An English translation of Qiang （羌） references in the Later Han Histories or Hou Han Shu (后汉书）.

1. QIANG 羌 REFERENCES IN THE BOOK OF THE LATER HAN 后汉书
INTRODUCTION
The Book of the Later Han (Hou Han Shu) was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century using
earlier documents and histories as his sources. It covers the Eastern Han period from 25 – 220
AD and is a valuable source of information about the Qiang peoples on China’s western borders
at that time. In this document I have sought to translate every Qiang reference in the Hou Han
Shu, omitting only a few very minor references.
With much gratitude I have used a freely available on-line text of the Hou Han Shu for the
translation, which can be found at: http://www.xysa.net/a200/h350/03houhanshu/t-
index.htm My aim is to give an overall view of the situation of the Qiang in this time period. I am
aware that only translating the Qiang references results in a lack of broader context but I have
had to set limits. Occasionally I have included other references which shed light on aspects
which relate to the Qiang. My main source and starting point for tracing place locations was
www.baidu.com.
Chapter 117, the Biography of the Western Qiang, is long and detailed so I have published it
separately. Chapter 118 has been translated with extensive notes by John E. Hill and is available
in his book, Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han
Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE.
For background information on this period see The Government and Geography of the Northern
Frontier of Late Han by Rafe de Crespigny.1 I also highly recommend Rafe de Crespigny’s late
Eastern Han map as a companion for this study.2 To aid understanding of Qiang-related
locations, I have tried to find today’s equivalent of many place names and noted them in the
footnotes. My own comments are either in the main body of the text in italics or in the footnotes.
I have used the old pinyin ‘Shaanxi’ for 陕西 to differentiate it from Shanxi 山西. In addition to
the chapter numbering, in the original Chinese each chapter is also numbered in relation to its
section within the work. I have generally only translated the basic chapter numbers.
The first nine chapters of the Hou Han Shu are chronologically ordered records of the emperors
and they provide a basic outline of conflict between various Qiang groups and the Han, usually
including the location of the conflict and who won. A study of the Qiang references in later
chapters reveals more details of these battles and also some valuable observations about the
Qiang and their relationships with those around them. The Qiang are frequently described as
the ‘rebellious Qiang’ but it has to be remembered that this is from a Han perspective and that
the Hou Han Shu is an official historical record. In some situations the Qiang had submitted to
the Han and then rebelled but in other situations they had never submitted and although the
Han viewed them as resisting the right of the emperor to rule over them, they were simply
enemies rather than rebels.
I have done this work as an independent researcher/translator and would like to thank those
who have helped make this possible – you know who you are. I taught English from 2006-2008
at Aba Teachers College in Wenchuan and from 2008-2009 in Gucheng, Pixian, where the
college was temporarily relocated after the 2008 earthquake. The earthquake wrought
devastation in the Qiang areas of Sichuan and as the Qiang community continue to rebuild their
lives, I dedicate this work to the future of this ancient community.
Rachel Meakin, October 2011 (qianghistory@gmail.com , website: www.qianghistory.co.uk )
1 http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/northern_front.html#str
2 https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/peace_maps/map01.pdf

2. CHAPTER 1: 光武帝紀第一 The Records of Emperor Guangwu (r.25-57 AD)
In the 9th year of Emperor Guangwu (33 AD), the position of Colonel Protector of the Qiang was
re-established.3
In the 10th month of the 10th year, the Xianlian Qiang (先零羌4) invaded Jincheng (金成) and
Longxi (陇西). The Han attacked them in Wuxi, winning a significant victory.
In the 11th year, around the 4th month, the Xianlian Qiang invaded Lintao.5 In the winter of the
11th year, Ma Yuan, the governor of Longxi,6 attacked and defeated the Xianlian Qiang, who were
then moved to Tianshui, Longxi and Fufeng.7
In the 12th year, the Canlang Qiang ( 参狼羌) invaded Wudu, and the governor of Longxi, Ma
Yuan, dispatched troops against them and they were subdued.
In autumn of the 13th year, the Baima Qiang (White Horse Qiang 白马羌) of Guanghan, which
was beyond the borders, led their type of people to submit to the interior.
In the 1st Zhongyuan year (56 AD), the Canlang Qiang invaded Wudu, defeating the commandery
troops, and the Longxi commandery head, Liu Xu, sent reinforcements, so the Wudu
commandery soldiers attacked the rebellious Qiang and the Qiang were all defeated.
CHAPTER 2: 显宗孝明帝纪第二 The Records of Emperor Ming (r. 57-75)
In the autumn of the 2nd Zhongyuan year (57 AD), the Shaodang Qiang (烧当羌) invaded Longxi
and defeated the commandery troops at Yunjie.8 There was an amnesty for prisoners in Longxi
and taxes were cancelled. The 3,000 men who had been sent to Tianshui were also sent back
again to guard the frontier for a year. The ‘Yezhe’ official,9 Zhang Hong, attacked the rebelling
Qiang in Yunwu10 but was badly defeated and died in battle. In winter, the 11th month, the
Zhonglang General Dou Gu and the ‘Seizing the Enemy’ General Ma Wu and their men attacked
the Shaodang Qiang.
3 The position of Colonel Protector of the Qiang was first established in 111 BC when the Western Qiang
and Xiongnu together had surrounded Fuhan [northeast of today’s Linxia in Gansu]. The Colonel
Protector of the Qiang was the chief military official in the Qiang area, overseeing the affairs of the Qiang
and responsible for keeping them under control.
4 Although the Chinese characters read Xianling, the original pronunciation would have been ‘lian’ so the
name is often written as Xianlian. (See: Northern Frontier: the Policies and Strategy of the Later Han
Empire by Rafe de Crespigny, Australian National University Press, 1984, p 471,n.14). They are at times
referred to as Xianlian Qiang and at times just referred to as Xianlian. They were a relatively large group
already mentioned in Chapter 69 of the Han Shu, in 63 BC, when they were in eastern Qinghai and feuding
with two other Qiang groups, the Han 罕 and Kai.
5临洮: In today’s Dingxi, Gansu.
6太守: provincial governor/ commandery chief.
7 陇西:Dingxi area of Gansu, south of Lanzhou. 扶风: Baoji area of Shaanxi. 天水: between Longxi and
Fufeng.
8允街: in the Yongdeng area of Gansu, northwest of Lanzhou. Yunjie was in Jincheng commandery.
9谒者: an official position.
10 允吾: Yunwu was also in Jincheng commandery, with its seat of government in today’s Minhe county,
Haidong prefecture, Qinghai.

3. In the 1st Yongping year (57 AD), in the autumn, General Ma Wu went to war against the
Shaodang Qiang and won a major victory. Troops were recruited to guard the garrison at
Longyou.11
In the second year in the 12th month, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Dou Lin, was
imprisoned and died.
CHAPTER 3: 肃宗孝章帝纪第三 The Records of Emperor Zhang (r.75-88)
In the 6th month of the 2nd Jianchu year (77 AD), the Shaodang Qiang rebelled and the governor
of Jincheng, Hao Chong, attacked them but was utterly defeated. The Qiang then invaded
Hanyang. In the 8th month, the General of Cavalry and Chariots, Ma Fang, was sent to attack and
pacify them.
In the 3rd Jianchu year (78 AD), Ma Fang defeated the Shaodang Qiang at Lintao.
In the 10th month of the 3rd Yuanhe year (86 AD), the Shaodang Qiang rebelled and invaded
Longxi. That year, the Chief Official of the Western Regions, Ban Chao, attacked and beheaded12
the king of Shule (Kashgar).
In the 3rd month of the 1st Zhanghe year (87 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Fu Yu,
pursued and attacked the rebelling Qiang, but was killed in battle. Later that year, the Shaodang
Qiang invaded Jincheng, and the Colonel Protector of the Qiang,13 Liu Xu, attacked them and
beheaded their leader.
CHAPTER 4: 孝和孝殇帝纪第四 The Records of Emperor He (r. 88-106)
In the 4th Yongyuan year (92 AD), the Shaodang Qiang invaded Jincheng.
In the 5th year, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Guan You, attacked the Shaodang Qiang, so
the Qiang fled. An Guo, who was the Southern Shanyu,14rebelled and was beheaded by the Han.
In the 4th month of the 6th year, the Qiang beyond the borders of Shu15 commandery led their
kind of people and sent an envoy to offer their submission.
In the 9th year (97 AD), the Shaodang Qiang invaded Longxi and killed the senior official. The
Attacking the West General, Liu Shang, and the ‘Yueqi’ Colonel, Zhao Shi, were sent against them
and defeated them.
In the 12th month of the 10th year, the Shaodang Qiang chief, Mi Tang, led his kind of people to
visit the emperor and offer tribute.
In the 12th year the Shaodang Qiang rebelled again.
11陇右: the area to the west of the Long Mountains 陇山, also known as the Liupan Mountains, which run
south from Guyuan in Ningxia, across Gansu into western Shaanxi.
12 Beheading seems gruesome but before the advent of fire-arms, this was probably, like the guillotine, the
quickest and least torturous way of killing an enemy.
13 A certain irony here that the Protector of the Qiang would attack the Qiang and behead their leader but
he was charged with keeping the peace in areas of submitted Qiang, so any Qiang who were hostile to the
Han would be seen as a threat. Several Protectors of the Qiang were dismissed from their posts for failing
to quell rebellious Qiang.
14 The Xiongnu (匈奴) leader was called Shanyu or Chanyu (单于)
15 蜀: Shu commandery was centred on the western part of the Sichuan basin.

