The Mexican Revolution in a world-historical context. Includes long-term causes back to pre-conquest Latin America, current historiography, world-systems analysis and extrapolations to modern Mexico and the Zapatista movement of 1994.

1. The Mexican Revolution
in World Historical
Context
Race, labor, dependency and exploitation:
Change and Continuity Over Time in the
World-System

2. Warm-up Questions

Turn to the person sitting next to you and
discuss your understanding of the following:
– What is the world-system?
– What is dependency theory?
– What is a patron-client relationship?
– How would Marxist, traditional capitalist and
neo-liberal theorists/scholars describe the
concepts above?
– What are your personal feelings of these
concepts and how they have impacted Latin
America?

3. During the Lecture
 Think about:
–
–
–
Previously studied theories (historiography)
Murals and their influences, impacts
Precedents and parallels (other LA
nations/revolutions…)

4. Setting the historical stage
PRE-REVOLUTIONARY
MEXICO

5. Mexico Preconquest


Indigenous cultures: Mexica, or
Aztecs, and the Mayas.
The Aztecs
– Capital, Tenochtitlan, had over
750,000 inhabitants
– Built on an island in Lake Texcoco, in
the Valley of Mexico.

The Aztecs were an advanced
civilization intellectually.
– Astrologists and mathematicians
 Zero borrowed from Maya
– Human sacrifice
Map found at: http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-empire.html

6. TENOCHTITLAN – The Aztec Capital City

7. The Conquest




In 1519, Hernan Cortes
lands
1521-Aztec collapse
– Guns, germs, steel
– Hostile neighbors
Smallpox, flu, plague: 8
million Mexican deaths
“Moctezuma’s revenge”
– Columbian Exchange
theory for syphilis

Top: La muerte de Moctezuma – a painting by David Siqueiros
World system horrors
begin

11. The Trans-Atlantic World Economy
(15th-17th Century)






Period of European
expansion and exploitation
through the Americas
Europe enriched by New
World resources at little to
no cost to themselves
Potato and other American
crops allow for population
boom in Western Europe
Large-scale slavery makes
labor costs negligible
Manila Galleons in Pacific
When was this trade
prevalent? (1565-1815)

13. American Population:
Connection to labor and race?
8000000
7000000
6000000
5000000
Native
European
African
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
1500
1800
13

14. World Population Growth, 1500-1800 CE
900
800
700
600
500
Millions
400
300
200
100
0
1500
1600
1700
1800
14

15. Colonial Period


The Colonial Period last from
1521 to 1810.
New Spain.
– Mexico
– the Spanish Caribbean
islands
– Central America as far
south as Costa Rica, a
– Today's southwestern
United States
– Philippines
http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/c/fotos/cortes.jpg

16. Key Themes
Throughout the Colonial Period, up to the
modern day:
 Labor systems
 Race and caste (class) in society
 Forms of exploitation
 U.S Intervention and conflict
 Dependency and world-system
16

17. Social Classes of Mexico

Mexican society was divided according to skin color &
heritage into 4 main groups:
– Peninsulares: Spaniards born in Spain; held top
positions in government, church, and military.
– Criollos/Creoles: Pure Spanish blood born in Mexico;
wealthy upper class, owned haciendas, ranches, &
mines. Had little political power.
– Mestizos: MixedSpanish & Indian blood; lived in
poverty, worked hard, had few rights.
– Indians: Lowest class, mistreated by colonists and
church, little or no rights…like slaves.

18. Spaniard + Indian = Mestizo

19. Black + Spaniard = Mullato

20. Black + Indian = Zambo

21. Spaniard + Mestiza = Castiza

22. Spaniard + Castiza = Spaniard

23. Zambo + Indian = Zambaiga

24. Zambaigo + Indian = Albarazado

25. Indian + Albarazada = Chamizo

26. Chamizo + Indian = Cambuja

27. Albarazado + Indian = Cachimboreta

28. Zambaigo + Indian = Albarazado

29. Albarazada + Mulatto = Barcino

30. Barcino + Zambo = Coyote

31. Coyote + Indian = Cambujo

32. Cambujo + Indian = Chamizo

33. Essential Questions:
What do the previous “castas” slides
suggest about race relations in Mexico?
2. What do the earlier slides about the Mexica
(Aztecs) and the Columbian Exchange
suggest about relations between Mexico
and Europe or other outside powers?
3. How will these socio-historical influences
help define Mexican revolutionary identity?
1.
Discuss with your partner.

34. Mexican Independence?



Father Hidalgo, Creole
priest who taught Indians
and Mestizos.
Leads the call for Mexican
Independence from Spain
9/16/1810:
Speech: El Grito de Dolores.

35. My children: a new
dispensation comes to us
today. Will you receive it? Will
you free yourselves? Will you
recover the lands stolen three
hundred years ago from your
forefathers by the hated
Spaniards? We must act at
once… Will you defend your
religion and your rights as true
patriots? Long live our Lady of
Guadalupe! Death to bad
government! Death to the
gachupines!

