Evolution in ecosystems

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The process by which a new species develops from the existing species is known as speciation. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic. A species can be defined as one or more populations of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated in nature from all other organisms. When populations no longer interbreed, they are thought to be separate species. There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, Parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Allopatric speciation: It is regarded as the most common type of speciation. It involves the physical separation of a species into two groups. This may occur due to climatic changes, movement of tectonic plates leading to the fragmentation of a mass of land, or eruption of a land mass, formation of waterways, or due to the presence of an impassable mountain range. Parapatric mode of speciation: It occurs due to partial spatial isolation of populations, and is characterized by a small overlap in their ranges as well as significant gene flow amongst the populations. However, the gene flow reduces due to changes in the local conditions, and the two populations become reproductively isolated. Sympatric mode of speciation: It involves the formation of new species due to a genetic divergence among a few members of the species inhabiting a single geographic area. Unlike the other modes of speciation, here genetic divergence does not arise due to increase in geographic distance, but occurs within the same niche. Peripatric speciation was Proposed by Ernst Mayr. In this type of speciation, a small group of members inhabiting a peripheral region of the range undergo reproductive isolation to form a new species. Many a time, it is considered to be a variation of allopatric speciation.

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To determine the variation and the limitation between species, many concepts have been proposed. When a taxonomist study a particular taxa, he/she must adopted a species concept and provide a species limitation to define this taxa. Plant kingdom as other living kingdoms has a hierarchy structure ends mostly with species rank. Species are one of the basic units to compare in almost all fields of biology. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction. Definition of a species as a group of interbreeding individuals cannot be easily applied to organisms that reproduce only or mainly asexually. If two lineages of oak look quite different, but occasionally form hybrids with each other, should we count them as different species? Idea of a species is something that we humans invented for our own convenience. ‘‘No matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as distinguish a species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa” - JOHN RAY. Used a sexual system ‘‘natural system” for defining species - LINNAEUS. ‘‘A species is a collection of all the individuals which resemble each other more than they resemble anything else, which can by natural fecundation produce fertile individuals, and which reproduce themselves by generation, in such a manner that we may from analogy suppose them all to have sprung from one single individual” - DE CANDOLLE.

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