4. In the 13th year (101 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Zhou Wei, attacked the Shaodang
Qiang and defeated them.
In a summary at the end of the chapter there is a reference to Tang Qiang 唐羌 which seems to
be a personal name: 时临武长汝南唐羌，县接南海，乃上书陈状。
CHAPTER 5: 孝安帝紀第五 The Records of Emperor An (r.106-125)16
In the 1st Yongchu year (107 AD) the Qiang beyond the borders of Shu entered and became
subordinate.17 In the same year, the Xianlian type of Qiang rebelled and cut off the Long
district18 with much invading and plundering. The General of Chariots and Cavalry, Deng Zhi,
and the Attacking the West Colonel, Ren Shang, were sent against them and a pardon was
offered to the various Qiang who had banded together and plotted rebellion.
In the 1st month of the 2nd Yongchu year (108 AD), Deng Zhi was defeated by the Zhong Qiang(钟
羌) in Jixi.19In the 7th month, an imperial order was issued which described an earlier time when
the people of China were hungry and drifting, and the Qiang and the Mo 貊20were hostile
enemies of China. Around the 8th month of the 2nd Yongchu year, the Qiang beyond the borders
of Shu chose land and became vassals of China.21 In the 10th month, Ren Shang, the Attacking the
West Colonel, fought with the Xianlian Qiang at Pingxiang22 but his troops were badly defeated.
In the 11th month, the Xianlian Qiang leader, Dian Lian,23 was named as ‘Son of Heaven’ in
Beidi24 and the Xianlian then invaded Sanfu,25 violated the regions of Zhao and Wei and came
south into Yizhou,26 killing Dong Bing, the head of Hanzhong commandery.
This would have been a bold challenge to the Eastern Han rulers that Dianling would call himself
Son of Heaven, which meant ‘emperor.’
In the 12th month of 108 AD, the Canlang Qiang beyond the borders of Guanghan surrendered,
and the northern part of Guanghan was assigned as a vassal state [just north of Shu].
A general comment follows here that the nation experienced 12 earthquakes that year.
In the 3rd Yongchu year (109 AD), the Chief Commandant of Cavalry, Ren Ren attacked the
Xianlian Qiang but he was unsuccessful and the Qiang then thoroughly defeated Lintao.
16 This is a key period in Qiang history – a major Qiang uprising which lasted more than a decade and was
enormously costly for the Han.
17 This is significant as it is Qiang moving south or southeast into Shu commandery, which was governed
from Chengdu.
18陇道: this was an ancient place name in Gansu but the exact location is unclear.
19 冀西: although this name is also associated with Hebei, it seems here to indicate the area around Gangu
on the eastern side of Wushan county in Tianshui, Gansu.
20 A term for early tribes of northeast China.
21 This Shu vassal state may have included today’s Qiang area.
22平襄: Northwest of Tongwei county, Dingxi, Gansu.
23 As with Xianling/Xianlian in n.4 above, this may be Dian Lian rather than Dian Ling.
24 Beidi 北地: centred on today’s Qingyang in northeastern Gansu (between Ningxia and Shaanxi), Beidi
was the most northeastern commandery of Liangzhou.
25 The area around the capital, Chang’an, in the region of today’s Xi’an in Shaanxi.
26益州: In the Eastern Han period Yizhou extended as far north as Hanzhong in southern Shaanxi and
Guanghan on the Sichuan-Gansu border. In 106 BC, Emperor Wu established Yizhou commandery in the
Sichuan area, with its administrative centre at Luo county north of Guanghan. In 194 AD, government of
Yizhou moved to Chengdu.

5. In the 3rd month of the 4th year (110 AD), the Southern Shanyu of the Xiongnu surrendered. The
Xianlian Qiang invaded Baozhong in the Hanzhong27 region. The head of Hanzhong commandery,
Zheng Qin, died in battle.
In the 2nd month of the 5th year (111 AD), the Xianlian Qiang invaded Hedong and then reached
Henei28.
Possibly as a result of this major onslaught by the Xianlian, the next sentence says that in the 3rd
month, under imperial order, (the administration of) Longxi was moved to Xiangwu, Anding was
moved to Meiyang, Beidi was moved to Chiyang, and Shang commandery was moved to Ya.
Also in the 5th year, in the 9th month, two men of Hanyang, Du Xi and Wang Xin, rebelled and
joined the Xianlian and various kinds of Qiang (先零诸种羌) to take Shanggui city29.
In the 6th year, Dian Lian of the Xianlian Qiang died. His son, Lian Chang inherited his false title.
[I.e. the title of ‘Son of Heaven.’]
In autumn of the 7th year (113 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang and the Chief
Commandant of Cavalry, Ma Xian, defeated the Xianlian Qiang.
In the 5th month of the 1st Yuanchu year (114 AD) the Xianlian Qiang invaded Yongcheng30 and
in the 9th month they invaded Wudu and Hanzhong, cutting off the Long region (陇道). In the
10th month, the Xianlian Qiang defeated the Liangzhou provincial governor, Pi Yang, in the Di
region (狄道)
[Another general reference to earthquakes: 15 across China in 114 AD.]
In the 3rd month of the 2nd Yuanchu year (115 AD), the Xianlian Qiang invaded Yizhou, and the
Zhonglang General, Yin Jiu, was dispatched to suppress them. In the 10th month, the Youfufeng
official, Zhong Guang, the governor of Anding, Du Hui, and the Chief Tiger Tooth Commandant of
the capital, Geng Pu, fought the Xianlian in Dingxi31 city. Guang and his men suffered a great
defeat and were routed.
In the 5th month of the 3rd Yuanchu year (116 AD), the Duliao General, Deng Zun led the
southern Xiongnu against the Xianlian in Lingzhou32 and defeated them. [The Yi beyond the
borders of Yuesui submitted to the Han.] In the 6th month, the Zhonglang General, Ren Shang,
dispatched troops to attack and defeat the Xianlian Qiang in Dingxi city.33 In the 12th month, Ren
Shang sent troops to attack and defeat the Xianlian Qiang in Beidi.
In the 9th month of the 4th year, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Ren Shang, sent someone to
assassinate Lian Chang (零昌) – the rebellious Qiang. In the 12th month, Ren Shang and the Chief
Cavalry Commandant, Ma Xian fought the Xianlian Qiang at Fuping [in Beidi] above the river and
27 In southern Shaanxi, bordering northeastern Sichuan.
28 Hedong and Henei, literally ‘east of the river’ and ‘within the river.’ These areas, along with Henan, were
around the Luoyang stretch of the Yellow River.
29 上邽城: today’s Qincheng area of Tianshui municipality in Gansu.
30 雍城: Yongcheng had been the capital of the Qin state. In the Baoji region of Shaanxi, not far from the
border with Gansu.
31定西: today’s Dingxi in Gansu, southeast of Lanzhou.
32 灵州 Wuzhong area of Ningxia.
33 丁奚城: northwest of Maling county in Qingzhou, Gansu.

6. won a major victory. The Qianren Qiang (虔人羌34) led a large number to surrender and
Longyou was pacified.
In the 3rd month of the 1st Yongning year (120 AD), the Shendi Qiang (沈氐羌) invaded Zhangye.
In the 6th month, the Shendi type of Qiang rebelled and invaded Zhangye. Ma Xian, the Colonel
Protector of the Qiang, attacked and defeated the Shendi Qiang. In the same year, the Shaodang
Qiang also rose up.
The Xianlian seem to have been operating out of Beidi in the area around northwestern Gansu,
southern Ningxia and western Shaanxi. By contrast, these Shendi Qiang are attacking Zhangye,
which is halfway along the Gansu corridor, north of today’s Qilian mountains. It doesn’t seem very
likely that they were closely connected with the Xianlian. In the next passage we see that the
Shaodang Qiang are also a problem in Jincheng which straddled the Gansu-Xining border south of
the Qilian mountains. So the Han are dealing with a variety of possibly unrelated Qiang groups
scattered from Beidi to the Gansu corridor to today’s eastern Qinghai region.
In the 8th month of the 1st Jianguang year (121 AD), Ma Xian, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang,
attacked the Shaodang in Jincheng but was defeated.
In the 7th month of the 1st Yanguang year (122 AD), the Qianren Qiang rebelled and attacked
Guluo City.35 The Duliao General, Geng Kui attacked and defeated them. In the 11th month, the
Shaoguang Qiang chief36 surrendered.
CHAPTER 6: 孝顺孝冲孝质帝纪第六 The Records of Emperor Shun (r. 125-144) and
Emperor Di (r.145-146)
In the first Yongjian year (126 AD) the Zhong Qiang (钟羌37) of Longxi rebelled and the Colonel
Protector of the Qiang, Ma Xian, attacked and defeated them.
In the 7th month of the 3rd year, the Zhong Qiang invaded Longxi and Hanyang. The Colonel
Protector of the Qiang, Ma Xu, attacked and defeated them. In the 11th month, the Qiang of the
agricultural garrison on the Wudu border and the Qiang outside the border both attacked and
defeated the officials of the agricultural garrison, driving out and plundering people and
livestock.
In spring of the 4th year (129 AD), Ma Xian [now the Yezhe official], attacked and won a major
victory over the Zhong Qiang.
In the 2nd month of the 2nd Yonghe year (137 AD), the Chief Commandant of the Guanghan vassal
state attacked and defeated the Baima Qiang. [In Chapter One these Baima Qiang had submitted
but it was obviously a fragile peace.]
In the 10th month of the 3rd year (138 AD), the Shaodang Qiang invaded Jincheng, the Colonel
Protector of the Qiang, Ma Xian, attacked and defeated them and the Qiang then spurred one
another on and rebelled. [This seems to be a variety of Qiang groups inciting each other.]
In the 3rd month of the 4th year, Ma Xian attacked the Shaodang Qiang and won a major victory.
34 虔人羌: the character 虔 can mean pious/devout. Whether this was a descriptive term or a
transliteration of a Qiang word is difficult to know.
35 谷罗城: I couldn’t find this location
36烧光羌豪 This is the only ‘Shaoguang’ reference. It could be the chief’s name or the name of a relatively
small clan. ‘Shaodang’ instead of ‘Shaoguang.’
37 钟羌: ‘zhong’ can be a surname but is also a clock or a kind of goblet.

7. In the 5th month of the 5th year, the Qiedong Qiang (且冻羌) invaded San Fu38 and killed the
commander. In the 9th month the Qiedong Qiang invaded Wudu and set fire to Long Pass (陇关).
Julong Wusi [a Southern Xiongnu leader] enticed the Wuhuan in the east and the Qiang Hu39 (羌
胡) in the west and invaded Shang commandery, establishing Che Niu as Shanyu. [I.e. an alliance
of three significant non-Han groups.] Shortly after this, Che Niu was forced to surrender to the
Han.
In the 1st month of the 6th year (141 AD) Ma Xian, the Attacking the West General, fought the
Qiedong Qiang at Shegu mountain40 but Xian’s troops were routed and the head of Anding
commandery, Guo Huang, was imprisoned and died. The Gongtang Qiang 巩唐羌 invaded Longxi
and then also invaded San Fu. In the 3rd month, the Wuwei commander, Zhao Chong, sent a
punitive force against the Gongtang Qiang and defeated them. In the 5th month, the Xiongnu
Zhonglang General, Zhang Geng, defeated the Wuhuan and the Qiang Hu at Tianshan. The
Gongtang Qiang invaded Beidi. In the 9th month, various kinds of Qiang invaded Wuwei. There
was a solar eclipse.
In the 2nd year, Shanshan state [in today’s eastern Xinjiang] sent envoys with tribute. In the 4th
month of the 2nd year (142 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Zhao Chong, with the
Hanyang commander, Zhang Gong, attacked and defeated the Shaohe Qiang (烧何羌) in Can(?).41
In the 10th month, Zhao Chong attacked and defeated the Shaodang Qiang in Ah Yang.42 There is
also a mention here of Linqiang county 临羌县 which was east of Qinghai Lake, near Xining.
Linqiang means ‘overlooking the Qiang’ so it seems this was a significant border between the Han
and some Qiang.
In the 3rd month of the 1st Jiankang year (144 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Wei Ju,
pursued and attacked the rebelling Qiang and defeated them. In the 4th month, the Xiongnu
Zhonglang General, Ma Shi, attacked the southern Xiongnu of the left,43, and defeated them and,
as a result, the Hu Qiang (胡羌) and the Wuhuan all came to Ma Shi and surrendered. Also in
that year, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Zhao Chong, pursued and attacked rebelling Qiang
at Zhanyang River44 but he was routed.
In the 2nd month of the first Yongxi year (145 AD), rebellious Qiang came to the Pingyi official of
the Right (左冯翊), Liang Bing, and surrendered.
38三辅: San Fu. In the Western Han the ‘San Fu’ were the three officials governing the capital and its
surrounding area. Later, the term ‘San Fu’ came to represent the regions controlled by these three
officials. Although the capital moved from Chang’an to Luoyang, it seems San Fu continued to indicate the
central area of today’s Shaanxi province.
39 This juxtaposition of Qiang and Hu together seems sometimes to mean the Qiang and Hu, as in
references where ‘Hu’ refers to the Yuezhi or Xiongnu, but it also sometimes seems just to be describing
the Qiang, i.e. the Qiang type of Hu. The character ‘hu 胡’ means beard or facial whiskers, so the use of this
term for foreigners from the northwest may imply they were more hirsute than the Chinese. The Han Shu
shows a significant Qiang presence in Xinjiang in late BC which suggests possible Central Asian
connections.
40射姑山: northwest of Qingyang county in Gansu. In ancient Beidi.
41 Some versions of the text read ‘参 B171’ which indicates a missing or unknown character. Three
possibilities are Canxian 参屳, Canjie 参疖, or Cansi 參丝, all counties in Anding commandery.
42 阿阳: Possibly in the region of Tianshui? Although it seems more likely to have been nearer to Jincheng
around the Qinghai-Gansu border.
43 Left represented east and right represented west.
44 鹯阴河: a stretch of the Yellow River near Baiyin, north of Lanzhou.