37. Mexican War of Independence
– Father Hidalgo was supported by Indians,
mestizos, and criollos, who were prevented from
governing their country by peninsulares.
– Passionate, but unprofessional army-outmatched by Spaniards.
– Father Hidalgo & other revolutionaries were killed
in 1811.
 Tortured, body mutilated, head hung as a warning
– Fighting continues until 1821
– General, Augustin de Iturbide unites Mexico and
defeats Spain
– Treaty of Cordoba—1821
– Little changes in Mexico

38. U.S. Mexico Relations in 19th Century
 Monroe Doctrine: 1823
 Largely bluff, some support from Great Britain
 Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
 After 1845 U.S. Annexation of Texas
(1836 Texan Revolution)
 U.S. victorious: take 50% of Mexican territory
 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo
 La Reforma (1860s)
 Porfiriato (1876-1880; 1881/4-1911)

39. 1823
Mar 1, 1836
Dec 29,
1845
1846-1848
Oct 13,
1847
Feb 2, 1848
General Santa Anna deposed Iturbide and declared a Republic. Bitter struggle began
between centrists (conservatives) and federalists (liberals), continuing to 1860.
Because of Santa Anna's increased federal centralization, Texas declares its independence.
The United States annexes the Republic of Texas. President James K. Polk sends John Slidell
to Mexico to settle differences but war party in Mexico under Paredes won out.
US-Mexican War. Four campaigns -- Taylor in Northern Mexico, Kearny in New Mexico, naval
blockage of both coasts and Scott's campaign from Vera Cruz to Mexico City.
Aztec Club of 1847 organized in Mexico City with General John A. Quitman, of Mississippi, as
its first President.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the War. Terms of peace included payment by the United
States of $15 million for Mexico Cession.
1857
A new constitution and a liberal victory, but three years of civil war followed until Benito
Juarez emerged as liberal leader and President.
1861
European intervention during the U.S. Civil War by Great Britain, Spain and France. First
two withdraw shortly thereafter.
1863
French army captures Mexico City and Archduke Maximilian of Austria-Hungary, a
Hapsburg, proclaimed second Emperor of Mexico.
1865-1867
U.S. Civil War ends, the United States sends troops to the border, French withdraw and
Maximilian is executed at Querétaro.
1867-1872
Juarez is again President of Mexico; dies in office.
1877-1911
Porfirio Diáz dictator of Mexico for all but four years. Encourages foreign exploitation of
Mexico's natural wealth, but Mexico City becomes a metropolis.

41. The Key Phrase from the
Monroe Doctrine
…the American continents, by the free and
independent condition which they have
assumed and maintain, are henceforth not
to be considered as subjects for future
colonization by any European powers…

45. The end of the Porfiriato
THINGS FALL APART

46. World Revolutions in Comparison (WASTE/MC)
WASTE (MC)
French
Russian
Mexican
War
•7 Years. U.S.
Revolution
•1904-5 RussoJapanese War,
WWI
•Mexican-American
War, French Invasion,
WWI
Absolutism
• Louis XVI
•Romanovs
•Diaz (basically)
Social Class
•Three Estates
•Peasants,
Landlords
•Landowners and
corporatists/peasants
Taxation
•Heavy Taxes for
Wars. Luxuries
•Taxes for war
and some
luxuries; no land
reform
•Heavy taxes, no land
reform,
overworked/underpaid
peasantry
Enlightenment
Ideas (Marxism
Communism)
•Enlightenment
Ideas
•MarxistCommunist
Ideas
•Both Enlightenment
and Marxist ideas;
common sense
revolution

47. 



Why Revolution, and Why
1910?
Complex reasons; the
revolution is not a unified
process
Gradual mutation of
attitudes between 19001910; more and more
individuals abandoning
the hope of social and
political progress in the
framework of the existing
order
Agitation from above and
below
Porfiriato = years of
frustration for those who
want change

48. Diaz and the Porfiriato

Basically 1876-1910
 1880-1884





Elitist dictatorship
“pan o palo”
Client of U.S.
Interests of the elite
classes at heart
How would Diaz help
shape Mexican
revolutionary identity?

50. The Flores Magon Brothers &
Regeneración




Anarchist group of brothers
“Regeneración ” their
mouthpiece, openly critical of
Diaz’s policies; brothers Jesus,
Ricardo, and Enrique
First time notion of social reform
should come before political
reform
Policies annoyed U.S.—fear of
loss of political/economic control
– Cross-border efforts

52. Labor Violence

Yaqui Revolt
 1896
 “Diaz’s anti-agrarian and anti-indigenous Mexican policies "

Labor strike at Cananea Copper Mine (Sonora)
–
–
–
–


June 1906
Colonel William Greene and defense of American interests
Role of Regeneracion and labor agitation
Violent response by Diaz’ agents
Labor strike at Rio Blanco textile mill (Veracruz)
 1907
Flores Magon brothers implicated in these events; but
Diaz did not see these as indicative of larger problems =
isolated events

53. The Creelman Interview


1908 interview given by Diaz to James
Creelman, reporter for the NY Times (parallel?)
Message sent:
– Ready to retire; welcomed opposition parties and was
ready to promote democracy

Why?
– Saw the interview as bait to bring out opposition so
that he could easily “deal” with them?
– Sincere in his remarks; subsequent events forced him
to change his mind?

Gearing up for the Election of 1910

54. Emergence of Francisco
Madero




Background
Advocating a political
revolution as the solution
Had experience with plight
of the landless poor; yet
believed that solutions
came from individuals, not
society (MC or E?)
Moderate vs. radical
liberals; Flores Magon
brothers felt he ignored the
stark social reality of Mexico
at the time
– Not radical enough

55. Campaign and Election of 1910

Madero vs. Diaz; anti-Diaz rhetoric rising; arrest
of Madero
– Fomenting rebellion
– Insulting public authorities


Madero jailed, Diaz victorious
Response = Plan de San Luis Potosi
– From Texas, Madero forced to flee country


Reveals Madero’s concern for democracy and
political reforms before social change
Serves, however, as the opening shots of the
Revolution

56. Fragmented Birth of the Revolution




Continues to emphasize
the long historical
tradition in Mexico of
regionalism and
fragmentation
Centers of revolt in North,
Central, and Southern
Mexico; goals different
A revolution or a civil
war? (Or both?) We’ll
discuss
Significant long term
impact on the
development of Mexico in
the 20th century; the
defining modern event

58. Revolution in the North





Pascual Orozco in
Western Chihuahua
Pancho Villa, also in
Chihuahua
Support of disaffected
miners, ranchers,
indigenous groups
Not much opposition from
Porfirian Army
Advocating labor and
land reforms in the North
– individual access to
land; labor codes that
protect the worker

