Body Composition for Athletes

NUTRITION FOR SPORT
AND EXERCISE
NDD30503
ASSOC PROF. DR. SHARIFAH WAJIHAH WAFA BTE SST WAFA
EC22
SUNDAY
1000-1300

Weight and Body Composition Issues
in Athletes
Lecture 13

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the various components that make
up the body’s composition.
2. Describe how body composition and body
weight are measured, how a measurement
error might occur, how these results should
be interpreted, and how each relates to
performance.
3. Understand how the relative need for size
(weight), strength, and speed in a particular
sport is reflected in the body composition of
elite athletes in those sports.

Learning Objectives
4. Outline the basic principles associated with
gaining lean body mass and losing body fat
and the most appropriate times during the
yearly training cycle to change body
composition or weight, and be able to calculate
target and minimum body weight.
5. Discuss the legality, ethics, purity, safety, and
effectiveness of muscle building and weight-
loss supplements.

The Spectrum of Body Size,
Shape and Composition

What are the different ways
to look at human body
composition?
 Medical (health)
 Anthropological
 Performance
 Appearance

Why is knowledge of body
composition so important?
 Health and Disease
 Performance
 Appearance
 Longevity

Understanding weight and body
composition
 Body mass?
 Body weight?
 Body composition?

Different Levels of BC Measurement

composition
 Body composition: body’s chemical and
molecular composition
 General models of body composition
• Chemical model
• Anatomical model
• Two-compartment model

composition

composition
 Body weight and composition: directly related
to performance in certain sports or appearance.
 A minimum amount of body fat: needed for
proper physiological functioning.
 Body Mass Index (BMI): not an accurate way to
characterise body composition in muscular
people.

composition
 Body mass
• Mass vs. weight
• Weight is affected by gravity

composition
 Body fat
• Essential
• approximately 3% in males
• approximately 12% in females
• Sex-specific (hormonal/reproductive functions)
approximately 9%

(note differences in
fat and muscle
content )
Male
vs
Female

composition
 Storage fat
• Subcutaneous fat
• Visceral fat

composition
 Storage fat
• Common gender distribution
• Android (male)
• Abdominal area
• “Apple” shaped

composition
 Storage fat
• Common gender distribution
• Android (male)
• Abdominal area
• “Apple” shaped
• Gynoid (female)
• Hips, thighs,
buttocks
• “Pear” shaped
• Gender not the only influence

composition
 Fat-free mass (FFM)
• Muscle, bone, fluids,
organs
• Difficult to measure
• Lean body mass
(LBM)
• Fat-free mass +
essential body fat
• Easier to measure than
FFM
• Muscle is one
component of LBM

Fat-Free Body Mass (FFM)
Defined as body mass devoid of
all extractable fat
Fat mass = Body mass * % body fat
Body mass = 75.1 kg Body fat = 23.6%
FFM = Body mass - fat mass
What is the FFM for this person?

Lean Body Mass (LBM)
In men, FFM includes 3% essential fat
In females, FFM includes 12% essential fat
When you compute LBM (body mass minus fat mass),
the LBM component includes the “lipid-rich” essential
fat stores in bone marrow, brain, spinal cord, and
internal organs. LBM and FFM yield the same result,
but the interpretation of their tissue composition
distinguishes between the two concepts

composition
 3 body types body shape
1. Endomorph
• “Stocky” with wide hips
• Easily gains body fat
• Large amount of fat
accumulation
• Often fatigue easily
• Insatiable appetite
• Cannot seem to drop weight
• Eat larger meals or several
smaller sized meals
• Low muscle definition due to
adipose tissue
• Larger frame

composition
 Endomorphs Training Tips:
• Train in the 15+ repetition range
• Take 30-45 second rest periods between sets
• Do as much cardio as possible!
• Do compound lifts to burn more calories
 Endomorphs Dieting Tips:
• Portion meals appropriately- 1 fist size equals one serving
• Eat 30-40% carbohydrates
• Eat non processed foods and get whole grains
• Eat tons of vegetables to keep full
• Drink plenty of water to keep full
• Divide daily caloric intake by 5-6 meals
• Take in 200-500 less than your maintaince caloric intake