8. CHAPTER 7: 孝桓帝纪第七 The Records of Emperor Huan (r.146-168 AD)
In the 3rd month of the 2nd Jianhe year (148 AD), the Baima Qiang plundered Guanghan vassal
state and killed the senior official. The Yizhou governor led the Banshun Man45 to attack and
defeat them. [I.e. troops from another ethnic group in eastern Sichuan being used to attack Qiang
invaders in or near northwestern Sichuan.]
In the 12th month of the 2nd Yanxi year (159 AD), eight types of Shaodang Qiang46 rebelled and
invaded western Long (陇右). The Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Duan Jiong, pursued them and
attacked them in Luo Ting and defeated them.
India 天竺国 brought tribute.
Early in the 3rd year (160 AD), the Shaohe Qiang rose up and invaded Zhangye. The Colonel
Protector of the Qiang, Duan Jiong, pursued and attacked them, defeating them in Jishi.47 In the
11th month of the 3rd year, the Leiqie Qiang (勒姐羌) surrounded Yunjie48 but Duan Jiong
attacked and defeated them.
In the 6th month of the 4th year, the Lingwu Qiang (零吾羌 – or Lianwu) and the various kinds of
Xianlian together rebelled and invaded San Fu. The Yi of the vassal state Qianwei49 invaded and
robbed the common people but the governor of Yizhou defeated them. In the 10th month, the
Xianlian and the Shendi Qiang and various kinds of Qiang50 invaded Bing and Liang provinces51
but they were defeated the following month by the Zhonglang General, Huangfu Gui.
In the 3rd month of the 5th year, the Shendi Qiang invaded Zhangye and Jiuquan. [There is no
mention here that they were defeated.] In the 7th month, the Niaowu Qiang (鸟吾羌) invaded
Hanyang, Longxi and Jincheng, but the soldiers of the various commanderies attacked and
defeated them.
In the 11th month, the Dianna Qiang (滇那羌)52 invaded Wuwei, Zhangye and Jiuquan [also no
mention of defeat]. The senior military commander, Liu Ju, was dismissed and replaced [for not
repelling them].
In the 7th month of the 6th year, the Longxi commander, Sun Qiang (陇西太守孙羌53) attacked
and defeated the Dianna Qiang.
45板楯蛮: an ethnic group from Ba prefecture in today’s eastern Sichuan.
46 烧当: 8 different kinds of Shaodang Qiang suggests clans with blood-ties from the same ancestor. The
Shaodang are the only group who have a documented ancestry tracing back to Wuyi Yuanjian. See
Chapter 117: The Western Qiang Biography.
47 积石山:possibly the Anye Machen Mts in southeastern Qinghai, an eastern extension of the Kunlun Mts.
This seems far from Zhangye but in Chapter 95 a fuller version of events explains that Duan Jiong pursued
the Shaohe for 40 days.
48 允街: in the Yongdeng area northwest of Lanzhou, towards Wuwei.
49 犍为: in Sichuan’s Leshan area.
50先零沈氐羌与诸种羌: although there is no ‘and’ between the Xianlian and Shendi, they are mentioned
separately elsewhere in the text. The occurrence of ‘various kinds of Qiang’ alongside specific groups
suggests there were groups not known by name which came under the umbrella term ‘Qiang.’
51 并州 was on China’s northern border and included the commanderies of Beidi, Shuofang, Wuyuan,
Yunzhong and others. 凉州 was west and southwest of Bing and included the eastern end of the Gansu
corridor and the most western commanderies of Longxi, Jincheng and others. If this was a coordinated
attack on such a wide area it would have been on a very large scale.
52 Possibly a tribe descended from Dian Lian of the Xianlian mentioned above. The 滇 character is in both.
53 This name, ‘grandson + Qiang,’ suggests he was possibly a descendent of Qiang who had submitted
earlier.

9. In the 10th month of the 7th year, the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Duan Jiong, attacked and
defeated the Dangjian Qiang( 当煎羌).
In the 2nd month of the 8th year, Duan Jiong attacked the Hanjie Qiang (罕姐羌) and defeated
them. In the 6th month Duan Jiong attacked and won a major victory over the Dangjian Qiang in
Huangzhong.54
In the 7th month of the 9th year, the Shendi Qiang invaded Wuwei and Zhangye. The Xiongnu
commander was dispatched against the southern Xiongnu, the Wuhuan and the Xianbei. In the
9th month, the state of Da Qin55 sent an envoy with tribute.
In the 1st month of the 1st Yongkang year (167 AD), the Xianlian Qiang invaded San Fu and were
defeated and pacified by Zhang Huan, the Zhonglang General. The Dangjian Qiang (当煎羌)
invaded Wuwei but the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Duan Jiong, pursued and attacked them
in Luanniao56 and won a major victory. The western Qiang were all pacified.57 In the 4th month,
the Xianlian Qiang invaded San Fu. In the 10th month, the Xianlian invaded San Fu but the
Xiongnu Zhonglang General, Zhang Huan, was dispatched [by the Han] and attacked and
defeated them.
CHAPTER 8: 孝灵帝纪第八 The Records of Emperor Ling (r.168-189 AD)
In the 1st month of the 1st Jianning year (168 AD), the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Duan Jiong
attacked the Xianlian Qiang. In the 2nd month, Duan Jiong won a major victory over the Xianlian
at Feng Yi Mountain.58 In the 7th month, the Defeater of the Qiang General,59 Duan Jiong, again
defeated the Xianlian at Jingyang.60
In the 7th month of the 2nd year (169 AD), the Defeater of the Qiang General, Duan Jiong, won a
major victory over the Xianlian Qiang at Tiger Shooting Valley beyond the Wall.61 The Eastern
Qiang (东羌62) were all pacified.
There is a gap of 15 years before the next mention of the Qiang or Xianlian so this was a relatively
long period of peace considering the relentless fighting with the Qiang which had preceded it.
In the 11th month of the 1st Zhongping year (184 AD), the Xianlian Qiang rose up in alliance with
Beigong Boyu of the Yicong Hu63 of Huangzhong [the Xining area]. Two men of Jincheng, Bian
Zhang and Han Sui, were appointed as military commanders and they attacked and killed the
Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Ling Zheng and the governor of Jincheng, Chen Yi.
54 The area around the Huang River near Xining, Qinghai.
55 大秦国王: Da Qin was the Han term for the Roman empire. During the Eastern Han period, the Parthian
empire lay between the Roman Empire and China.
56 鸾鸟: in the region of Wuwei.
57 As seen in the following chapter, the Xianlian are now seen as eastern Qiang.
58逢义山: northwest of Guyuan in Ningxia province.
59 An interesting shift from being the Colonel ‘Protector of the Qiang’ to General ‘Defeater of the Qiang.’
60泾阳: in the Xianyang area of Shaanxi (not far from Xi’an).
61 射虎谷: Gangu to the west of Tianshui in Gansu.
62 This is one of the earliest references to the Eastern Qiang and seems to relate primarily to the Xianlian.
They had been moved east by the Han from the Jincheng area in Qinghai to Tianshui, Longxi and Fufeng
(Gansu and western Shaanxi). After this, Dian Lian of the Xianlian was made ‘emperor’ in Beidi. From this
more eastern area they continually pushed in all directions – south to Hanzhong (near the juncture of
today’s Sichuan, Gansu and Shaanxi provinces), west to Jincheng and the Gansu corridor, and further east
in Shaanxi.
63 义从胡北宫伯玉: possibly a Yuezhi or another type of Qiang. (See: A Biographical Dictionary of Later
Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) by Rafe de Crespigny, Brill, 2007, pp 14-15.)

