Public Opinion and Persuasion

1. “Public opinion is the collective expression of opinion of many individuals
bound into a group by common aims, aspirations, needs, and ideals.
 Sociologists describe opinion leaders as:
(1) highly interested in a subject or issue,
(2) better informed on an issue than the average person,
(3) avid consumers of mass media,
(4) early adopters of new ideas, and
(5) good organizers who can get other people to take action.
 The life cycle of public opinion includes
(1) definition of the issue,
(2) involvement of opinion leaders,
(3) public awareness,
(4) government/regulatory involvement, and
(5) resolution.
 Persuasion is used to
(1) change/neutralize hostile opinions,
(2) crystallize latent opinions and positive attitudes, and
(3) conserve favorable opinions.
 The most common propaganda techniques are known as
(1) plain folks,
(2) testimonial,
(3) bandwagon,
(4) card stacking,
(5) transfer, and
(6) glittering generalities.
Communications
The basic objective to most public relations programs is to change or neutralize hostile
opinions, to crystallize unformed or latent opinions, or to conserve favourable opinions
by reinforcing them. This is done through persuasion. Primarily a communications
process, persuasion is an effort to convey information in such a way as to get people to
revise old pictures in their heads, or form new ones, and thus change their behaviour.
 Channel – The means or pathway through which a message is transmitted from
source to receiver.
 Connotative meaning – The emotional or evaluative meaning we read into words
because of our experience and background.
 Context – The communications setting.

2.  Denotative meaning – The common dictionary meaning of a word, generally
accepted by most people with the same language and culture.
 Effect – The outcome of communications.
 Feedback – The return of information to the source of a message.
 Field of experience – Each person’s storehouse of experiences.
 Gatekeeper – A person who has the power to control and direct the flow of
information as well as the ability to limit, expand, emphasize or interpret that
information.
 Message – The content of the communicative act.
 Multiple channel approach – Communicating a message through a variety of
channels, including various mass media, personal conversation, meetings, etc.
 Noise – Anything that interferes with the ability to send or receive messages.
 Receiver – The person who is the target (intended or unintended) of the source’s
efforts during the communication process.
 Semantics – The study of the meanings of speech forms, especially of the
development and changes in meaning of words and word groups.
 Source – The person who originates and transmits a message to others during the
communication process.
 Stereotypes – Fixed, unchanging mental images that embrace all that is believed to
be typical of members of a given group. When we make use of stereotypes, we
categorize people or things without regard for their individual characteristics.
 Theory of cognitive dissonance – A person’s tendency to avoid information that is
dissonant or opposed to her or his own point of view. Tending to seek out
information that is consonant or in support of one’s own attitudes.
 Threshold of consciousness – This must be reached before an idea becomes a
factor in the attitude of an individual or group. The process through which a concept
passes from complete obscurity through the various stages of awareness in one’s
mind.
Persuasion: Pervasive in Our Lives
Richard Perloff says, “Persuasion is an activity or process in which a
communicator attempts to induce a change in the belief, attitude, or behavior of another
person or group of persons through the transmission of a message in a context in which
the persuadee has some degree of free choice.”
Professor Robert Heath of the University of Houston says:
“Public relations professionals are influential rhetors. They design, place and
repeat messages on behalf of sponsors on an array of topics that shape views of
government, charitable organizations, institutions of public education, products and
consumerism, capitalism, labor, health and leisure. These professionals speak, write
and use visual images to discuss topics and take stances on public policies at the local,
state and federal levels.

3. The Dominant View of Public Relations
The dominant view of PR is one of persuasive communication actions performed
on behalf of clients, according to Professors Dean Kruckberg at the University of
Northern Iowa and Ken Starck at the University of Iowa.
Oscar Gandy, Jr states, “The primary role of public relations is one of purposeful,
self-interested communications.”
Edward Bernays calls PR the “engineering” of consent to create “a favorable and
positive climate of opinion toward the individual, product, institution or idea which is
represented.”
Persuasion should be a dialog between points of view.
Persuasion is the freedom of speech used by every individual and organization to
influence opinion, understanding, judgment and action.
Uses of Persuasion
Persuasion is used to…
 Change or neutralize hostile opinions
 Crystallize latent opinions and positive attitudes
 Conserve favorable opinions
 The most difficult persuasive task is to turn hostile opinions into favorable ones.
 People tend to ignore or disbelieve contradictory information once they’ve formed their
opinion.
 People tend to generalize from personal experience and what peers tell them.
 Persuasion is easier when the message is compatible with a person’s general
disposition toward a subject.
 A good reputation translates to sales and donations.
 The easiest form of persuasion is communication that reinforces favorable opinions.
 By providing a steady stream of reinforcing messages, PR people keep the reservoir of
goodwill in sound condition.
 These continual efforts to maintain the reservoir of goodwill is called preventive public
relations.
 This is the most effective type of PR
Factors in Persuasive Communication
Factors involved in persuasive communication:
 Audience Analysis
 Source Credibility
 Appeal to Self-Interest
 Clarity of Message
 Timing and Context
 Audience Participation