composition
2. Ectomorph
• Small joints
• Skinny appearance
• Hyperactive
• Fast metabolism
• Can eat whatever they want
• Get full easily
• Small chest and buttocks
• Difficulty building muscle
• Difficulty gaining weight
• Low body fat
• Narrow frame (“pencil frame”)

composition
 Ectomorph Training Tips:
• Train heavier with repetitions in the 5-10 range
• Take longer rest breaks (due to higher weights used)
• Do compound lifts
• Do not do cardio
 Ectomorph Dieting Tips:
• Eat high density weight gainers for added calories
• Try high density foods such as almonds, avocado, or
peanut butter
• Break calories up into several small meals if cannot
stomach big meals
• Eat at least 50-60% carbohydrates
• Drink tons of milk

composition
3. Mesomorph
• Muscular with little
excess body fat
• Easily gains LBM
• Symmetrical build
• Wide shoulders
• Small waist
• Low body fat
• Large musculature
• Seems to put on muscle
easily
• Seems to burn fat easily
• Eats in moderation

composition
 Mesomorph Training Tips:
• Training in the 8-12 repetition rep range
• 30-1 min rest periods between sets
• Enough cardio to stay lean but not a ton
 Mesomorph Dieting Tips:
• Keep carbohydrates at 40-60%
• Break meals into 5-6 smaller meals throughout
the day
• Eat enough calories to maintain muscle mass

Assessment and interpretation of weight
and body composition
 Provides more information
• Height and weight not enough to know fitness
status
–  Percent body fat,  performance
 Body composition measured several ways
• Densitometry/hydrostatic weighing
• DEXA
• Air plethysmography
• Skinfold
• Bioelectric impedance

 Hydro densitometry or underwater weighing
• Muscle heavier than water, fat lighter than water
• Most commonly used method
 Limitations of hydro densitometry
• Lung air volume confounding
• Conversion of body density to percent fat
• Fat-free density varies among people

 DEXA
• Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
• Quantifies bone and soft-tissue composition
• Precise and reliable but expensive and technical
 Air plethysmography (Bod Pod)
• Another densitometry technique
• Air displacement (instead of water)
• Easy for subject, difficult for operator, expensive

 Skinfold
• Most widely used field technique
• Measures thickness at a minimum of three sites
• Uses quadratic equations, reasonably accurate
 Bioelectric impedance
• Electrodes on ankle, foot, wrist, hand
• Current passes from proximal to distal sites
• Fat-free mass good conductor, fat poor conductor
• Reasonably accurate, could be better

 Body weight results must be interpreted
appropriately and used consistently
1. Most useful for tracking hydration status
2. Necessary to measure if weight must be certified
3. Most athletes do not need to measure weight
daily
4. Must be interpreted correctly
a. Decreased body weight could result from:
i. Loss of water (dehydration)
ii. Loss of body fat (kcal deficit)
iii. Loss of muscle mass (starvation)

Body Composition in Sport:
Sport Performance
 Fat-free mass (includes muscle)
• Important variable for athletes to know
–  Good for power, strength, muscle endurance
• But bad for aerobic endurance (more mass to
carry)
 Relative body fat (percent body fat)
• Fat: dead weight but useful energy store
• Less fat usually = better performance
• Exceptions: sumo wrestler, swimmer, weight
lifter

Weight Standards
 Guide for optimal body size and composition for
a given sport
 Can be misleading
• Elite athletes define optimal performance
• But do elite athletes define optimal body?
• Not always the case

Weight Standards

Weight Standards
 Inappropriate use of weight standards
• Seriously abused by coaches, players
• Misconception that small weight loss good, large
weight loss better
• Can lead to  performance, eating disorders
 Making weight: severe weight loss
• Wrestling, boxing, etc.
• Weight classes can force extreme weight loss
• Compete in class too low  injury, poor health

Weight Standards
 Relative need for power and endurance
• High power-to-weight ratio important for explosive
power
• Low percentage body fat may be beneficial if
weight must be moved
 Weight certification
 Physical appearance – Spotlight on... Athletes
and Appearance—Meeting Body Composition
Expectations
 Body composition must be determined on a
case-by-case basis