10. In the 11th month of the 2nd year (185 AD), the Zhonglang General, Dong Zhuo, was sent to attack
the Xianlian Qiang but he was unsuccessful. The Xianbei invaded the provinces of You and Bing
幽州, 并州.
CHAPTER 9: 卷九孝獻帝紀第九 The Records of Emperor Xian (r. 189-220 AD)
In the 8th month of the 1st Xingping year (194 AD) The Pingyi64 Qiang (冯翊羌) rebelled and
invaded Shu county 属县.65 Guo Si and Fan Chou attacked and defeated them.
From Chapter 10 onwards the chapters are ordered by topic rather than in chronological sequence.
Chapter 10: 卷十上 皇后紀第十上 The Records of the Imperial Consorts
In the 1st Jiankang year (144 AD), the Western Qiang, the Xianbei, and the Rinan Man Yi
attacked and plundered the cities, taxes were often levied, and the officials and peoples were
exhausted.
This mention of the Qiang within an overview of mid-2nd century AD China indicates that they were
the major threat in the west. The Xianbei were in the north and east, and the Rinan Man Yi were in
what is now Vietnam.
A brief mention of an Attacking the Qiang Marquis: 征羌侯
Chapter 21: 志第十一 天文中 The Astronomy Records (II)
In the 1st Jianchu year (76 AD), Song Yan, the Chief Pacifier of the Yi, was killed by the Qiang. The
governor of Wuwei, Fu Yu, ordered the Colonel Protector of the Qiang and the General of
Cavalry and Chariots to march against the Qiang.
In the 9th month of the 9th Yongyuan year (97 AD) the Longxi Qiang rose up, and the Attacking
the West General, Liu Shang, and the Yueqi Colonel, Zhao Shi, sent the northern army of Wuxiao,
Liyang and Yongying, as well as Hu 胡66 border troops – altogether 30,000 cavalry - to attack the
Western Qiang.
An army of 30,000 is not sent to deal with minor skirmishes. These Western Qiang, most probably a
temporary alliance of various Qiang-type groups, were a huge problem for the Han.
Chapter 23: 志第十三 五行一 The Five Elements (I)67
Around the 1st Jianguang year (121 AD), there was excessive rain in the capital (Luoyang) and in
twenty-nine commanderies, which damaged the crops. At that time the Qiang were rebelling
and there had been no peace for a long time. The common people are in garrisons and there is
no way of relieving their distress.
64冯翊: Can be pronounced Fengyi or Pingyi. According to the Baidu encyclopaedia it would be Pingyi here.
http://baike.baidu.com/view/3384214.htm . Northeast of Xi’an, in the Weinan region.
65 Possibly a county in Shaanxi but this could also just mean ‘vassal counties.’
66 i.e. other non-Chinese from the northwest. Most likely Xiongnu or Yuezhi who had submitted to the Han.
67 The ‘Wu Xing’ were the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth) or the five constant virtues
(benevolence, righteousness, propriety, knowledge, faith).

11. In the Yuanjia period (151-153 AD) of Emperor Huan, the various Qiang of Liangzhou68 all rose
up and moved south into Shu69 and Han and also plundered San Fu to the east, extending to Bing
and Ji, which was a great disaster for the people.
Chapter 24: 志第十四 五行二 The Five Elements (II)
At the end of the first Yongchu year (107 AD) the rebellious Qiang of Liangzhou caused extreme
harm and all the commanderies of Liangzhou were temporarily governed from Pingyi and
Fufeng.
Sometimes the Qiang rose up, mainly to invade and do harm. This went on for more than 10
years without cease – causing bitter military service for the soldiers.
Moving the administration of the Liangzhou commanderies as far east as Pingyi and Fufeng –
today’s Weinan and Baoji areas in Shaanxi – indicates a massive retreat by the Han from control of
northwestern China and shows how powerful the Qiang groups were when they formed alliances
with each other. In the same year as the start of the Qiang rebellion (107 AD), the Han also decided
to abandon the Western Regions, today’s Xinjiang, which meant that Liangzhou was the
westernmost extent of Han control. This weakening of Han power in the west would have given
hope to the Qiang and other non-Chinese living in Liangzhou that they could regain independence.
In the Yanguang period of Emperor An (122 - 125 AD), the Qiang Hu beyond the borders
rebelled.
Chapter 26: 志第十六 五行四 The Five Elements (IV)
In the 9th Yongyuan year of Emperor He (97 AD) there was an earthquake in Longxi. The Qiang
beyond the borders violated the borders, killing officials and others. The Attacking the West
General, Liu Shang, attacked them.
In the 1st Yongchu year (107 AD), there were 18 earthquakes across the commanderies. … At
that time, empress dowager Deng was acting as regent, … and when she died Emperor An had to
take over so the ‘Yin types 阴类’ combined to gain victory and the Western Qiang caused chaos
in China for over 10 years. In the 2nd year there were 12 earthquakes. In the 12th month of the
3rd year there were 9 quakes. In the 3rd month of the 4th year, there were 4 quakes. In the 1st
month of the 5th year there were 10 quakes. In the 2nd month of the 7th year, there were 18
quakes.
In the 10th month of the 3rd Yonghe year (138 AD), 2,000 Western Qiang crossed over the
Jincheng border in order to harm Liangzhou.70
In the 1st Yuanxing year (105 AD) the Western Qiang launched a major invasion in Liangzhou.
68凉州: Liangzhou was a strategically crucial province. Chapter 33 below gives a list of the commanderies
in Liangzhou, which covered eastern Qinghai and the whole of the Gansu corridor reaching west to the
border with today’s Xinjiang and the routes to Central Asia and south to Wudu which bordered Guanghan.
Guanghan was the most northwestern commandery of Yizhou, on today’s northern border of Sichuan.
Once the Xiongnu had been driven out of the Gansu corridor, the various Qiang groups constituted the
major threat to Han trade and expansion via this area.
69 I.e. northern Sichuan.
70骑入金城塞: it is difficult to know which direction they were coming from but it seems likely they were
entering Jincheng from further south or west in Qinghai, which was territory beyond Han control.

12. Chapter 33 志第二十三 郡国五 Political zones (V)
This chapter lists the commanderies of each province and other geographical details:
Yi Province (益州)71 contained the commanderies of :
Hanzhong, Ba, Guanghan, Shu, Qianwei, Yuesui, Yizhou, Yongchang, Guanghan vassal state, Shu
vassal state, Qianwei vassal state. Guanghan and Hanzhong were the most northerly.
Liang Province (涼州)72 contained the commanderies of:
Longxi, Hanyang, Wudu, Jincheng, Anding, Beidi, Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan, Dunhuang, Zhangye
vassal state, Zhangye Juyan vassal state.
Wudu commandery73 had seven districts74, one of which was called Qiang Dao: the Qiang
district (羌道).
Jincheng had ten districts, one of which was called Linqiang: ‘Overlooking the Qiang’ (临羌).
Linqiang is the only entry with the added description: It has the Kunlun Mountains.75
Jincheng also had a district called Poqiang: ‘Defeating the Qiang’ (破羌)
Chapter 42: 王刘张李彭卢列传第二76 The Biography of Wang, Liu, Zhang, Li, Peng and Lu
At the end of the Wang Mang period77 someone called Wen Bo initiated military action with the
Qiang Hu of the San Shui vassal state78 but Han troops under Emperor Gengshi79 responded and
pacified the area westwards from Anding. Gengshi was then defeated and the San Shui chiefs
consulted together, … and established Fang as Senior General and King of Western Peace and
sent envoys to the Western Qiang and the Xiongnu to cement an alliance with them.
In the 16th Jianwu year (40 AD), Fang presented a grateful memorial to Emperor Guang, the first
emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty, saying that he had been entrusted with Wang Mang’s
remains and had disposed of them on the borders. He describes the period of Wang Mang as a
time of waste and despair, causing people anxiety, so it is right that [Wang Mang) should be
punished because he connected with the Qiang in the west and had a close relationship with the
Xiongnu in the north.
Chapter 45: 卷十五 李王邓来列传第五 The Biography of Li, Wang, Deng and Lai
This chapter mentions Qiang who had submitted to the Han and were protecting the borders,
based in walled camps.
71 All these commanderies would be within Sichuan today except for Hanzhong which is in southwest
Shaanxi, bordering Sichuan.
72 See n.67 above
73 Wudu was west of Hanzhong, covering roughly southern Gansu and the northern tip of Sichuan around
Ruo’ergai/Zoige.
74 The character used is 城 which means a walled city but it seems to indicate a bigger area here.
75 Linqiang was in the area of Huangyuan between Xining and Qinghai Lake. However, if it included part of
the Kunlun Mountains it must have covered extensive territory. This reference to the Kunlun may refer to
today’s Qilian range which could have seemed to be an extension of the Kunlun in southern Xinjiang.
However, it may possibly refer to the Anye Machen range south of Xining.
76 The absence of commas in lists is common, which emphasises the difficulty of phrases such as 羌胡
which can mean Qiang and Hu or just Qiang Hu.
77 Wang Mang ruled the Xin Dynasty (9-23 AD) between the Western and Eastern Han periods.
78 This was in Anding 安定, a commandery east of Jincheng and south of Beidi.
79 Emperor Gengshi (更始帝), whose name was Liu Xuan (劉玄), reigned only from 23-25AD between the
end of Wang Mang’s Xin Dynasty (9-23 AD), which had succeeded the Western Han, and the beginning of
the Eastern Han dynasty under the rule of Emperor Guangwu, whose name was Liu Xiu.

13. At the beginning of the Wang Mang era, many of the Qiang enemy (羌虏80) rose up but Kui Xiao
appealed to their chiefs and was then able to use them in his service. After Xiao died, … the
various kinds of Wuxi and Xianlian81 invaded and plundered, and their camps were protected by
ramparts (or trenches) so the provinces and commanderies could not attack them. Lai Xi
therefore made large implements for attack and led Gai Yan, Liu Shang, and the Taizhong Daifu,
Ma Yuan, to advance and attack the Qiang in Jincheng. They won a significant victory, beheading
several thousand Qiang, taking more than 10,000 cattle and sheep, and several 100,000 hu of
grain. ... so Western Long was then at peace and there was once again access to Liangzhou.
This shows how important it was to keep those Qiang who had surrendered satisfied. Jincheng was
an absolutely key commandery, straddling northeastern Qinghai and the southern part of the
eastern entrance to the Gansu corridor. This reference also tells us (a) how rich this Qiang area
was in livestock and grain and (b) that the Qiang were willing to risk being beheaded and losing
their livestock in battles to keep/regain their grazing grounds and agricultural land. It raises the
question of how these surrendered Qiang viewed the agreement with the Han. Did they agree to
‘protect the border’ because it enabled them to continue using the area for their livestock? Was the
submission forced or voluntary?
Chapter 46: 卷十六 鄧寇列傳第六 The Biography of Deng and Kou
The four main characters mentioned in this chapter are Deng Yu 邓禹, his sixth son Xun 训, his
grandson Zhi 骘, Kou Xun 寇恂, and his great-grandson Rong 荣.
The section below is an excellent example of Han interaction with the various groups. It shows how
the Yuezhi, a relatively small group, sometimes switched allegiance between the Qiang and the
Han, and how important it was for the Han to hold their allegiance. It highlights the enmity
between different Qiang groups and yet their ability to unite when the need arose and produce a
fighting force of 40,000.
In the 2nd Zhanghe year (88 AD) the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Zhang Yu Xiu, put to death
Mi Wu of the Shaodang type of Qiang (烧当种羌迷吾) and as a result all the Qiang were furious
and plotted revenge, so the imperial court was very anxious. The high ranking officials held a
meeting and chose Xun to replace Yu. All the Qiang were stirred up in anger and resolved the
feuds among themselves, forming alliances through marriage and swearing oaths of allegiance
by exchanging hostages. The allied Qiang forces numbered more than 40,000. They crossed the
river to attack Xun. Earlier, the Xiao Yuezhi Hu [小月氏胡] had separated to live within the
borders and they had 2-3000 cavalry who were strong, brave and powerful. Whenever they
fought the Qiang, they could control many people with just a few. Although their leaders often
vacillated, at that time they were also serving the Han. At that time, Mi Wu’s son Mi Tang formed
a military alliance with the Wuwei type of Qiang and reached the border with 10,000 cavalry
but they didn’t dare to attack Xun until they had coerced the Yuezhi Hu into joining them, … But
Xun ordered the Yuezhi not to fight. The Han officials discussing the situation all thought it was
better for the county officials if the Qiang and Hu fought each other, and for Yi to be used to
attack Yi,82 so this should not be prohibited [i.e. Xun should let the Yuezhi fight the Qiang]. Xun
said: “I disagree. Now Zhang Yu has broken his promise, the Qiang hoards are on the move, we
have the expense of transporting provisions, the state treasury is exhausted, and the Liangzhou
officials have little control over the counties. Originally, because the various Hu were difficult to
understand, there was little trust or kindness [shown to them]. Now because of this oppression
and anxiety, it would be better to treat them with virtue and kindness.” Xun then gave the order
to open the towns and the gates of their dwellings and bring the wives and children of the Hu
80羌虏: ‘Lu’ can mean captive/prisoner but seems also to simply mean ‘enemy.’
81五溪、先零诸种.
82夷: this is evidence that ‘Yi’ was an even broader term than Qiang, generally referring to foreigners.