4.  Suggestions for Action
 Persuasive Speaking
Audience Analysis
 Knowledge of audience characteristics (beliefs, attitudes, lifestyles, etc.) is an essential
part of persuasion.
 Persuasive messages are more effective when they take into account the audience’s
lifestyles, beliefs and concerns.
 Basic demographic information is readily available through census data and can help
determine an audience’s gender, income level, education, ethnic background and age
groupings.
 Other data can give information on a group’s buying habits, disposable income and
ways of spending leisure time.
 Psychographics attempts to classify people by lifestyle, attitudes and beliefs.
 The Values and Lifestyle Program (VALS) is routinely used in PR to help
communicators structure persuasive messages to different elements of the population.
 This use of audience analysis and tailored messages in the appropriate media outlets is
called channeling.
Source Credibility
 A message is more believable when the source has credibility.
 Source credibility is based on three factors:
 Expertise: Does the audience perceive the person as an expert?
 Sincerity: Does the person come across as believing what they’re saying?
 Charisma: Is the individual attractive, self-assured and articulate?
 Ideally, a source will exhibit all three attributes.
 Various spokespersons can be used and quoted for better credibility.
 Expertise is less important if celebrities are used as spokespersons.
 Their primary purpose is to cause attention to the product or service.
 There are problems with celebrity spokespeople.
 Sometimes the public can’t remember which celebrity endorses what, due to the high
number of celebrity endorsements.
 Overexposure of a celebrity.
 A celebrity’s actions might undercut the product or service.
 Britney Spears was photographed drinking Coke while under contract to promote Pepsi.
 The German unit of America Online portrayed tennis legend Boris Becker as a “family
man” in ads; he divorced his wife shortly thereafter.
 Summary: The use of various sources for credibility depends on the type of audience
being reached. That is why audience analysis is the first step in formulating persuasive
messages.
Appeal to Self Interest
Publics become involved in issues or pay attention to messages that appeal to
their psychological or economical needs.

5. Ex: Publicity for a Personal Computer
-Consumers are interested in how the computer can make life easier for them.
* How do charitable organizations gather volunteers and donations?
Although people who volunteer are not paid for their time they do get something in
return.
-esteem
Public Relations people understand psychological needs and rewards.
Clarity of Message
o The most persuasive messages are direct
o The most persuasive messages are simply expressed
o The most persuasive messages contain only primary ideas
 Public relations personnel should always ask two questions:
 What do I want the audience to do with the message?
 Will the audience understand the message?
 An explicit request for action should be part of the message so the audience knows
what is expected of them.
Timing and Context
Public relations professionals disseminate information at the time it is most highly
valued.
 A message is more persuasive if environmental factors support the message
 Example: A citizens' group lobbying for a stoplight gets more attention if a major
accident has just occured at the intersection.
 A message is more persuasive if the message is received within the context of other
familiar messages and situations.
 Example: A manufacturer of a locking device for computer files got expensive media
coverage about its product simply because its release followed a rash of news stories
about thieves gaining access to bank accounts through computers.
Audience Participation
Getting the audience involved activates a form of self-persuasion and
commitment.
 Involving people, such as employees, in problem-solving allows them to be invested
and therefore commited to making a solution work.
 Distributing product samples allows a consumer to make their own judgement about its
quality, making them more likely to purchase it.
 Organizing group events, such as rallies and demonstrations, gives an audience a
sense of belonging and reinforces their beliefs.

6. Suggestions for Action
A principle of persuasion is that people endorse ideas only if they are
accompanied by a proposed action from the sponsor.
 Recommendations for action must be clear.
 Detailed data and ideas on how to take action on recommendations should also be
provided.
Content and Structure of Messages
A number of techniques can make a message more persuasive.
o Drama- Because everyone likes a good story, the first task of a communicator is to get
the audience's attention. This is often accomplished by graphically illustrating an event
or situation.
o Statistics- Use of numbers can convey objectivity, size, and importance in credible way
that can influence public opinion. Caterplillar, got considerable media publicity for its
new 797 mining dump truck by combining statistics and some humor.
o Surveys and Polls- The most credible surveys are those conducted by independent
research organizations
o Examples- A statement of opinion can be more persuasive if some examples are given.
o Testimonials- A source of credibility, testimonials can be either explict or implied. i.e.
spokesperson for campaigns.
o Endorsements- Paid endorsements by celebrities, products and services benefit from
favorable statements by experts in what is called a third-party endorsement. Media
endorsements , usually unpaid, can come through editorials, reviews, surveys, and new
stories.
o Emotional Appeals- Fund-raising letters from nonprofit groups, in particular, use this
persuasive device.
Persuasive Speaking
Psychologists have found that successful speakers (and salespeople) use
several persuasion techniques:
o Yes-Yes: Start with points with which the audience agrees to develop a pattern of "yes"
answers. Getting agreement to a basic premise often means that the receiver will agree
to the logically developed conclusions.
o Offer structured choice: Give choices that force the audience to choose between A and
B.
o Seek partial commitment: Get a commitment for some action on the part of the receiver.
This leaves the door open for commitment to other parts of the proposal at a later date.
o Ask for more, settle for less: Submit a complete public relations program to
management, but be prepared to comporomise by dropping certain parts of the
program.
Insights