Changing body composition to enhance
performance
 Desired body composition can be used to
determine a target weight
1. General considerations
a. Body composition must be estimated as
accurately as possible
b. Must consider genetic predisposition,
requirements of the sport
c. Realistic goals, achievable through diet and
training
d. Attaining or maintaining goals does not put
athlete’s health at risk
e. Target body weight formula

performance
 Body composition can be changed by increasing
muscle mass
1. Role of exercise
a. Periodized strength training
b. Hypertrophy phase
i. Large volume (number of sets and
repetitions)
ii. Moderate intensity or load (amount of weight
lifted)
iii. Amount of increase of muscle mass is in
response to strength training is dependent on
several factors

performance
2. Role of nutrition
a. Sufficient energy intake
b. Sufficient protein intake
i. In positive nitrogen balance
c. “Rule of thumb” estimates to support resistance
training program
i. Additional approximately 400 to 500 kcal daily
ii. Additional approximately 14 g protein daily

performance
 Body composition can be changed by
decreasing body fat
1. General principles
a. Must create a caloric deficit
• Decrease kcal intake by reducing food intake
• Increase energy expenditure
• Combination of both recommended

performance
2. Role of exercise
a. Used to create moderate caloric deficit
b. Maintains or minimizes loss of LBM
c. Athletes may not be able to increase exercise
substantially due to increased risk for injury or
overtraining

performance
3. Role of nutrition
a. Do not restrict daily intake to < 30 kcal/kg body
weight
b. Low CHO intake affects muscle glycogen
resynthesise
• Consume at least 5 g/kg body weight daily
c. Low protein intake affects LBM
• Consume at least 1.4 g/kg body weight daily
d. Loss of body fat will be slow
• Plan for sufficient time
• “Off-season” or during low-volume training periods

performance
 Increasing muscle mass while decreasing body fat is difficult
1. Difficult to achieve
2. Usually more benefit to increasing muscle mass first
 Body composition changes may be seasonal
1. Small losses in body fat may be a consequence of return to
training
2. Large losses in body fat are not usually accomplished with
return to training
3. Best time to lose body fat is usually the “off-season” or early
part of the pre-season
4. “Crash diets” may be employed to lose large amounts of body
fat in a short period of time
• Usually detrimental to training, hydration status, health

performance
 Increasing muscle mass while decreasing body fat is
difficult
2. Usually more benefit to increasing muscle mass first
 Body composition changes may be seasonal
1. Small losses in body fat may be a consequence of
return to training
2. Large losses in body fat are not usually
accomplished with return to training

performance
3. Best time to lose body fat is usually the “off-
season” or early part of the pre-season
4. “Crash diets” may be employed to lose large
amounts of body fat in a short period of time
• Usually detrimental to training, hydration status,
health
5. Increases in LBM
• In untrained individuals, initial gains may be large
• In trained athletes, gains are usually slow
• Women experience approximately 50 to 75% of
the gains seen in men

performance
 Athletes who compete in lightweight sports push
the biological envelope
1. General principles
a. Goal is low body weight with sufficient
muscularity
b. Some athletes are naturally lightweight
c. Some athletes use extraordinary measures to
“make weight”
• Semi-starvation diets
• Dehydration techniques
• Excessive exercising

performance
d. Safe minimum body weight can be calculated
(formula)
e. Spotlight on a real athlete: Sondra, a
Superlightweight Kickboxer – wants to compete
in a lower weight category
2. Weight cycling in athletes
a. Repeated weight loss and weight gain
b. May be part of a sport’s culture
c. Athletes may believe that weight cycling is
necessary
d. Focus on research: Can Boxers Effectively “Make
Weight” While Following a Nutritious Diet?

performance
 Studies have found:
a. Short-term, high-intensity exercise not impaired
b. Expected performance improvements did not occur
c. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) not decreased
d. Negative mental changes (anger, tension, fatigue)
e. Medical consequences
f. Hypohydration and hyperthermia (potentially fatal)
g. Headaches, nosebleeds, racing heart
h. Possible predisposition to obesity later in life

performance
 Underweight athletes may need to increase muscle
mass and body fat
1. Increase dietary intake by 500 kcal/day if possible
3. Satiating quality of energy-dense foods