14. into them, and set up good defence around them. The Qiang plunderers didn’t get what they had
hoped and they didn’t dare to coerce the various Hu, so they dispersed. As result of this, the
various Hu of Huangzhong [the Xining region] all said: “the Han family wanted to fight with us,
today Deng’s administrator83 treats us with favour and trust, opening the gates for our wives
and children, so we have gained parents.” … Xun then trained up several hundred brave young
Yuezhi men, who were known as the Yicong.84
It was a custom of the Qiang Hu that to die of sickness was a disgrace so whenever they were so
ill that they might die, they would kill themselves with their blade. When Xun heard there were
those who were seriously ill, he would restrain them from killing themselves and make sure
they received medical treatment and many were cured so everyone was delighted. As a result,
the Qiang were attracted with good things and drawn over to the Han. Mi Tang’s uncle, Hao Wu,
then came from beyond the border to surrender to the Han with his mother and 800 households.
Because of this,85 Xun sent 4,000 of the Qin, Hu, and Qiang soldiers of Huangzhong out beyond
the border to mount a surprise attack on Mi Tang in Xie Valley, where they beheaded over 600
of the enemy [Mi Tang’s men] and took over 10,000 horses, cattle and sheep. Mi Tang then
moved to Great and Small Elms,86 settling in the steep-sided rocky valleys, and his people split
up and scattered.
That spring, Mi Tang again wanted to go back to his old lands so Xun sent 6,000 Huangzhong
troops, with Ren Shang in command of them.87 They made boats of sewn leather and crossed the
river, launching a surprise attack on the settlements of Mi Tang’s main chiefs, beheading and
capturing many. They again pursued them and the Qiang fled but Ren Shang and his men were
attacked at night by the Qiang, so the Yicong88 Qiang and Hu joined forces [with Ren Shang] to
defeat them, beheading about 1800, taking captive 2,000 people and more than 30,000 horses,
cattle and sheep, so that they were almost wiped out. Mi Tang then gathered his remaining
troops and moved his nomadic settlement far away, going more than 1000 li westwards.89 The
various small groups of the adjacent settlements all rebelled against him. The Shaodang
commander, Dong Hao, kowtowed and then went back and died and the remainder all ‘knocked
on China’s borders’ and were received by China with hostages given as a guarantee.
In the 2nd Yongyuan year (90 AD), Major General Dou Xian led troops to suppress Wuwei. He
ordered Xun to let him know the plans of the Qiang Hu and submitted a request that they all go.
Xun had initially been favoured by the Ma clan and wasn’t particularly close to the various
members of the Dou line, so Dou Xian punished him with death and he couldn’t escape this
misfortune.
A memorial to Xun follows: Although Xun was lenient with the Rong hordes, he was very strict
with his own family and all his brothers respected him, … Officials, common people, and the
Qiang and Hu held him in high esteem, with thousands coming to see him day and night. The
customs of the Rong: when their parents die, it is a shame to weep with grief and they all ride
their horses and sing and shout. When they heard that Xun had died, they all shouted aloud,
some cutting themselves with knives, and also killing their dogs, horses, cattle and sheep, saying,
“Deng’s administrator is already dead, we too have all died.”
83 The characters here are 使君 which meant the same as 刺使 – a provincial level administrator.
84 义从: Yicong - righteous and obedient. These were a well-trained group of non-Chinese fighters under
Han supervision in the Huangzhong area, including some Yuezhi, some Qiang, and possibly others.
85 Presumably because Hao Wu’s defection made Mi Tang weaker and more vulnerable.
86 The Guide region of Qinghai, south of Xining.
87 The 长史 Zhangshi – some kind of high position serving the prime minister and other high officials and
generals.
88 See n.65
89 Literally about 240 miles, but ‘1000 li’ may be non-specific and simply mean very far away.

15. Xun’s death was a sad loss of someone willing to use negotiating tactics rather than force to
communicate with the Qiang and other groups. Although Mi Tang remained at large, he had
moved far from the Han border and been severely weakened by the submission of other Qiang to
the Han, so Xun’s tactics had been quite successful.
There is one more reference in this chapter to the great Qiang uprising which began in 107 AD
which is mentioned in detail in chapter 117 – the Biography of the Western Qiang.
Chapter 48: 卷十八 吴盖陈臧列传第八 The Biography of Wu, Ge, Chen and Zang
In the 27th Jianwu year (c.51 AD), Gong and the Yangxu Marquis, Ma Wu, submitted a memorial
to the emperor saying, “The Xiongnu are corrupt and profit-seeking, have no etiquette, and
when they are poor they kowtow but when they are content, they invade and plunder and the
borders are suffering their poison. China is worried about withstanding their attacks.90
They suggest telling the Gaogouli, Wuhuan and Xianbei to attack the Xiongnu on their eastern
side, and send the Qiang Hu of the four commanderies of Hexi and of Tianshui and Longxi to
attack them on the west. In that way, the northern enemies will be eliminated within a few years.
This is a very helpful reference showing that the Qiang of this period were in the Hexi corridor and
Tianshui and Longxi, which altogether represented today’s eastern Qinghai and much of Gansu
except the most southerly and easterly parts. Traditionally the four Hexi commanderies were those
in the Gansu corridor: Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan and Dunhuang.91
Chapter 49: 卷十九 耿弇列传第九 The Biography of Geng and Yan
I have omitted references in this chapter to someone called Fan Qiang 范羌, who was a military
officer with the Han.
Part of this chapter concerns the defeat of the Xiongnu. The ‘Attacking the West’ General, Geng
Bing, garrisoned Jiuquan; Qin Peng and the Yezhe officials, Wang Meng and Huangfu Yuan, were
sent to Zhangye, Jiuquan, and Dunhuang commanderies, along with the Shanshan troops, a
combined force of more than 7000 men, and in the 1st month of the 1st Jianchu year (75 AD),
they met in Liuzhong92 and attacked Jushi,93 attacking Jiaohe City, beheading 3,800, capturing
more than 3,000, as well as 37,000 camels, donkeys, horses, cattle and sheep. The northern
enemy [the Xiongnu] fled in fear and Jushi once again surrendered to the Han.
… In autumn of the following year (76 AD), the Qiang of Jincheng and Longxi rebelled. Gong
informed the emperor of his strategy, and an imperial edict summoned him to discuss the state
of affairs. Then Gong sent five field officers with 3,000 men, and together with Ma Fang, the
90 According to Liu Xinru, the Xiongnu “did not intend to occupy farming lands but only to loot or extract
booty from Han rulers.” Liu Xinru, “Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and
Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies,” Journal of World History 12, no. 2 (Fall 2001), p263.
91 At this point the Jincheng region (eastern Qinghai) was included in Longxi commandery. Jincheng
county had been established in 86 BC as part of Tianshui commandery. Jincheng commandery was
established in 81 BC. It was merged with Longxi commandery in 36 AD but was re-established in the
reign of Emperor Ming (57-75 AD). In 110 AD, during the Western Qiang uprising, Jincheng was
dominated by the Qiang so the Han commandery administration retreated from Yunwu (between Minhe
and Yongdeng) to Xiangwu (in today’s Longxi county, Gansu), only moving back to Yunwu 12 years later.
http://baike.baidu.com/view/174289.htm
92 Near today’s Shanshan in Xinjiang.
93 Also sometimes written as Cheshi. The Jiaohe ruins in the Turpan region of Xinjiang are the remains of
the ancient capital of Jushi.

16. deputy General of Cavalry and Chariots, they attacked the Western Qiang. Gong stationed his
troops at Fuhan and several times engaged in battle with the Qiang. In autumn of the following
year,94 the Shaodang Qiang surrendered, Ma Fang returned to the capital and Gong was left to
attack the ones who had not yet surrendered, beheading or capturing more than 1,000 and
taking more than 40,000 cattle and sheep. Then the Leijie and Shaohe Qiang (勒姐、烧何羌), 13
groups numbering several 10,000, all came to Gong to surrender.
This is an enormous number of people for the Han to suddenly have to deal with.
Chapter 52: 卷二十二, 朱景王杜马刘傅坚马列传第十二 The Biography of Zhu, Jing, Wang,
Du, Ma, Liu, Bo, Xian and Ma
In the 25th Jianwu year (49 AD), the Western Qiang invaded western Long, destroying the whole
army and killing the General, which caused great anxiety at the imperial court. Wu was then
appointed as Seizing the Enemy General, and with other senior military officials, he led the
Wuhuan, the Liyang battalion, the enlisted soldiers of San Fu, and the Qiang Hu soldiers and
conscripted convicts of the various Liangzhou commanderies, altogether 40,000 men to attack
the Western Qiang. When they reached Jincheng, a vast and resolute army, they went into battle
against the Qiang, beheading 600. They also fought at Luodu Valley95 but were defeated by the
Qiang, with more than 4,000 dead. The Qiang then led their multitudes out beyond the border
and Wu again went in pursuit of them and reached Eastern and Western Han [邯96] where he
won a major victory over the Qiang, beheading 4,600, capturing 1,600, with the remainder
surrendering and dispersing. Wu returned victorious with his troops to the capital. Seven
hundred families were added to his fiefdom, which already numbered 1,800 households. He
died in the 4th Yongping year (60 AD).
This is a useful reference: non-Chinese Qiang Hu men in Liangzhou were serving as troops for the
Han court – fighting against Western Qiang troops who had obviously caused devastation and
must have been a huge threat if 40,000 troops were amassed against them.
Chapter 53: 卷二十三, 竇融列傳第十三 The Biography of Dou Rong97
This chapter on Dou Rong and his descendants shows the Qiang covering a vast extent of territory
from the Gansu corridor down to southeastern Qinghai and up to areas in the northwest. It also
shows how far those who had submitted to the Han had to go on military expeditions. Although
there is clearly cooperation between the Qiang and Han, the massive Qiang uprising of 107 AD was
to show how superficial and tenuous much of this cooperation must have actually been.
Dou Rong’s great grandfather had once been governor of Zhangye, a great uncle had been
Colonel Protector of the Qiang and a cousin had been governor of Wuwei, so his family had been
in the Hexi corridor for many generations and Dou Rong was familiar with the local customs. He
is quoted as saying to his brothers: “No-one knows how dangerous things may be in the empire
at the moment, but Hexi is a prosperous area, the river is reliable, Zhangye vassal state has crack
troops (and) 10,000 cavalry, and whenever there is a dangerous crisis, any enemy can be
stopped at the river ford, which is enough defence in itself, …” His brothers all agreed with him.
94 It is interesting to note that battles were often fought in the autumn when horses had been well
pastured and were at the peak of health.
95雒都谷: most likely in the Ledu area east of Xining.
96邯: Although this character nowadays relates to a place in Hebei, in this context it was south of the
Hualong area of Qinghai, southeast of Xining towards Xunhua, which, according to this passage, was
beyond Han control.
97 16 BC – 62 AD. In the chaos of Wang Mang’s reign, before Emperor Guangwu came to power, Dou Rong
had been commander of Zhangye vassal state, which was north of Zhangye.