60. Revolution in the South



Represents the ideas of
change in Southern
Mexico = Emiliano Zapata
Primary focus – inherent
rights/access to land;
responding to the reality of
land concentration during
the Porfirian period (Plan
de Ayala--later)
Initially does not support
the Plan de San Luis
Potosi; but eventually
comes around to the ideas
of the Revolution

63. Popular Support of the Revolution

69. Exile of Diaz


Madero’s return to Mexico; capture of Ciudad Juarez
Becomes focal point for Revolution
–
–
–


A provincial capital
Official point of entry between US and Mexico
Morale boost
Diaz negotiates treaty with revolutionaries on May 21,
1911; exiled to France
Madero takes power, but underestimates the discontent
that the majority of Mexicans felt about the social and
economic situations they found themselves under. At
this point, a major fragmentation of revolutionary goals
emerge. Now what?

70. Summarize.
 Think about:
–
–
–
Previously studies theories (historiography)
Murals and their influences, impacts
Precedents and parallels (other LA
nations/revolutions…)

71. What comes after the revolution? (Take 1: Madero)
THINGS FAIL TO COME
TOGETHER

72. Madero’s Mistakes



Enemies within:
– Allowed Diaz’s military forces to remain in the military
with the assumption that they had learned their lesson
Betrayed land reform:
– He told Emiliano Zapata that lands taken from Indian
villages by hacendados could not be returned
(estranged Zapata)
Weak stand against USA and big business:
– Large oil companies (American owned), large land
owners and others in the economic elite waged a war
of words against Madero in the Mexican press which
inspired rebellion (estranged Orozco and Villa)

75. Result: Zapata and the Plan de
Ayala




Disillusioned with the slow pace of change under
Madero’s leadership, Zapata continued the revolution by
advancing his own plan, the Plad de Ayala.
In the Plan de Ayala Zapata writes that Madero had “no
intentions other than to satisfy his personal ambitions,
boundless instincts as a tyrant, and his profound
disrespect” for the constitution of 1857.
Zapata went onto promise small largely indigenous land
holders that they would be returned their properties
taken by their “oppressors.”
It should be noted that Madero was the owner of an
enormous estancia and had appointed many members
of his family to his government

76. 12. A Mural depicting Zapata with
his Plan de Ayala

78. 12

79. General Huerta Succeeds Madero



In 1913 General Victoriano Huerta overthrew the
Madero government by assassinating him.
Huerta, a general under Madero in the Mexican
army, rose to power with Madero’s death and
with the hope of restoring the rule similar to the
Porfirato.
Huerta rise to power inadvertently initiated the
dramatically revolutionary phase of the Mexican
revolution.

80. Victoriano Huerta

82. Venustiano Carranza and the
Constitutionalist Army

83. Venustiano Carranza joins the
Revolution
Carranza, a wealthy landholder like
Madero organized a third army, mostly of
Mexico’s elite to contest Huerta’s
presidency. In his Plan de Guadalupe
(March 1913) Carranza declared himself
the “First Chief of the Constitutional Army ,”
but said nothing about socio-economic
conditions that propelled Villa and
especially Zapata.

84. Carranza and Obregon

85. Alvaro Obregon Joins Carranza
 Huerta resigned as President in 1914 after
the US refused to recognized him as a
President and sent troops to Veracruz.
 Obregon joined Carranza as a military
strategist. Together they defeated Villa’s
forces in the North and ultimately
assassinated Zapata in the South.

86. The Mexican Constitution of 1917
institutionalizes the revolution



The Mexican constitution of 1917 empowered
the government to redistribute land, recognized
labors right to organize, subjected the church to
new restrictions.
Carranza assumed to the presidency in 1917,
but resigned after trying to rig the first election
under the new constitution.
Obregon succeeded Carranza and organized
the Partido Nacional Revolucionario
– Renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional—
The PRI—in 1946

89. Transitions to stability

From revolution to anarchy (1915-1917)
– US support of Carranza
– Pancho Villa’s exploits and the Pershing expedition

Stability at the Queretaro Convention (October,
1916)
– Purpose is to write a new constitution; desire to end
factionalization and come to some compromise
– Led by Carranza
– Some ideas carry over from the 19th century
– For most part, new constitution based on 20th century liberalism
– Articles 3, 27, and 123

A long term document; seals the Revolution as a
permanent part of Mexican nationalism and
development, and solidifies Carranza’s hold on
power

90. Key Articles—Mexican Constitution
 Article
3
– Education -- secular, obligatory, free
 Article
27
– Land reform, land belongs to Mexico
--subsoil too (why important?)

Article 123
– Labor reform -- workers rights, strikes
and unions legal, minimum wage,
equal for men and women

91. Carranza Presidency (1917-1920)



Generally considered a failure
One shining light = estab. of a
national labor organization =
CROM  Confederacion
Regional Obrera Mexicana,
headed by Luis Morones
Overthrow of Carranza
– Protests from the state of
Sonora (Adolfo de la Huerta,
Plutarco Calles, Alvaro Obregon
 The Sonoran Triangle
– Plan de Agua Prieta

92. The Obregon Presidency (19201924)




Signficance? Mexico’s social
revolution, and the
implementation of the
Revolution, starts here
Agrarian Reform
Labor Reform
Education
– “To educate is to redeem”
– Jose Vasconcelos


Introduction of the ideas of
indigenismo
Never recognized by the US
government

93. Plutarco Calles and the Maximato

New groups to consider via the Revolution
– Organized labor (esp. in the North; major
industrialized areas; tied to Article 123)
– Peasants (esp. in the South and Central; tied to
Article 27)
– Business interests = difficult at time to control