Risks With Severe Weight Loss
 Dehydration
• Fasting, extreme caloric restriction  water loss
• 2 to 4% weight loss as water  impaired
performance
• Risk of kidney, cardiovascular dysfunction, death
 Chronic fatigue
• Underweight  fatigue   performance, injury
• Mimics overtraining and chronic fatigue
syndromes
• Underweight  substrate depletion

 Eating disorders
• Weight standards can  disordered eating
• Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa
• More prevalent with women in lean sports
 Menstrual dysfunction
• Delayed menarche, oligomenorrhea, or
amenorrhea
• Prevalent in low-body-weight sports
• Due to caloric intake < caloric expenditure

 Bone mineral loss
• Serious consequence of athletic amenorrhea
• Anorexia  fracture rate 7 times higher
 Female athlete triad
• Eating + menstrual + bone mineral disorders
• Seen with women in lean-physique, low-body-
weight, or endurance sports
• Skating, dance, gymnastics, running, swimming

Weight Standards
 Appropriate weight standards
• Inappropriate standard risks athlete health
• Body composition, not total body weight
• Optimal range of percent body fat
• Account for sex differences
 Weight standards not always appropriate
• Technical measurement errors
• Not all athletes perform best at ideal composition

Achieving Optimal Weight
 Avoid fasting and crash diets
• Cause more water and muscle loss, less fat loss
• Ketosis accelerates water loss
 Optimal weight loss:  fat mass,  FFM
• Moderate caloric restriction + exercise
• Caloric deficit ~200 to 500 kcal/day
• Lose no more than 0.5 to 1 kg/week
• When near goal, slow weight loss further

Supplements used to change body
composition
1. Anabolic steroids (to help increase muscle mass)
 Prescription drugs similar to testosterone
 Self-prescription is illegal
 Most sports governing bodies prohibit due to ethical
and safety reasons
 Mild, moderate, or substantial medical risks
• Increased blood pressure
• Increased low-density lipoproteins (LDL)
• Reduced testicular size
• Development of breast tissue in males
• Accelerated baldness (males and females)
• Masculinizing effects in females

composition
2. Prohormones
a. Precursors to testosterone
b. Androstenedione
• Banned by most sports governing bodies
c. DHEA
• Weak anabolic steroid
• Has a general effect on tissues, not a specific
effect on skeletal muscle
• No evidence of effectiveness for increasing
muscle mass or performance

composition
 Supplements are often used to assist weight
loss
1. Ephedra, ephedrine alkaloids, and ephedrine
a. Terms are different and should not be used
interchangeably
b. Used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat
asthma
c. Used in over-the-counter asthma medications
d. Marketed to decrease body fat and increase
energy

composition
2. Safety of ephedrine-containing compounds
a. Controversial
b. Small number of serious events have been
reported, including a few deaths of athletes
c. Proper dose is subject to debate
d. Banned by most sports governing bodies
e. In U.S., federal ban for doses greater than 10
mg
f. Completely banned in some states

composition
3. Effectiveness of ephedrine for weight loss
a. In obese individuals, short-term 4kg weight loss
b. Stimulatory, masks fatigue
c. Delays time to exhaustion (performance benefit)

composition
 Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) may be used in
supplements advertised as ephedra-free
1. Effectiveness of ephedrine on performance –
small # of studies show that ephedrine +
caffeine increase performance by delaying time
to exhaustion

composition
 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is marketed to
athletes as a way to change body composition
and improve performance
1. Isomer of linoleic (essential) fatty acid
2. Results inconsistent
 Athletes should be cautious about using weight-
loss and muscle-building supplements

Making Changes in Body Composition
 Lifestyle should focus on:
• Regular physical activity, endurance exercise, and
strength training

Making Changes in Body Composition
 Lifestyle should focus on:
• Moderate energy intake
• Physical activity is the key to long-term success

Body Composition for Athletes

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