17. So Dou Rong…became commander of Zhangye vassal state, moving his family members west.
Once he arrived he fostered excellent relations, nurturing peace with the Qiang Lu (enemies),
even winning their favour, and Hexi harmoniously submitted to his supervision.
This is very revealing regarding the location of some Qiang: Zhangye vassal state was north of
Zhangye and although the Qiang seem to have been scattered along the Hexi corridor, it seems
likely that some were actually in Zhangye vassal state.
At that time Liang Tong, the governor of Jiuquan, Ku Jun, the governor of Jincheng, Shi Bao, the
commander of Zhangye, Zhu Zeng, the commander of Jiuquan and Xin Rong, the commander of
Dunhuang, combined their skilled men and Dou Rong viewed them with favour. Gengshi was
defeated and Tong discussed the situation with these Hexi corridor leaders, saying,
“Everywhere in the empire is in chaos at the moment, … Hexi is isolated among the Qiang (and)
Hu.98 If we don’t unite we won’t be able to defend ourselves….” He then suggests choosing one
person as Major General, uniting the five commanderies99 and watching to see how things were
going to develop in the empire. The others agreed with this but modestly declined to be the
main leader and … Rong became the Major General of the five commanderies of Hexi. At that
time, the governors of Wuwei and Zhangye considered themselves too isolated and
unsupported so they resigned their posts (removed their Han seal and silk ribbons) and left.
Then Liang Tong [the governor of Jiuquan] became the governor of Wuwei, Shi Bao [the
commander of Zhangye] became governor of Zhangye, Zhu Zeng became governor of Jiuquan,
Xin Peng became governor of Dunhuang, and Ku Jun became governor of Jincheng. Rong lived in
the Zhangye vassal state, holding the office of commander as before, and established
supervision of the five commanderies. The customs of the people of Hexi were simple and
unpretentious and Dou Rong and his people governed with tolerance. The upper and lower
ranks had good relationships and there was peace and prosperity. The troops were trained,
practising fighting and shooting, setting up warning beacon towers and when the Qiang (and)
Hu100 violated the borders, Dou Rong would always personally lead the various commanderies
in saving each other. After that, the Xiongnu invaded…the Qiang Hu who were defending the
pass were all afraid and surrendered [to the Xiongnu] and an unending flow of (Han) exiles fled
back to Anding, Beidi and Shang commandery, away from the violence and the hunger.
…In earlier times, the emperor heard that Hexi was extremely rich territory which adjoined
Long and Shu101…
In the time of Emperor Gengshi (23-25 AD), Feng He of the Xianlian Qiang, with various groups
[of Qiang], killed the governor of Jincheng and occupied his commandery. Kui Xiao sent an
envoy to bribe Feng He to form an alliance… Dou Rong attacked Feng He and defeated him,
beheading 1,000, and taking 10,000 cattle, horses and sheep, and several 10,000 hu of grain…
In summer of the 8th year (of Emperor Guangwu: 32 AD) Dou Rong led several 10,000 foot and
cavalry soldiers of the governors of the five commanderies and of the Qiang Lu and Lesser
98 This suggests that the Qiang were the dominant non-Chinese presence in the four prefectures of the
Hexi/Gansu corridor, along with some Xiao Yuezhi and possibly still some Xiongnu.
99 Dunhuang, Jiuquan, Zhangye, Wuwei, and Jincheng.
100 The use of ‘Qiang Hu’ rather than specific groups of Qiang, such as the Leijie or Xianlian for example,
may indicate new arrivals or it may just be an umbrella term for northwestern non-Chinese nomads of
this period. It seems that there were Qiang living in the five commanderies who were appreciative of Dou
Rong, but other Qiang beyond the borders who were ‘the enemy.’ It is unclear whether they were coming
from the Western Regions beyond Dunhuang or coming over today’s Qilian from western Qinghai.
101地接陇,蜀: this is an interesting note. If the Hexi region adjoined Long (central Gansu) and Shu (part of
Sichuan) it must have extended down through Jincheng (eastern Qinghai) to the northwestern Sichuan
border. However, as Hexi essentially means ‘west of the river’ it was possibly a loosely defined term.

18. Yuezhi (羌虏小月氏) with a large amount of food supplies and met with the main army… they
yielded to the emperor and the head of each commandery was given an Eastern Han title and
Dou Rong, also honoured, went back west to his garrison.
Emperor Guangwu, founder of the Eastern Han dynasty, clearly commanded more respect and
wielded more power than his predecessors, Wang Mang and Geng Shi, regaining a degree of Han
control over the Gansu corridor.
Sometime around 44 AD, one of Dou Rong’s relatives, named Lin, became Colonel Protector of
the Qiang but in the second Yong Ping year (58 AD) Lin was executed for his crimes – as
explained in the Biography of the Western Qiang.
In about 72 AD, Gu [a relative of Dou Rong] and someone called Zhong, led soldiers of Jiuquan,
Dunhuang and Zhangye as well as the Lu Shui Qiang Hu,102 12,000 cavalry, out of the border
beyond Jiuquan, and Geng Bing and Qin Peng led recruited soldiers and Qiang Hu from Wuwei,
Longxi and Tianshui, 10,000 cavalry, beyond the border at Juyan.103 Also Zhai Rong, the Taipu
official, and Wu Tang, the Duliao General, led Qiang Hu and troops of the Southern Xiongnu
Shanyu of the area northeast of the river and west of the river, 11,000 cavalry, out of Gao Que
Sai104 … The following year, Jushi surrendered to Gu… Gu remained at his post on the borders
for several years and the Qiang Hu responded to his kindness and trustworthiness.
Dou Xian was a descendant of Dou Rong and in the Yongping era (57-75 AD) he was out of
favour with the empress dowager and was afraid he would be killed so to redeem himself he
asked to be sent to attack the Xiongnu. His troops against the Xiongnu included Qiang Hu. And
the following year, the troops of the Duliao General, including ‘8,000 Yicong Qiang Hu cavalry’105
went beyond the border at Guyang.106
Chapter 54: 卷二十四 马援列传第十四 The Biography of Ma Yuan
In the 9th Jianwu year (33 AD), Ma Yuan was appointed ‘Taizhong Daifu’ and his deputy Lai Xi
supervised the various generals in pacifying Liangzhou. From the end of the Wang Mang period
the Western Qiang had invaded and settled within the borders, especially in many of the vassal
counties of Jincheng.
This indicates a significant increase in Qiang inhabitants in western Gansu and eastern Qinghai. It
is unclear which borders they were crossing into China, but the following paragraph mentions
Qiang being defeated at Lintao, which was east of Qinghai Lake so the above paragraph could be
Qiang entering from the direction of Xinjiang and/or from southeastern Qinghai. If they were
coming from Xinjiang, it’s possible that they were some of the Erh Qiang mentioned in the Han Shu
along the southern rim of the Tarim Basin
102卢水羌胡: Although the Lu Shui are noted as of Qiang stock here, they were also at times referred to
just as Lu Shui Hu 卢水胡 and, according to a Baidu entry, originally included Xiongnu and Yuezhi and
gradually absorbed people of other groups including Chinese, Qiang and others. This strongly suggests
that the term Qiang Hu served as a broad umbrella for various groups.
http://baike.baidu.com/view/1191127.htm
103 Juyan Lake, now a wetland area rather than a lake, was in what is now western Inner Mongolia near
the eastern border of Xinjiang, so these troops were quite a distance from Tianshui etc. From 2 nd C BC to
8th C AD, although somewhat northerly, it was viewed as part of the Gansu Corridor.
104高闕塞 ‘the pass of the high watchtowers’ – in the region of the Urat plain in Bayan Nur, Inner Mongolia,
on the northernmost bend of the Yellow River.
105 See n.84 and n.39 above. We know that the Yicong included Qiang and Yuezhi so there is a strong
possibility that the phrase ‘Qiang Hu’ at times included Yuezhi who lived in areas inhabited by the Qiang.
106 The Baotou area of Inner Mongolia