The power and “presidencies” of Calles 
known as the Maximato
–
–
–
–

1924-1928 = Calles
1928-1932 = Emilio Portes Gil
1932-1934 = Abelardo Rodriguez
28-24, Calles not president; but might of well had
been
Key to this period is a distinct shift to the right in
terms of political ideology

94. Themes of the Maximato






Payoff for Social & Economic
Reform  redistribution of
land & more favorable
conditions for workers
Labor & the growth of CROM
Education
US/Mexican relations 
cautious warming
Formation of the PNR 
Ptd. Nacional Revolucionario;
attempts to bring stability to
politics
War on Mexican Communists

95. Problems with the Maximato?
 Shift to the right ideologically; away from
some of the principles of the Revolution
 Responses?
– To the left, towards socialism
 “The Socialists ABCs”
– To the right, The Cristero Revolt
– Existence of regional caciques counter Calles
goals
 Global obstacles to the social revolution =
The Great Depression

96. Muralist Movement - Diego Rivera



Emerges out of the
Revolution; an artistic and
political expression of a
new Mexico and Mexican
identity
Embraces the Indian as a
positive force in the
formation of Mexican
identity
New emphasis on the
indigenous side of the
identity equation =
indigenismo ; through
policies, art, culture,
history

102. Cardenas & Mexican Populism
(1934-1940)

103. Background


Born in 1895; Michoacan; educated through the
6th grade
Experiences during the Revolution led him into
politics
– Acting governor of Michoacan under Obregon
– Governor under Calles (1928-1932); road tests many
policies he would bring to the national level


Hand picked by Calles as candidate for
president in 1934
Demonstrated his populist tendencies during the
campaign; evoked principles of the Revolution

104. Cardenas and the Social
Revolution
 Open lines of communication with the
public
 Modest in his own public displays
 Breaks from the Calles machine
 Becomes president during a time of
transition in the Revolutionary generations
 Is the most successful of the postRevolutionary presidents in
institutionalizing the Revolution

105. Agrarian Reform

The first focus of his
presidency
– “A Convention at Zacapu”

Agrarian Reform (Article
27)
– Returns close to 50 million
acres
– Agrarian reform – not just
land reform
– Reinforcing the ejido
– “The Agrarian Reform at La
Laguna”

106. Labor Reform

Labor Reform (Article 123)
– Developing sophistication of
labor unions
– CROM  CTM
– Dealt with bread & butter issues,
especially the wage structure

Nationalization of Railways &
Oil
– “The Oil Expropriation” as an
example of nation building;
significant support from other LA
nations
– Calls for intervention in the US
– Question of value of
compensation ($200M vs. $24M)
– Creation of PEMEX

107. Political Reform




Redefining Politics
PRN  PRM (Partido Revolucionario Mexicano; 1938)
Question of how to create political unity; examined in
“Cardenas & The Masses”
Type of integration of different groups into national
politics; defines Cardenas populist style, but is it really
about true political integration or political control
– “Cardenas took care to guide the workers’ struggle toward
purely economic rewards, and when they were integrated into
the political process they remained subordinate to, and
controlled by, the State, through the official party” (Arturo
Anguiano)


Formation of the CNC  Confederacion Nacional de
Campesinos
Formation of the CTM  Confederacion Trabajadores
Mexicanos; led by Vicente Lombardo

108. The Mexican Revolution
Accomplished the Following:
 Nationalization of the oil industry
 Transfer of more than 45 million acres of
land to the power
 The near monopoly of political power by
the PRI
 A socialist orientation by the politicians
that followed

109. PERSPECTIVES AND
HISTORIOGRAPHY

110. http://www.fragilecologies.com/jun27_03.html THEORY OF RISING EXPECTATIONS
Davies J-Curve
110

111. Causes of Revolution III:
Theory of Rising Expectations

The “J-Curve” theory of
political revolutions

"Revolutions are most likely to
occur when a prolonged period of
objective economic and social
development is followed by a
short period of sharp reversal.
People then subjectively fear that
ground gained with great effort
will be quite lost; their mood
becomes revolutionary.Various
statistics—as on rural uprisings,
industrial strikes, chocolate is
yummy, unemployment, and cost
of living—may serve as crude
indexes of popular mood. More
useful, though less easy to obtain,
are direct questions in crosssectional interviews. The goal of
predicting revolution is conceived
but not yet born or matured."

112. http://www.fragilecologies.com/jun27_03.html
THEORY OF RISING EXPECTATIONS
Davies J-Curve
112

113. Pause and Reflect
• Turn to the people to your left and right
and summarize the three devices/theories
of revolution we have looked at thus far
113

114. Mexican Revolution (1910-40)



Radicals v. Reformers
Thin line?
Periodization:
– Armed (Revolution) Phase
(1910-20)
– Reform Phase (1920-40)

Best organizational
method: These two large
phases, combined with
more specific
breakdowns based on
historiographic
decisions…

115. Consider periodization…
 Great men
 Social reform
 Legislature
 World Events
 USA influence
 Political upheavals

116. Historiography 1

Orthodox View (ca. 1930-late 1960s):
– Revolution was a mass, unanimous uprising; peasant
v. small number of exploiters
– Regime of the 1920s was a populist, nationalist
regime
– Despite emphasis on peasant movement, mostly TopDown
– Myth of the Revolution – supported by the
government, 1930 
– Notable purveyors of this view: Frank Tannenbaum,
Robert E. Quirk, Charles Cumberland

117. Historiography 2

Revisionist View (1968-1970s):
– There really was no revolution – it was just a political
‘shuffle’ of elites or just a ‘great rebellion’
– Just a change from one dictator (Diaz) to another
(Calles/Cardenas)
– As revision develops, studies moved away from TopDown and focused on the social movements (e.g.
Jean Meyer’s La Cristiada)
– Development of the Microhistory (e.g. Paul
Friedrich’s Agrarian Revolution in a Mexican Village
and *Luiz Gonzalez’s San Jose de Gracia*)
– Notable purveyors of this view: Ramon Ruiz, Jean
Meyer

118. Historiography 3

Post-revisionist view (1980s-now)
–
–
–
Synthesis of the orthodox and revisionist views
Revolution was first and foremost a social movement
Regional perspective (North/Center/South) is key;
generalization must be carefully constructed
– Continued debate over top-down (e.g. E. Krauze) vs.
bottom-up (regional microhistorians)
– Notable purveyors of this perspective: Alan Knight,
Linda Hall, John Womack, DA Brading

119. Reflect
 Think of our readings:
–
–
–
–
The Nation articles?
Your documents?
Keen?
Cockcroft?
 Where do they stand in these debates?

