardly walk.
2 Instructions as in the first exercise above.
(a) We were obliged to dispense with Miss Fan's services last month.
38

39. (b) He has been asked to leave the country due to his involvement with activities
incompatible with his diplomatic duties here.
(c) The state has an obligation to assist the less privileged members of the community.
(d) The estate agent says the house needs some attention.
(e) The ambassador said the talks were likely to have a negative outcome.
(f) Tourists are advised to avoid the less salubrious parts of the city.
(g) Mr West has shown insufficient effort in the execution of his duties.
Instructions as in the second exercise above.
(a) Your representative lied to us.
(b) The talks were a waste of time.
(c) He's always late for work.
(d) Your product is very badly-made.
(e) Our relations with your country are awful.
(f) It would be stupid to go on strike now.
(g) You owe us money.
(h) We were very angry with your letter.
Lecture IV PHRASEOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Definition
39

40. Phraseology is the study of set expressions called phraseological units. These "set
expressions are completely or partially idiomatic and reproduced in speech as ready-
made units.
2. Structural features
Set expressions are characterized by the stability of its lexical components and
grammatical structure.
e.g. red flower/pen/car/flag/tape(sing./plu)- free word group
red-tape (bureaucratic methods)- set expression.
3. Semantic and stylistic features
The meaning of a set expression is not a mere sum of the meanings of it components- Set
expressions are said to be completely or partially idiomatic
e.g. to pull smb's leg (to tease him) ' - completely idiomatic
to be in high feather (to be in good spirits) -ibid-
to break the ice (to overcome formality or reserve in conversation,
to get people on friendly terms) - partially idiomatic , transferred meaning
to show one's teeth (to take up a threatening attitude) -ibid-
- Set expressions exist in language and are reproduced in speech as ready-made units,
whereas free word groups or combinations are created in speech every time we need
them.
e.g. to show the white feather (to show fear) - set expression
to show one's anger/great courage/... -free word group
- Set expressions may contain different figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy,
etc...
e.g. snake in the grass; to be a dog in the manger; to have a card up one's sleeve
to be all ears
- Set expressions are based on alliteration and contrast:
e.g. now or never ; through thick and thin; to kill or to cure; give and take
-synonymy :
to pull one's leg, to make a fool of somebody
to hit the right nail on the head, to take the wrong sow by the ear
by hook or by crook; fair and square
-polysemy:
at large : at liberty, free: The escaped prisoner is still at large.
at full length, with details: He talked/wrote at large.
in general : Did people at large approve of the government policy ?
at random, without definite aim : They scattered accusations at large.
II. CLASSIFICATION
1. Classification based on the degree of motivation (degree of idiomacity)
a) Phraseological fusions: completely idiomatic set expressions :
the meaning of the whole has no connection with the meanings of its components, e.g. to
be in high feather, to beat about the bush, white elephant.
b) Phraseological unities: partially idiomatic set expressions:
40

41. the meaning of the whole can be perceived as the figurative (metaphoric) meaning of the
components
e.g. to fish in troubled waters; to show one's teeth; to wash dirty linen in public
a slip of the pen /the tongue; to be Jack of all trades and master of none.
Phraseological fusions and unities are called phraseological units proper. In many cases it
is difficult to tell whether a given set expression belongs to fusions or unities, whether it
is completely or partially idiomatic (non-motivated), because motivation often depends
on the speaker's education and knowledge.
c) Phraseological combinations: non-idiomatic word combinations, which contain one
component used in direct meaning while the other is used metaphorically and restricted in
its valency ability to be combined with other words. They may be called traditional
phrases.
e.g. to do one's duty, to make a mistake, to meet the requirements, a burning question,
acute pain, blank took/face/expression
2. Classification based on the function in speech
Set expressions can be classified as parts of speech equivalents :
2.1 Noun equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions :
e.g. rank and file, high tea, slow coach, pretty kettle of fish, brain trust, pain in the neck
(sl)
b). Ph. unities : f
e.g. a man in the street, brown bread, a slip of the tongue. Jack of all trades
2.2. Verb equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions :
e.g. to show the white feather, to blow one's own trumpet, to sit above the salt
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. to clutch/ catch at a straw, to dance on a tight rope, to hold the trump card, to break
the ice, to play the first/second fiddle
2.3. Adjective equivalents :
a). Ph. fusions:
e.g. above-board, spick and span, mad as a hatter, dead as a door nail
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. high and mighty, brittle as glass, cold as charity, sharp as a needle
2.4. Adverb equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions:
e.g. at sixes and sevens, (right) on the nail, with might and main, in the trice.
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. at hand, in full swing, through thick and thin, in the twinkling of an eye, far and
away, (be driven) from pillar to post, (be) over head and ears.
2.5. Connecting word equivalents:
a) Prepositions: by means of , in order to, in front of, in view of, with the view to, by
virtue of.
41