19. In the 11th year (35 AD) Ma Yuan was appointed governor of Longxi and he sent 3,000 foot and
cavalry soldiers and defeated the Xianlian Qiang at Lintao, beheading several hundred and
capturing more than 10,000 horses, cattle and sheep. More than 8,000 Qiang who were
guarding the border came to Ma Yuan to surrender. There were several 10,000 of their type of
Qiang who were invading and raiding and they were holding Haomen Pass.107 Ma Yuan and the
Yangwu General, Ma Chen, attacked them. Because the Qiang had moved their wives and
baggage to Yunwu Valley,108 Ma Yuan sneaked along between the paths to their camp. The Qiang
were greatly alarmed and fled far away to Tangyi Valley,109 but Ma Yuan pursued them and
attacked them there. The Qiang gathered their crack troops together at Bei Shan.110 Ma Yuan
and Ma Chen’s troops moved towards the mountain and detached several hundred cavalry to
make a surprise attack from behind, taking advantage of the dark to start fires, beating drums
and shouting loudly. The Qiang fled in all directions, with more than 1,000 beheaded. Ma Yuan
did not have enough soldiers to pursue them so he took their livestock and grain and retreated.
He was wounded by an arrow, the emperor expressed his appreciation and awarded him
several thousand cattle and sheep, ...
At this time, the court councillors wanted to abandon Jincheng west of Poqiang,111 because it
was distant and there was too much plundering. Ma Yuan said, “… west from Poqiang the towns
are very sturdy, so they are very reliable and solid and the land there is fertile and well-irrigated.
The situation is like today's Qiang in Huangzhong, who constantly cause trouble, but the area
should not be abandoned.” The emperor agreed with this and sent an edict to the governor of
Wuwei, to order all the Chinese who had left Jincheng to go back there. Three thousand went
back, each returning to where they had lived before. Ma Yuan applied to the emperor to install a
high official there and repaired the city walls, built trenches, straightened out the irrigated fields,
gave advice on tilling and pasturing, and the people of the commandery were happy in their
work. He also sent the Qiang chief, Yang Feng Pi, to speak to the Qiang beyond the borders and
they all came amicably. The Di people of Wudu rebelled against Gongsun Shu [a warlord of Shu,
based in Chengdu], and came to surrender. Ma Yuan rewarded them with honours. The emperor
made Ma Yuan a general when he heard of this.
In the thirteenth year [37 AD], the Canlang Qiang of Wudu and the various kinds beyond the
borders, invaded and killed the high official.112 Ma Yuan attacked with more than 4,000 men, as
far as Didao county.113 The Qiang were in the mountains and Ma Yuan’s army occupied the
convenient territory and seized their pasture land but didn’t engage the Qiang in battle. The
Qiang were left in dire poverty. Their chiefs and several 100,000 households fled beyond the
107(诣种有数万，屯聚寇抄，拒浩亹隘) There is a Haomen Pass, to the east of Ledu county, near Minhe.
In the time of Wudi, there were agricultural garrisons from Haomen to Linqiang, i.e. stretching along the
Huang River valley from today’s Qinghai-Gansu border to near Qinghai Lake.
108允吾: between today’s Minhe and Yongdeng in the Qinghai-Gansu border area.
109 唐翼谷: Thought to be west of Ledu county, Qinghai.
http://www.qh.xinhuanet.com/peachblossom/2011-04/25/content_22609357.htm
110 北山: North Mountain. Possibly Huzhu county north of Xining – in the foothills of the eastern end of the
Qilian Range.
111 破羌: ‘Defeating the Qiang.’ This was the name of a county established in the Western Han period, in
the Ledu region of Qinghai.
112 This is an interesting alliance. Wudu, the location of the Canlang Qiang (武都参狼羌), bordered
Guanghan in the south (northern Sichuan), Longxi in the north and Hanzhong in the east (Sichuan-Gansu-
Shaanxi border) but beyond the narrow border in the west was non-Han territory of southeastern
Qinghai close to the Anye Machen Range, which may well be where these various kinds of Qiang beyond
the border were located. As seen in the next sentence, many thousands fled across the borders to escape
Ma Yuan, so they were most likely fleeing west into the Anye Machen area and southeastern Qinghai.
113 氐道县:south of Tianshui in Longxi commandery.

20. borders, with more than 10,000 of the various kinds surrendering, so Longyou was peaceful and
quiet.
This was an effective but cruel strategy, cutting the Qiang off from the land they were using for
their livestock. It is clear from various chapters that their livestock often numbered thousands of
sheep, cattle and horses. For them to lose their pasturelands and be restricted to only mountain
areas would have made life impossible, as evidenced by the flight of some and submission of others.
It seems likely that these mountains were in southwestern Gansu, so those who fled may have gone
towards the Anye Machen Range.
A speech further down the page, gives a brief summary of the 35 AD conflict with the Xianlian
Qiang:
“Ma Yuan was appointed envoy to the west by imperial order to suppress and comfort the
people in the border regions, so he recruited some outstanding men, knowing it would entice
the Qiang Rong (羌戎), scheming like a bubbling spring, …then he rescued the collapsing
counties…preserving the settlements that had been abandoned. Whole divisions of soldiers
advanced, and because of the grain from the enemy, Long and Ji114 were pacified, just guarding
an empty commandery. The troop movements were successful and the commanders advanced
and were victorious. They hardly eliminated any Xianlian because the Xianlian went into the
mountain valleys and fought ferociously with all their might and an arrow pierced Ma Yuan’s
shin.”
In the 2nd Jianchu year (77 AD), the Qiang protecting the borders of Jincheng and Longxi all
rebelled.115 Thirty thousand troops were sent against them. The army arrived in Ji116 but the
Qiang chief, Bu Qiao, and his men surrounded the commander of the southern troops in Lintao.
Ma Fang wanted to save him but the road to Lintao was dangerous and vehicles and horses
could only go two abreast, so Fang chose two generals with several hundred cavalry and
separated them into an advance and rear army and set up camp about 10 li from Lintao, with
many banners on wooden poles, letting it be known a great army was about to advance. When
the Qiang chiefs saw this, they galloped back and said that the Han soldiers were many. On the
next day, the Han troops advanced making a great uproar and the Qiang enemy fled in fear
because they were being pursued and defeated. More than 4,000 were beheaded and the siege
of Lintao was broken. Ma Fang offered mercy and the Shaodang kind of Qiang all surrendered.
Only Bu Qiao and more than 20,000 people went southwest of Lintao to Qugu.117 In the 12th
month, the Qiang again defeated Minister of War, Geng Gong, and the head official of Longxi at
Heluo Valley, killing several hundred.
In spring of the following year, Ma Fang sent Sima Xia Jun ahead from Dadao with 5,000 people,
and then secretly sent Sima Ma Peng with 5,000 soldiers on a bypath to attack their strategic
position. He also ordered the troop commander, Li Diao and his men to surround them on the
west, so that the three would attack together. They defeated them again and beheaded more
than 1,000 people, taking more than 100,000 cattle and sheep (no mention of horses). The
Qiang retreated and Xia Jun went after them and they were defeated. Ma Fang then led his
soldiers to do battle in Western Suo and also defeated them. Bu Qiao was then under pressure
and anxious so he led more than 10,000 of his kind to surrender.
114冀: Wushan area west of Tianshui. See n.20 above.
115This rebellion of Qiang ‘guarding’ the border seems to have been quite a frequent occurrence and
shows how easily the balance could be upset by ill treatment, heavy taxes, or enticement by Qiang groups
beyond the border.
116冀 See n.19 above.
117曲谷: ‘Crooked Valley.’ Nowadays there is a Qiang area called Qugu in Maoxian county in Sichuan’s Aba
prefecture. It is common for names to travel with people as they migrate – as seen in more recent history
with New York, Boston and many other place names.

21. Ma Fang was a real favourite of the emperor …he was ill but recovered and again pacified the
Western Qiang. He was rewarded with a further 1,350 households… Ma Fang also had many
horses and much livestock and he levied taxes on the Qiang Hu. The emperor was unhappy
about this (the heavy taxes), …. so Fang’s power was somewhat decreased.
Chapter 58: 卷二十八上 桓谭冯衍列传第十八上 The Biography of Huan, Tan, Feng
and Yan
This chapter just has a couple of brief but descriptive references:
Firstly in a speech: “…the Qiang, like their ancestors, were tough and upright and able to endure
hard times. (行劲直以离尤兮，羌前人之所有)
Secondly, a line which seems to be saying that the Qiang realised their own (cultural)
impoverishment and then adopted Han culture. (盖隐约而得道兮，羌穷悟而入术)
Chapter 60: 卷三十上 苏竟杨厚列传第二十上 The Biography of Su Jing and Yang Hou
In the third Yangjia year (134 AD), the Western Qiang invaded western Long and the next year
the Wuhuan encircled the Duliao General, Geng Ye.
In this chapter various problems are being discussed in sequence. The Qiang problem is
included in the fifth issue on the list:
The 5th issue: …The court councillors feared that after the start of autumn,118 the regions of Zhao,
Wei, and Guanxi119 would suffer the scourge of Qiang plundering and uprisings. So they should
prepare in advance and tell all the commanderies to respectfully instruct the people, not lay a
heavy 'corvee' burden on them, not tax them heavily, ... prepare guards, choose talented and
virtuous people, in order to suppress and pacify them [the Qiang].
It had obviously been seen that good treatment of the Qiang was better than oppression.
Chapter 61: 卷三十一 郭杜孔张廉王苏羊贾陆列传第二十一 The Biography of Guo, Du,
Kong, Zhang, Lian, Wang, Su, Yang, Jia and Lu.
This chapter has an interesting reference to a prosperous place called Guzang,120 where there was
exchange of goods with the Qiang Hu.
118 This seems to have been a favourite time for the Qiang to attack – when their horses had been
strengthened by the abundance of the summer pastures and there were ample supplies for the men.
119关西: ‘west of the pass.’ In this context, the pass was likely to be Tong Pass in the Weinan region of
Shaanxi.
120 姑臧: Guzang, a non-Chinese word. This was apparently in the Wuwei area. It became the capital of the
Former and Latter Liang states in the 4th century AD. http://baike.baidu.com/view/125186.htm. In ‘Indo-
Scythian Studies: Being Khotanese Texts Volume VII,’ pp 18-19, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), H. W.
Bailey mentions a vihara college being founded by the Queen of Guzan. In ‘The culture of the Sakas in
ancient Iranian Khotan’ (Bibliotheca Persica. Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies, No. 1. Caravan Books,
1982, p57), Bailey had originally thought that Guzan was in the vicinity of Qinghai Lake but he later
revised this to north of Turpan. John Hill suggests Guzan was in the Kucha area (quoted in Doug Hitch,
“The Special Status of Turfan,” Sino-Platonic Papers, 186, March, 2009, p12). Bailey suggests ‘Guzan’ may
be an Iranian name from the Yuezhi. It seems possible that there is some connection between ‘Guzang’ (a
Chinese transliteration) and Guzan in Khotanese Saka. Bailey mentions that the vihara college was called
‘Ermono,’ the adjective in Iranian from ‘Erma.’ He also gives a Khotanese Saka reference to ‘woollen cloth
being carried to the people of Erma.’ It may just be coincidence but ‘erma’ is the autonym used by today’s
Qiang in Aba Prefecture, Sichuan. (There are perhaps echoes of Guzan in Afghanistan’s Ghazni province
and in Guzana in northeastern Syria.)