120. Historiography 4

Top-Down vs. Bottom-up
– Who was more influential: the leaders or the masses?
– Cannot understand the revolution looking only at the
leaders – it was a social revolution
– Yet can still learn a lot about the revolution from the
careers of the leaders – especially leaders such as
Zapata, Obregon, Cardena
– Compare to Cuban Revolution theories: rising
expectations, great men, etc.

121. Historiography 5--Emphasis
 According to Nora Hamilton, Cardenas
reached the “limits of state autonomy” in
1938. Due to the nature of his
‘progressive alliance’, he was eventually
forced to slow down the revolutionary
policies
– According the orthodox view, his policies were
the culmination of the revolutionary promises

122. Radicals/Revolutionaries v. Reformers


IB likes to make this distinction—clearly define
these in your essay—good element for your intro
What is a Radical/Revolutionary?
– In MR, can be divided into 2 groups:
 Agraristas – groups led to revolt due primarily to agrarian
grievances. Thus, main goal was agrarian reform (e.g.
Zapata)
 Serranos – groups led to revolt due to threats to way of life,
varied based on region. Main goals included autonomy,
political control, cultural independence (e.g. Pancho Villa)
– Both groups have common ground: they entered into
revolution due to expansion under the Porfiriato

123. Radicals/Revolutionaries vs. Reformers (2)

What is a Reformer?
– Working through governmental or legal institutions to
bring about change
– After the Armed Revolution, succession of Presidents
who attempted to institutionalise the revolution
through reforms
– Types of reforms depended on the President – e.g.
Obregon – political; Calles – cultural; Cardenas –
socio-economic

Can a Reformer be a Radical? Are all
Revolutionaries Radical?

124. Urban Labor

Where does the:
– Casa del Obrero Mundial (1912)
 House of the World Worker
 Anarcho-Syndicalism/Red Battalions
– CROM (1918)
 Confederación Regional Obrera Mexicana
 Government cooperation/Art. 123/Cristero War
– CTM (1936)
 Confederación de Trabajadores de México
 Cardenas/PRI/elimination of independent labor

Did urban labor organization betray the promise of the
Magonistas?

125. Map of Mexico - Regionalisation

126. Review:
PHASES AND LEADERS

127. Armed Phase (1910-20)


‘Revolutionary’ Leaders:
– Francisco I. Madero
– Pascual Orozco (?)
– Emiliano Zapata
– Pancho Villa
– Venustiano Carranza
– Alvaro Obregon
Counter-Revolutionaries:
– Victoriano Huerta
– Felix Diaz
– Bernardo Reyes
– Pascual Orozco (?)

Timeline
– 1908 – Publication of La Sucesion
Presidencial and the Creelman
Interview
– 1910 – Madero arrested, publication of
Plan de San Luis Potosi, armed
revolution begins with uprisings in
North
– 1911 – Diaz resigns and flees to
France, Madero elected, Plan de Ayala
published
– 1913 – Decena Tragica, Huertista coup
– 1914 – Huerta overthrown, Convention
of Aguascalientes
– 1915 – Villa defeated at Celaya,
Carranza sets up government from
Vera Cruz
– 1917 – Constitution published, Obregon
resigns
– 1919 – Obregon announces candidacy,
Zapata killed in Morelos
– 1920 – Obregon leads quick coup,
Carranza flees but is found and killed

128. Francisco I. Madero




“The Mexican does not want
bread, he wants the liberty to
earn bread.”


From a wealthy hacendado family
in Laguna (Coahuila)
Wrote La Sucesion Presidencial en
1910 in 1908, arguing that the
corruption of the government must
be stopped by the election of a
new VP
Authored Plan de San Luis Potosi,
which called for the overthrow of
Diaz and very moderate land
reform
‘Led’ armed revolution until signing
of Treaty of Ciudad Juarez in 1911
Elected as president after the
interim regime of de la Barra
He was short, had a squeaky voice
and believed in mysticism

129. Maderismo as a government


Lasted until Madero’s overthrow and murder in
1913…
What did he do?
– Oversaw the fairest election Mexico had ever seen
– Allowed for the development of political parties (e.g.
Partido Nacional Catolico)
– Defended the freedom of press (to his own detriment
– not even his wife was spared!)
– Supported the labour movements with the
establishment of the Department of Labour
(abandonment of liberal laissez faire?)

130. Maderismo as a government (cont)

Why did it fail?
–
–
–
Continued influence of Porfirian elites/the Right
Heavy political debt to the army
Abandonment of Liberal ideology in favour of forced
order
– Disillusionment of revolutionaries
– Miscalculation of the Right – loose alliance of
landowners, ex-Porfirian intellectuals, officer corps of
the federal army
Verdict:
Radical or Reformer?

131. Emiliano Zapata






“Where there were Zapatistas, there were
guarantees.”