42. b) Conjunctions : as well as , as soon as.
2.6. Interjection equivalents:
Oh dear! Dear me ! My Goodness! Goodness gracious ! Well, I never ! My stars!
2.7. Modal particle equivalents :
After all, as it were, in fact, so to say, to be sure
They are of parenthetical character.
Some phraseological units have homonyms among free word combinations.
e.g. red tape, red - tape ; to hold a trump card, to hold a trump card
III. VERBAL COLLOCATIONS:
Verbal collocations are combinations of verb and particles :
They are treated as set expressions, i.e. the meaning of such combinations can not be
easily derived from the meaning of the verb and the particle. They have idiomatic
character (non-motivated) and are different from free combinations (motivated).
Verbal combinations consist of :
- phrasal verb (verb + adverbial particle): to turn down
- prepositional verb (verb + preposition particle): to take after
- prepositional phrasal verb ( verb + adverb + preposition): to put up with
1. Phrasal verbs :
a). With transitive phrasal verbs, the position of the adverbial particle is determined by
the nature of the object.
- Verb + object + adverb particle / Verb + adverb particle + object.
They managed to put the fire out (extinguish) They managed to put out the fire .
- Verb+ pronoun + adverb particle.
You can't count me out (exclude)
The customer turn it down. (rejected)
- Verb + adverb particle + object (a long noun phrase)
They turned down lots of perfectly good suggestions (rejected)
b). With intransitive phrasal verbs, the adverb particle comes immediately after the verb.
He broke off as I came into the room. (stopped talking)
2. Prepositional verbs:
The prepositional particle comes immediately after the verb.
John obviously takes after his father, (resembles)
3. Prepositional phrasal verbs :
Verb + adverb particle + preposition particle
I refused to put up with his rudeness any longer, (tolerate)
The plan came in for a lot of criticism .(met)
Some of the verb-preposition combinations function transitively in one of their meanings
and intransitively in another of their meanings.
Transitive Intransitive
Take off shoes (remove) The plane will take off in ten minutes, (leave the
ground)
We must break down these My car was broken down last night
42

