2. Learning
Change in behaviour: Adaptive or maladaptive
Occurs through practice and experience
Does not occur through maturation, fatigue or species-specific
behaviour
Relatively permanent
3. Products of Learning
Learning of ideas and concepts
Learning of behaviours and skills
Learning of attitudes and values
4. Theory of classical conditioning: Ivan P. Pavlov
When a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is
paired with a natural stimulus (unconditioned stimulus,
UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to elicit
the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally
occurs (unconditioned response, UCR) after natural
stimulus
5. Paradigm of classical conditioning
Stimulus Response
Neutral/Conditioned Stimulus No response
Natural/Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned response
Continuous pairing of the two stimuli
Neutral/Conditioned Stimulus (alone) Conditioned response
Behavioural implication: Learning of negative emotional responses
6. Theory of instrumental conditioning: B. F. Skinner
Increases the likelihood of
Desirable
behaviour
Change in the
Behaviour
environment
Decreases the likelihood of
Undesirable
behaviour
7. Paradigm of instrumental conditioning
Nature of the event following a response
Appetitive Aversive
Positive reinforcement Punishment
Consequence of a
Onset of
(Increases the likelihood (Decreases the
event
response
of behaviour) likelihood of behaviour)
Omission of
Negative reinforcement
Termination reinforcement
(Increases the likelihood
of event (Decreases the
of behaviour)
likelihood of behaviour)
8. Conditioning theories and training process
Applying concepts of generalization and discrimination
Shaping of complex behaviours: Method of Successive
Approximation
Programmed learning
Personalized system of instruction (PSI)
Personalized application of learning paradigm
9. Using punishment in training process
Mild punishment with explanation
Consistent punishment
Closer in time and place of behaviour being punished
Strengthening desired behaviour while punishing the
undesired one
10. Cognitive learning
Learning without being involved in any active process
Selection of information from the environment
Making alterations in the selected information
Associating the items of information with each other
Elaborating information in thought
Storage of information
Retrieval of information when needed
11. Observational learning: Albert Bandura
Attention process
Retention process
Latent Learning
Motivational process
Behavioural production
12. Transfer of learning
Dependency of human learning or performance on prior
experience
Types of transfer of learning
The effect-perspective: Positive vs. Negative transfer
The situation perspective: Specific vs. General, Near vs. Far
transfer
The process perspective: Reproductive vs. Productive
13. Memory
Sensory Register Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Vision: Up to 1 second; Up to 30 Seconds Days, months, years or
Duration Auditory: Up to 5 Seconds lifetime
Relatively large: Up to 16 Relatively small: Up to Unlimited
Capacity
items 7±2 chunks
Attention and recognition: Rehearsal: Rehearsed
Transfer
Attended and recognized items transfer into LTM -
Process
items transfer into STM
Type of Copy of input Sounds, visual images, Semantics, life events
Information words, sentences
Decay of trace Displacement of old No real forgetting; Faulty
Process of information by new one organization of information,
Forgetting Inappropriate retrieval cue,
Interference
14. Types of long term memory
Semantic memory: Words and meanings; relations among
words; rules of use in language and thinking
Storage in highly organized and associative manner
Stable in nature
Procedural memory: Associations between situations, events
and actions
Episodic memory: Memory of events in our lives in relation to
the time and place of their occurrences
15. Forgetting
Loss of information from the memory store
Process of forgetting
Decay of trace
Displacement of information
Retrieval problems Forgetting B
(Proactive interference)
Interference
Learning A Learning B
Forgetting A
(Retroactive interference)
16. Improving memory
Mnemonics: Acronyms
The Method of Loci
Deeper level of analysis: Association and elaboration of
information
Chunking
Making story by relating items
17. Learning: Theory to practice
Learning is an experience which occurs inside the trainee and is
activated by the trainer
Trainer is a facilitator
Create an atmosphere where trainees are free to explore ideas
Very little learning takes place without personal involvement and
meaning on the part of the trainee
18. Learning: Theory to practice
Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of
ideas
Trainers should relate the lessons to the needs, interests and
problems of the trainees
Learning is an evolutionary process
Results cannot take place overnight
Trainers should be patient with trainees
19. Learning: Theory to practice
Learning is sometimes a painful process
Behavioral change often calls for giving up the old and
comfortable ways of believing, thinking and valuing
The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual
Learning is affected by the total state of the individual
20. Learning: Theory to practice
The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and
individual
Trainees have unique learning styles
Make trainees aware of their learning and problem solving
styles: help them improve
21. Learning: Theory to practice
Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning
Prior knowledge is the lens through which we view all new
information
Connect new information to accurate information they already
possess
22. Learning: Theory to practice
Motivation generates, directs and sustains learning behavior
Motivation influences the amount of time and effort trainees
devote to learning and supports their continued engagement
when difficulties arise
The way trainees organize knowledge determines how they use it
We need to help trainees learn to organize knowledge
23. Learning: Theory to practice
Meaningful engagement is necessary for deeper learning
Posing and answering meaningful questions about concepts,
making analogies or attempting to apply the concepts or
theories to solve problems
Leads to more elaborate, longer lasting and stronger
representations of the knowledge
24. Learning: Theory to practice
Mastery requires developing component skills and knowledge,
synthesizing and applying them appropriately
Many activities actually involve a synthesis of many component
skills
To master these complex skills, trainees must practice and gain
proficiency in the discrete component skills
Give opportunities to practice the skills
25. Learning: Theory to practice
Goal-directed practice and targeted feedback are critical to learning
Involves working toward a specific level of performance and
continually monitoring performance relative to clearly define
goals
26. Learning: Theory to practice
Trainees must learn to monitor, evaluate and adjust their
approaches to learning to become self-directed learners
Trainees must become conscious of their thinking processes
Require them to explicitly monitor, evaluate and reflect on their
own performance and provide them with feedback on these
processes
27. Learning: Theory to practice
Since trainees develop holistically, their learning is affected by the
social, emotional and intellectual climate of training situation
Feeling of support and respect
Intellectual and creative risks
Ridicule and persecution
Disengagement and poor performance
28. Steps of effective training process
1. Gain attention: stimulate the learners' interest in the subject
2. Inform the objectives of training: Let the trainees know what
they will be learning, stimulates the internal process of expectancy
and helps motivate the trainee to complete the lesson
3. Recall Prior Knowledge: Get the trainees to think about what
they already know and associating new information with prior
knowledge which can facilitate the learning process
29. Steps of effective training process
4. Present Content: Content should be chunked and organized
meaningfully and variety of media should be used if possible
5. Provide Guided Learning: Guidance strategies should include
the use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical
representations, mnemonics and analogies
6. Elicit Performance: Facilitate the learner to practice the new skill
or behavior
30. Steps of effective training process
7. Provide Feedback: Inform learners of their performance and
provide specific and immediate feedback of their performance
8. Assess Performance: Evaluate learners on their knowledge,
behaviour and skills
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer: Aid learners in remembering
and applying the new skill
31. The only kind of learning which significantly influences
behaviour is self-discovered or self-appropriated learning,
truth that has been assimilated in experience.
-Carl Rogers
Thank You