Began as the leader of the Defensive
Commission of Anenecuilco
Began a revolutionary movement in
Morelos in 1910, with the main goal of land
reform
Published the Plan de Ayala in 1911 after
Madero refused to initiate radical land
reforms and after the actions of the federal
army
Became leader of a complex network of
revolutionaries that helped to overthrow
Huerta in 1913
Allied with Villa in 1914 and the Zapatista
intellectuals became prominent in the
Conventionalist government
Continued fighting against the Carrancista
government until death in 1919
Was renowned for his horse-training skills

132. Zapatismo


Existed as a separate revolutionary movement
from 1911-20
What did it want?
– Land Reform – it wanted to redistribute the lands that
had been taken away from the campesinos of
Morelos
– Protection of Indian communities – wanted to prevent
the expansion of centralised power and culture
– Protection of rights based on the ideals of ‘Liberalism’
(see Constitution of 1857)
– Did NOT want to rule the whole of Mexico – the
Zapatistas felt out of place during their occupation of
Mexico City

133. Zapatismo (cont)

What did it do?
– Oversaw the expropriation of several haciendas, while
attempting to maintain the hacienda model. Miguel Palafox
(secretary until 1917) was the minister of agriculture in the
Conventionalist government
– Gave unifying ideology to the numerous revolutionary
movements of Central and Southern Mexico (especially in
Guerrero, Puebla, Morelos and Tlaxcala), which contributed to
the downfall of Huerta
– Continued a guerilla war that tore apart Morelos
– Constructed alliance with Obregon and other revolutionaries in
1919/20 that led to the downfall of Carranza

Was a collective, social, agrarian movement influenced
by the agrarian cycle
Verdict:
Radical or Reformer?

134. Alvaro Obregon










“I had so many brothers and sisters that 
when we had Gruyere cheese, only the holes
were left for me!”
Small ranchero from Sonora who
eventually built up a chickpea empire
Entered the revolution in 1913 after
Huertista coup
Fought as Constitutionalist under
Carranza
Attended 1914 Convention
Defeated Pancho Villa at Celaya in 1915
Became Secretary of War in Carranza
administration in 1915
Retired to farm in 1917 (though had his
eye on the Presidency)
Ran for President in 1919
Led quick military coup against Carranza
in 1920
Elected President, 1920
Obsessed with death (acc. Krauze),
invented a chickpea picking machine, lost
arm in battle (was subsequently
preserved like a pickle and displayed)

135. What can Obregon’s career tell us about the
Constitutionalist and Sonoran Revolutions?




During the Armed Phase, Obregon gained much
popularity and garnered support for the Constitutionalists
(nominally led by Venustiano Carranza, as established
by the Plan de Guadalupe)
Worked under the government of Carranza until 1917 –
due to legitimacy?
Though he fought under someone else, he retained a
great deal of independence (reflection of Sonoran
independence?)
Created a much more professional army – with regular
wages, better training, and more discipline (reflection of
Sonoran values?)

136. What can Obregon’s career tell us about the
Constitutionalist and Sonoran Revolutions? (cont)


Was a key player in the Constitutional Congress in
Querretaro in 1916/17. Used his political and military
influence to push through several reforms (e.g. Articles 3
and 130 and Article 27)
Was able to harness the power of the rising labour
movements (e.g. Red Battalions), which was especially
important in 1920 with the support of Luis Morones, and
the indigenous populations (e.g. the Yaquis)
– These groups would become essential to the presidencies of the
1920s and ‘30s

Established the Sonoran Dynasty in 1920 – culmination
of what Jean Meyer calls an ‘invasion’ from the North”
and emphasises the importance of institutions
Verdict:
Radical or Reformer?

137. So…What can we conclude?




Although Madero called for a revolution, he himself was
more a reformer – preferred to wait until order was
restored before attempting any major changes
Zapatismo was a radical, proactive movement – in the
sense of land reform – but also was largely a responsive,
regional movement
Obregonismo had a profound impact on the course of
the revolution. It was radical in its support of certain
clauses in the 1917 Constitution. But it was also
moderate in its dependence on institutions…
So, in the Armed Phase, both radicals and reformers
played important roles. It can be argued however, that
the radicals were more influential to this phase overall…

138. Reform phase (1920-40)

139. Mexican Revolution (1910-1940)

Reform Phase (192040)

Looking at three
presidencies:
– Obregon (1920-24)
– Calles (1924-28)
– Cardenas (1934-40)

140. Timeline

1920 – Obregon elected
President
– Jose Vasconcelos becomes
Rector of National University





1923 – Signing of the Bucareli
Agreements
– de la Huerta uprising


1924 – Plutarco Elias Calles
elected
1926 – Church boycott and
suspension, the beginning of
the Cristero Rebellion
1927 – US Intervention Crisis
1928 – Assassination of
Obregon
1928 – Portes Gil president
1929 – Ceasefire between
Cristeros and Federal
Government
– Partido Nacional
Revolucionario (PNR) est.






1930 – Ortiz Rubio president
1932 – Abelardo Rodriguez
president
1934 – Lazaro Cardenas
elected
1936 – CTM est
1936 – Calles exiled
1938 – Oil expropriation
– PNR reorganised into Partido
de la Revolucion de Mexico

141. Just to make sure…
 PNR: 1929
–
–
National Revolutionary Party
Calles
 PRM: 1938
–
–
Party of the Mexican Revolution
Cardenas
 PRI: 1946
– Institutional Revolutionary Party
– Manuel Ávila Camacho

142. Regionalisation

143. Radical vs. Reformer
 Review:
 What is a Radical/Revolutionary?
–
–
–
Two groups in the MR
Followed which leaders, respectively?
Common ground for the two groups, which
allowed them to join with Madero?
 What is a reformer?
–
–
How are reformers different from radicals?
Can you be both a reformer and a radical?
Why or why not—and how?