7. Motivation-Ability-Opportunity Model for Enhancing Message Processing
The following chart summarizes the various communication strategies that can be used
to reach publics who have little knowledge or interest in a particular, or service. The
object, of course, is to structure persuasive messages that attract their attention.
Enhance Motivation
Attract and encourage audiences to commence, continue processing
-Create attractive, likable messages (create affect)
-Appeal to hedonistic needs (sex, appetite, safety)
-Use novel stimuli:
o Photos
o Typography
o Oversized formats
o Large number of scenes, elements
o Changes in voice, silence, movement
o Make the most of format features:
o Format size
o Music
o Color
o Include key point in headlines
Enhance Ability
Make it easier to process the message by tapping cognitive resources
-Include background, definitions, explanations
-Be simple, clear
-Use advance organizers (e.g. headlines)
-Include synopses
-Combine graphics, text, and narration
-Use congruent memory cues
-Use specific concrete images
-Make comparison with analogies
-Include marks (logos, logotypes, trademarks)
-Frame stories using culturally resonating themes, catchphrases
Enhance Opportunity
-Expend sufficient effort to provide information
-Repeat messages frequently
-Repeat key points within text--in headlines, text, caption, illustrations, etc
-Use longer messages

8. -Feature "interactive" illustrations, photos
-Avoid distractions:
 Annoying music
 Excessively attractive spokespersons
 Complex arguments
 Disorganized layouts
 -Allow audiences to control pace of processing
-Provide sufficient time
-Keep pace lively and avoid audience boredom
Propaganda
Social Scientist believe that the word propaganda should be only to denote
activity that sells a belief system or constitutes political or ideological dogmaAdvertising
and public relations messages for commercial purposes, however, do use several
techniques commonly associated with propaganda. The most common are the
following:
Plain folk. An approach often used by individual to show humble beginnings
and empathy with the average citizen.
Testimonial. A well-known expert, popular celebrity, or average citizen gives
testimony about the value of a product or the wisdom of a decision.
Bandwagon. The implication or direct statement that everyone wants the
product or that the idea has overwhelming support.
Card stacking. The selection of facts and data to build an overwhelming case on
one side.
Transfer- The technique of associating the person, product or organization with
something that has high status, visiblity, or credibility.
Glittering Generalities- The Technique of associating a cause, product, or idea
with favorable abstractions such as freedom, justice, democracy and the american
way.A student of public relations should be aware of these techniques to make certain
that he or she doesn't intentionally use them to deceive and mislead the public.
Persuasion and Manipulation
The ability to use these techniques often leads to charges that public relations
practitioners have great power to influence and manipulate people. The limitations on
effective persuasive messages can be listed as:
1. lack of message penetration
2. competing message
3. self- selection
4. self-perception

9. Lack of Message Penetration
Communicators message don't always reach target audience. Message can be
distorted and the context of the message can change.
Competing Message
Messages are filtered through a receiver's entire soical structure and belief system.
variables that filter and dilute persuasive messages.
Self- Selection
The people most wanteed in an audience are often the least likely to be there. This is
why social scientist say that the media are more effective in reinforcing existing attitudes
than in changing them.
Self-Perception
Self-perception is the channel through which message are interpreted. If they believe
something to be true and see a story challenging that belief, they assume the story is
biased or just plain wrong.
The Ethics of Persuasion.
Public relations people, by defintion, are advocate of clients and employers.
Ethic criteria for using persuasive devices that should be kept in mind by every public
relations professional:
o Do not use false, , fabricated, misrepresented, distorted, irrelevant evidence to support
arguments or claims.
o Do not intentionally use specious unsupported, or illogical reasoning.
o Do not represent yourself as informed or as an "expert" on a subject when you are not.
o Do not use irrelevant or scrutiny from the issue at hand, Among appeals that commonly
serve such a purpose are smear attacks on an opponents character, appeals to hatred
and bigotry, innuendo, and "God" or "devil" terms that cause intense but unreflective
positive or negative reactions.
o Do not ask your audience to link your idea or proposal to emotion-laden values,
motives, or goals to which it actually is not related.
o Do not deceive your audience by concealing your real purpose, your self interest, the
group you represent, or your purpose as a advocate of a viewpoint.
o Do not distort, hide, or misrepresent the number, scope, intensity, or undesirable feature
of consequences.
o Do not use emotional appeals that lack a supporting basis of evidence or reasoning or
that would not be accepted with the audience at time, an opportunity to examine the
subject itself.
o Do not over simplify complex situations into simplistic, two value, either/or, polar view or
choices.
o Do not pretend certainty when tentativeness and degrees of probability would be more
accurate.

10. o Do not advocate something in which you do not believe yourself.
References:
http://comm2330.wikispaces.com/Ch.+9-+Public+Opinion+and+Persuasion
http://amsakis.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/chapter-9-public-opinion-persuasion/
http://www.mediamiser.com/resources/pr-glossary/persuasion-and-public-opinion/