43. figures accurately. (went out of order)
(make an analysis of)
Please, pass out these papers. He passed out from the heat.
(distribute) (fainted)
+ Comparison verbal collocations and free verb combinations:
1a He looked/up the chimney.
1b. He looked up/ the meaning of the word. (search for)
2a. He came/ across the road.
2b. He came across/ an interesting book. (find/meet by chance)
+ Compound words derived from phrasal verbs :
break down (v) break -down(n)
break up (v) break -up(n)
break out (v) break-out, outbreak (n)
call up (v) call- up (n)
clear out (v) clear -out (n)
draw back (v) draw-back (n)
drop out (v) drop-out (n)
hold up (v) hold-up (n)
knock out(v) knockout(n)
take over (v) takeover(n)
try out (v) try-out(n)
turn out(v) turnout(n)
bring up (v) upbringing (n)
IV. PROVERBS AND QUOTATIONS
1. Proverbs
Proverbs are historically created folk quotations or sayings, which express popular
wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a figurative, imaginary way. They have the form of a
complete sentence and play the most important role in phraseological units, as:
- their lexical components are also stable, constant;
- their meaning is mostly figurative;
- they are ready-made units.
Many proverbs are peculiar only to the English language, reflecting national features,
history and traditions of the English people:
e.g. He dances well to whom fortune pipes.
You can't eat your cake and have it.
The pot calls the kettle black.
To carry coal to Newcastle.
The proof of the pudding is in its eating.
Some English proverbs are of international character: they exist in many languages.
e.g. Two heads are better than one.
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44. Don't cast pearls before swine.
The devil is not so black as he is painted.
Habit is the second nature.
Sometimes they are translation loans from other languages, mainly from French.
Appetite comes with eating (L'appetit vient en mangeant)
Besides, many set expressions are created from proverbs and sayings.
e.g. It is the early bird that catches the worm - the early bird
New broom sweeps clean - a new broom
The last straw breaks the camel's back - the last straw
2. Quotations:
Quotations are expressions coming from literature which is part and parcel of the
language. There are literary quotations (created by famous writers):
Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.
Brevity is the soul of wit. (Shakespeare)
To err is human, to forgive divine- (Pope)
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Pope)
and biblical quotations (taken from the Bible).
It was the last straw that broke the camel's back.
3. ClichÐs
ClichÐs are quotations that are so often used and become stale. They have lost their
original expressiveness.
e.g. the acid test; the irony of fate; to stand shoulder to shoulder; swan song; tender
mercies, etc.
All these above mentioned set expressions are mostly emotionally coloured and ready-
made.
Exercises on lecture IV
I. Read the following proverbs. Give their Vietnamese equivalents or explain their
meanings.
• A bargain is a bargain.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
• A cat in gloves catches no mice.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
• Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
• It's the first step that counts.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
• A new broom sweep cleans.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
• Fasting comes after feasting.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
• Might goes before right.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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45. • The dog will not howl if you beat him with a bone.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
• To shape a coat for the moon.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
• Faults are thick where love is thin.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
II. Match each of the following common proverbs with the most appropriate situation
from the list below.
a Actions speak louder than words.
b Don't look a gift horse in the mouth.
c When in Rome, do as the Romans
d Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.
e Blood is thicker than water.
f Prevention is better than cure.
g One good turn deserves another.
h Make hay while the sun shines.
1) Yes, you’re probably pass the exam, but don't depend on it till you near the result.
2) Make the most out of life while you can, while you're young and without any big
responsibilities.
3) Well, the cassette recorder he gave you may have a few defects, but you shouldn't
complain. It cost you nothing.
4 I'm not impressed by fine speeches. Why doesn't the government do something?
5) Don't wait till you've got flu. Try not to catch it.
6) If you're in a foreign country, you should get used to the customs there.
7) I'll probably lose my job by going there to help him, but he's in trouble and he is my
brother.
8) Yes, of course I’ll help you. You lent me a hand last week.
2 Instructions as above.
(a) Nothing venture nothing gain.
(b) It never rains but it pours.
(c) Once bitten, twice shy.
(d) A bad workman blames his tools
(e) Too many cooks spoil the broth
(f) It's no use crying over spilt milk
(g) Pride comes before a fall.
(h) Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
1 Well, it’s a pity but it’s in the past now and there's nothing we can do about it
45

46. 2) Oh, my God, I’ve got tickets for the wrong day and they ruined my suit at the cleaners
and my wallet was stolen and I forgot my wife's birthday
3) My wife’s spending a week with her parents. I do miss her
4) I’m not investing my money in that company again. I lost everything last time I did
5) Ask her out to dinner. If you don't, you'll never know if she likes you.
6) He was over-confident. He thought he couldn't go wrong, but then he got complacent
and failed the all-important exam.
7) Do we really need so many of us to do this job? Won't we get in each other's way?
6) It's not my fault I haven't finished this typing yet. It's not a very good machine and the
stuff I have to copy is very difficult to read.
III. Give the English equivalents for the following Vietnamese phrases and proverbs:
a/ ¨n ®Õn n¬i, lµm ®Õn chèn
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
b/ Cã c«ng mµi s¾t cã ngµy lªn kim
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
c/ Cèc mß cß x¬i
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
d/ Chã cËy gÇn nhµ, gµ cËy gÇn chuång
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
e/ Chã chª mÌo l¾m l«ng
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
f/ Chim thÊy tªn ph¶i cµnh cong còng sî
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
g/ Cña cho chí so ®o it nhiÒu
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
h/ §ãi ¨n vông tóng lµm cµn
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
i/ §em ®µn g¶y tai tr©u
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
j/ MÐo mã cã h¬n kh«ng
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
k/ MÌo khen mÌo dµi ®u«i
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
l/ Lêi nãi thËt hay mÊt lßng
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
m/ Lßng v¶ còng nh lßng sung
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
n/ Nhµn c vi bÊt thiÖn
46