144. Obregon (1920-24, ’28)





Started as a Constitutionalist under
Carranza (eventually became a
general)
Came to presidency with support
of CROM, much of the military,
Partido Laborista Mexicano (PLM),
and great popularity
Gained de jure recognition from
the US in 1923 (why?)
Survived military threat led by de la
Huerta
Re-elected in 1928, but was
assassinated

145. Obregon’s Presidency (1920-24)

Very able populist leader
– He had an interesting sense of humour
– Was able to have good dialogue with the people
– When he came to power, the revolutionary government was quite fragile – he
had to cut deals with a variety of groups (e.g. Zapatistas)


Throughout his presidency, the economy continued to expand under the
Sonoran ideal of ‘managed capitalism’
Depends on institutions
– Banco de Mexico, labor arbitration courts, Bank of Ejidal credit
– Military institutions - he professionalizes the army while reducing its
dominance (budget decreases from 70% in 1917 to 30% in 1925)




Very moderate land reform – only 4 million hectares redistributed
Abandons Sonoran ideal of state autonomy and pursues a policy of
centralized intervention (reneges on promises of Plan de Agua Prieta)
Maintains relations with both Left and Right factions, follows cautious
policy towards the Church
Relations with the US – Bucareli Treaty 1923
Verdict:
Radical or Reformer?

146. Plutarco Elias Calles (1924-8)






“Mexico for the
Mexicans“

Became a General in Constitutionalist
Army
Served as Governor of Sonora (1917-19)
Helped to author the Plan de Agua Prieta
in 1920, aligning himself with Obregon
During Presidency, enforced Articles 3
and 130, leading to Cristero Rebellion
(1926-9)
Rejected Bucareli Treaty, upheld and
reinforced Article 27
His administration almost brought Mexico
and the US to war in 1927 over oil
Was very well read, lacked the populist
personality, and was interested in
Fascist Italy

147. Calles: Church v State Conflict

Constitution of 1917
–
–
–
–



Article 3 – no religious education
Article 27 – land reform
Article 123 – labor reform –Church despised this, tithing
Article 130 – restricts the church: allows the state to control the
clergy through registration and restrictions on numbers
Calles and several state governors (esp. Garrido
Canabal) began a radical enforcement of these laws
The church hierarchy called for an economic boycott and
a suspension of priest-led services in 1926 in retaliation
By the end of 1926, Cristero rebels had taken up arms in
several states: Michoacan, Jalisco (esp Los Altos),
Colima, Guanajuato.

148. Calles: Church v State Conflict (cont)

The Cristiada was not primarily due to religion. It was a
response to the continued expansion of the revolutionary
institutions under Calles
– These areas had not participated in the Armed Phase
– The revolutionary government was attempting to impose its own
ideals upon these communities
– Those that did not participate: areas heavily involved in the revolution
(best example: Morelos), areas where the church did not have a
strong foothold, agrarista communities


The Cristiada rebellion offers an excellent example of the
expanding scope of the revolutionary government under the
Sonorans
The armed conflict was resolved in 1929, with mediation
from Ambassador Morrow (explains argument for 1911-1929 periodization)
Verdict:
Radical reformer?

149. The ‘Maximato’ (1928-34)


After Obregon’s assassination, Calles decided
not to run again, but instead to place men on the
presidential throne that he could easily control
Mainly through the newly established Partido
Nacional Revolucionario (est 1929)
– Originally started out as an umbrella for a variety of
different local/regional parties (as many as 8,000 in
the 1920s)

Succession of Presidents:
–
–
–
Emilio Portes Gil (1928-30)
Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930-2)
Abelardo Rodriguez (1932-4)

150. The ‘Maximato’ (1928-34) (cont)

Socio-economic reform, especially land reform, was
halted during this period with a general movement
towards conservatism
– Partially due to economic stagnation and decline following 1927
(and, of course, the Global Depression of the 1930s)
– Calles believed the solution to the economic crisis was not
redistributing land, but encouraging production
– Crack down on communist party and several unions

Abelardo Rodriguez had a greater extent of
independence than is traditionally thought. During his
presidency, several ‘Cardenismo’ reforms were started
(e.g. the movement towards socialist education under
Narciso Bossols).

151. Lazaro Cardenas (1934-40)




“I am convinced that the good
intentions of a ruler are simply not
enough...and that the collective factor
represented by the workers is
indispensable”
From Michoacan (eventually
would become governor)
Entered the revolution in the
Constitutionalist Army – his
experiences influenced his
later ideologies
Elected President in 1934
Traditional periodisation of his
presidency:
– 1934-6: deconstructing the
Maximato
– 1936-8: radical reform
– 1938-40: deceleration of
revolutionary reform


Very austere lifestyle – did not
like to drink
Had wide-ranging influence

152. Cardenismo (1930-1940)


Brought the end to the Maximato (eventually
exiled Calles in 1936)
Was a populist government – he spent almost 18
months on gira (political tours of the country)
– According the orthodox view, his policies were the
culmination of the revolutionary promises

He continued the expansion of the revolutionary
state

153. Cardenismo (1930-1940) (cont)

Had several major policies:
– Land reform: over 18 million hectares redistributed. Collective programmes
(e.g. Laguna). Also supported collectivisation of peasants under
Confederacion Nacional Campesina.
– Education: attempts to establish a socialist education programme were
largely unsuccessful
– Labour: supported the CTM (led by Toledano) and continued sympathetic
policies seen under Obregon and Calles
– Oil: expropriation in 1938 (considered height of Cardenismo). Issue began
as labour conflict, but became a threat to Mexican sovereignty
– Politics: reformed the PNR, creating the PRM. Employed the corporative
structure. After 1938, Cardenas became much more conciliatory to the
Right (e.g. Avila Camacho)


According to Nora Hamilton, Cardenas reached the “limits of state
autonomy” in 1938. Due to the nature of his ‘progressive alliance’, he
was eventually forced to slow down the revolutionary policies
Supported Manuel Avila Camacho as his successor
Verdict: Radical or Reformer?

154. Reminder: Cultural Revolution
Beginning in the 1920s, especially with the encouragement of
Vasconcelos, Mexican art, music, and literature experienced a cultural
revitilisation. It emphasised the indigenismo ideals and glorified the
revolutionary experience.
Diego Rivera,
Novelists:
Jose Clemente Orozco,
Martin Luis Guzman
Frida Kahlo
Mariano Azuela

155. So…Can we conclude?





Obregon was a radical during the Armed Phase, but was
a moderate reformer during his presidency
Calles was, in the cultural sense, a radical. In the socioeconomic sense, especially during the Maximato, he
became a moderate reformer (if not a bit conservative)
Cardenas expanded his radical policies until he reached
the “limits of state autonomy.” After 1938, the revolution
had succeeded in entrenching itself institutionally and
ideologically.
In the 1920s and 30s, through state encouragement,
Mexico underwent a cultural revolution that further
imprinted the revolution upon ‘Mexican’ culture
Can a Reformer be a Radical?
– Yes, in different spheres: Calles and Cardenas, traditional
‘reformers’ can also be considered ‘radicals’
– Yes, CCOT: Obregon began as a radical and evolved into a
reformer (although some question how radical he ever was…)

156. But Can We
Conclude?
"This chapter tells how the
supreme government was affected
by the poverty of the Indigenous
peoples of Chiapas and endowed
the area with hotels, prisons,
barracks, and a military airport. It
also tells how the beast feeds on
the blood of the people, as well as
other miserable and unfortunate
happenings...A handful of
businesses, one of which is the
Mexican State, takes all the wealth
out of Chiapas and in exchange
leave behind their mortal and
pestilent mark."

157. Thinking IB
 The Mexican Revolution can be used to
answer questions on:
–
–
–
The Mexican Revolution (obviously)
U.S. Foreign Policy
Causes, Practices and Effects of War (P2)
 Know how to break the revolution down,
and make an individual argument

158. Common Topics
 Art and muralism
 Stages of the Revolution
 US influence
 Reform or Revolution?
 Success? (Political, social, economic)?
 Top-down v. bottom-up (Were the
expectations rising or imposed?)

159. CAN YOU ANSWER…

160. Essential Questions 1





Who can be considered the father of the
Mexican Revolution?
Was the Mexican Revolution a true revolution?
(S,P,E)
How successful and lasting were the influences
of Zapata and Villa on the revolution?
Why did the Mexican Revolution last so long?
(10, 20, 30 years?)
Had the aims of the leaders of the revolution be
achieved by 1940?

161. Essential Questions 2





How did greater geo-political developments and patronclient relationships define the policies of Latin American
leaders?
What are the causes and consequences of revolution?
What were the major stages of the Mexican Revolution
(1910-1920) and who were the relevant leaders and
forces?
What were the key policies of the Reconstruction Era
(1920-1933)?
What were the main elements of Cardenas reform
program (1934-1940)?

162. Essential Questions 3




How did the Mexican Revolution shape Mexican politics
and economic after 1940?
When are a people justified to revolt?
How were foreign nations implicit in creating the 20th
Century inequities and conflicts of Latin America?
Should local governments and leaders be held
accountable for their collusion with interests outside
Latin America?

163. CAN YOU COMPOSE AN
ANALYTICAL RESPONSE
TO…

164. Potential Essay Questions 1





Evaluate the extent to which the United States
participated in the Mexican Revolution.
To what extent were the goals of the revolution achieved
by 1940?
Analyze the causes of the Great Depression in one
country in the Americas
Analyze the impact of the Mexican Revolution on the arts
in Mexico. Explain why conservative or moderate
politicians such as Obregon and Calles supported such
radical, leftist and anti-imperialist artists.
Describe and analyze American policy toward the
Mexican Revolution and its impact on the development
of the revolution

165. Potential Essay Questions 2





Compare and contrast the reform movements of Villa and
Zapata with special focus on the causes for the differences
Analyze the causes for and impacts of Madero’s break with the
other leaders of the Mexican Revolution
Evaluate the political and economic significance of the
Constitution of 1917
What conclusions does the Mexican experience with dependent
capitalist development suggest concerning the program's
viability as a solution for the problems of Latin American
underdevelopment and poverty in general?
Was the Mexican Revolution a revolution against the status quo
or a civil war between irreconcilable factions in Mexican
society?

166. CAN YOU IDENTIFY AND
DESCRIBE…

168. When instructed, write everything you know about the following
items on your assigned whiteboards.
Concentrated Review

169. Leaders
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Madero
Cardenas
Calles
Obregon
Zapata & Villa
Diaz

170. Documents
 Constitution of 1917 (in general)
 Article 3 & 130
 Article 27
 Article 123
 Plan of Ayala
 Plan of San Luis Potosi

171. MR and USA
 Bucareli Agreement
 Pershing Expedition
 Henry Lane Wilson
 Oil Expropriation
 Vera Cruz
 Zimmerman Telegram

172. Interest Groups
 Agraristas
 Rancheros
 Soldaderas
 CROM
 Cristeros
 Zapatistas

173. Geography
 Sonora
 Chihuahua
 Morelos
 Yucatan and Chiapas
 DF
 Exiles in USA

174. A Cultural Revolution
 Flores Magon Brothers
 Jose Vasconcelos
 Diego Rivera & Frida Kahlo
 Muralism and Muralists
 José Clemente Orozco
 David Alfaro Siqueiros
 Bonus: Catrina

175. Mexican Revolution Online

http://runyon.lib.utexas.edu/conflict.html

http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/mex-revolution.ht

http://ibhistory.wikidot.com/3-12

anthropology.ac.uk/era_resources/era/peasants/mexic

http://www.casahistoria.net/mexicorevolution.htm