22. In the 8th Jianwu year (32 AD) … everything was chaotic, and only Hexi was quiet… Guzang
became known as a wealthy settlement, with trade of goods with the Qiang Hu and on market
day people came from all around,…
In the mid Yongchu period [107-113] the Western Qiang invaded Ba commandery121 and caused
trouble for the locals. An edict was sent to the Zhonglang General to attack them but over
successive years he could not overcome them. Tang was made governor of Ba commandery. He
took soldiers to fight the ‘thieves’ [i.e. the Qiang], beheaded more than 1,000, and Ba and Yong
[commanderies] were peaceful.
Chapter 72: 卷四十二 光武十王列傳第三十二 The Biography of the Ten Kings of
Guangwu
In the Yongchu period (107-113 AD), the Qiang were still not peaceful over in the west, which
cost the empire more than 20 million ‘cash.’
In the Emperor Shun era (125-144 AD), the Qiang Lu often rebelled, incurring great expense...
Chapter 76: 卷四十六 郭陳列傳第三十六 The Biography of Guo and Chen
This chapter gives a general comment that in Bing and Liang provinces (并州, 凉州) the Qiang
Rong were rebelling.122 Liang province stretched from eastern Qinghai and southwestern Gansu
up into the Gansu corridor. It bordered Bing province in the northeast and Bing extended up to the
Yellow River in Inner Mongolia, bordering the Gobi desert, so these Qiang Rong were scattered
over a wide area.
Chapter 77: 卷四十七 班梁列傳第三十七 The Biography of Ban (Chao123) and Liang
(Jin)
The first Qiang reference is a brief mention of the rebellious Qiang invading San Fu and
someone called Xiong leading five battalions of soldiers to garrison Chang’an.
The following section highlights just how much damage the Qiang rebellion of 107 - 118 AD did,
cutting off Han access to the Western Regions, which then allowed the Xiongnu to reassert their
influence over the states of the Western Regions. Yong’s speech comes shortly after the Qiang
rebellion had been suppressed and there is a possibility of the Han regaining influence in the
Western Regions.
In the 6th Yuanchu year (119 AD), the governor of Dunhuang, Cao Zong, sent the ‘zhangshi’
official, Suo Ban, to lead more than 1,000 people to garrison Yiwu [today’s Hami]. The king of
Nearer Jushi and the king of Shanshan both came and surrendered to Ban. A few months later,
the Northern Shanyu [Xiongnu leader], together with the king of Further Jushi, attacked and
wiped out Ban and his forces and then advanced and attacked the king of Nearer Jushi, planning
to control the northern region. The king of Shanshan was worried and asked Cao Zong to save
him so Zong asked for permission to take 5,000 men and attack the Xiongnu, to avenge Ban’s
humiliation and to retake the Western Regions. Empress dowager124 Deng then summoned Yong
121 Northeastern Sichuan.
122 Still a variety of terms used: Qiang Hu, Qiang Rong, Qiang Lu…
123班超. 33 – 102 AD. Ban Chao’s father, older brother and sister were the authors of the Qian Han Shu. He
became ‘Protector General of the Western Regions’ having regained the Western Regions in the 1 st
century AD but Chinese influence in the area diminished after his death in 102 AD.
124 In the Han period, the term ‘taihou 太后’, often translated as ‘empress dowager,’ was also a title for the
mothers of feudal vassals and kings. It seems these women often wielded considerable power.
http://xh.5156edu.com/html5/113995.html

23. to court to discuss the situation. In the beginning, many of the high-ranking officials thought it
better to close the Yumen Pass and to abandon the Western Regions but Yong submitted his
opinion:
“In former times Emperor Wu suffered from the Xiongnu who were strong and flourishing, and
at the same time there were 100 Man (蛮) exerting pressure on and obstructing the borders. So
he opened the Western Regions, … breaking off the right arm of the Xiongnu. Then Wang Mang
usurped the throne, … and the Hu and Yi (胡夷) were angry and rebelled. Then, in the
restoration (of the Han) under Guangwu, there was no time for external affairs, so the Xiongnu
were strong again and exerting their power over various states. By the Yongping period
(Emperor Ming: 57-75 AD), they again attacked Dunhuang and the various commanderies of
Hexi, so the city gates were closed in the daytime. Emperor Ming … then ordered his brave
ministers to lead an expedition to the Western Regions, so the Xiongnu fled far away and the
borders were peaceful. By the Yongyuan period (Emperor He: 89-105 AD), everyone came to
submit. In the period of the Qiang upheaval, the Western Regions were again cut off (107 AD
onwards), and the Xiongnu took advantage of this to extort tribute from the states who were
once again cut off from Han influence. Shanshan and Jushi were both very resentful, thinking
positively towards the Han [in contrast with the Xiongnu] but with no way to connect with
them. … In the past, Dunhuang commandery had a battalion of 300 soldiers, and today it would
be good to restore that, and establish an assistant Colonel Protector of the Western Regions
living in Dunhuang, as was the situation in the Yongyuan period [which ended in 105 AD, just
before the major Qiang rebellion began in 107 AD]. It would also be good to send a Western
Regions chief ‘zhangshi’ officer to lead 500 people to garrison Loulan, serving as a pathway to
Yanqi and Qiuci (Kucha) further west and to strengthen the will and courage of Shanshan and
Yutian in the south, resist the Xiongnu in the north and get closer to Dunhuang in the east. This
would be the most advantageous way.”
Liang Jin was from Beidi commandery. … In the 1st Yanping year (106 AD), he became assistant
Colonel of the Western Regions. He moved to Hexi and at that time the various states of the
Western Regions rebelled and attacked Ren Shang, the Protector General of the Western
Regions, in Shule (Kashgar). Ren Shang sent a request for help and Liang Jin was ordered to lead
5,000 Qiang Hu cavalry from the four Hexi commanderies [Wuwei, Jiuquan, Zhangye and
Dunhuang] to go quickly to his assistance. Before Liang Jin could get there, Ren Shang had
already got free. … Ren returned and he and another Western Regions official were replaced by
Duan Xi and Zhao Bo, who were stationed guarding Tagancheng,125 which was small and Liang
Jin thought it couldn’t be strengthened so he deceived the king of Kucha, Bai Ba, wanting to
enter his city and protect it with him. Bai Ba allowed him in. The officials and people
remonstrated with Bai Ba but he wouldn’t listen…and he sent his high officers to welcome Xi
and Bo, with their combined army of 8-9,000. Then the officials and people of Kucha rebelled
against their king, and with Wensu and Gumo126 they rose up, several 10,000 soldiers, and
together surrounded the settlement (of Kucha). Liang Jin and his men came out [from Kucha] to
fight and soundly defeated them. A succession of soldiers came over several months, and the
Hu127 multitudes were defeated and fled. The Han troops went after them and beheaded more
than 10,000, and took several 1,000 captive, as well as taking several 10,000 camels and other
livestock/animal products. Then Kucha was pacified. However, the route was still cut off. … The
high officials discussed the situation and thought the Western Regions were inaccessible and far
away, several settlements had rebelled and there was the never-ending expense of maintaining
the officials and the agricultural garrisons. In the 1st Yongchu year (107 AD) the position of chief
administrator of the Western Regions was terminated and the Chief Cavalry Commandant,
125 它干城: thought to be near Kucha, Xinjiang.
126 These were also settlements in Xinjiang
127 This seems here to be the people of Kucha who had rebelled against their king.

24. Wang Hong sent the soldiers of Guanzhong to welcome Liang Jin, Duan Xi and Zhao Bo, as well
as the officials of the Lu and Liao agricultural garrisons in Yiwu (Hami).
This was a massive retreat from what is now Xinjiang, pulling back to Guanzhong which was
around the Wei River valley in Shaanxi.
However, in the spring of the 2nd Yongchu year [108 AD], they returned to Dunhuang. When the
Qiang masses rebelled, the court sent many troops west to attack them and Liang Jin was
retained to provide military aid for the armies. Liang Jin reached Rile128 in Zhangye. More than
10,000 of the various kinds of Qiang attacked ‘Tinghou’129 killing and robbing the minor officials
and people. Liang Jin advanced with his soldiers and attacked and defeated them, pursuing them
to Zhaowu,130 and the enemy scattered, (with only 12 or 13 able to break away?). Then they
went to Guzang131 and more than 300 Qiang chiefs came to visit Liang Jin to surrender. He set a
sympathetic example and allowed them to go back to their old territory and the four
commanderies of Hexi were again peaceful.
Liang Jin then received an order to manage the garrison at Jincheng. He heard that the Qiang
were on the move to invade San Fu and were approaching the imperial tombs, so he promptly
led soldiers to attack them. The fighting moved to Wugong132…. Liang Jin was wounded as he
went into battle but despite that he continued to attack, taking as many prisoners and as much
livestock as possible, including a large amount of possessions. The Qiang then fled and scattered.
The court was delighted by this, and … Liang Jin was entrusted with the affairs of the west and
made the official in charge of all the armies.
In the 5th Yongchu year (111 AD), Anding, Beidi, and Shang commanderies were all invaded by
the Qiang, and the nobles of the valleys moved away, unable to maintain their positions. Liang
Jin was ordered to send border soldiers to welcome the governors of the three commanderies
and the generals, officials and people were sent to live on the edge of Fufeng.133 Liang Jin
immediately sent the Southern Shanyu (Xiongnu) and his brother Yougu Tunu to lead his troops
to welcome them. After he returned, Liang Jin … appointed Tunu as ‘Qiang marquis’ with a Han
seal and silk ribbon but this was done without authorisation so Liang Jin was imprisoned and
punished. … When the rebellious Qiang invaded San Fu and the brigands of Guanzhong rose up,
Liang Jin was given the post of Yezhe official and led his troops against them. When they
reached Hu county,134 he fell ill and died.
Chapter 78: 卷四十八 杨李翟应霍爰徐列传第三十八 The Biography of Yang, Li, Zhai,
Ying, Huo, Yuan and Xu
In the third Yanguang year (124 AD), Zhai Ying went to serve as Jiuquan governor. More than
1,000 rebellious Qiang riders moved to Dunhuang to plunder the borders of the commandery
and Zhai Ying went to attack them, beheading 900. The Qiang were almost finished off, which
shook their confidence. He then became mayor of the capital.
In the 2nd Zhongping year (185 AD), the Hanyang brigands, Bian Zhang and Han Sui joined with
the Qiang Hu and went east to invade San Fu and at that time the General of Cavalry and
Chariots, Hou Fu Song, went west to attack them. Song asked for permission to send 3,000
128 West of Yongchang in the Gansu corridor.
129 亭侯: this usually means some kind of feudal lord but is possibly a place name here?
130昭武: west of Zhangye in the region of Linze
131 See n.120 above.
132 Possibly today’s Wugong county just east of Xi’an, Shaanxi.
133扶风: Baoji area, west of Xi’an on the Gansu-Shaanxi border.
134胡县: possibly a place name but possibly just ‘the counties of the Hu.’

25. Wuhuan fighters. The Marquis of the northern army, Zou Jing, submitted, “The Wuhuan hordes
are weak, so it would be good to enlist the Xianbei.” … Han Zhuo thought, “The Wuhuan soldiers
are few and they have been enemies of the Xianbei for generations, so if the Wuhuan are sent,
the Xianbei will make a surprise attack on their homes. If the Wuhuan hear of this, they will
again desert the army and go back to save their homes. …
This is an interesting insight into how the Han had to balance their relationships with the various
non-Chinese groups in the border regions. The discussion continues with Shao Bo who highlights
the dangers of using one group to resist another. Here the Xianbei have been invited to fight
against the Qiang but have then taken advantage of this invitation to oppress the local people and,
moreover, the Xianbei haven’t dealt with the Qiang so the situation is worse than before.
Shao Bo said, “The Xianbei are separated on the north of the Gobi desert with their herds of dogs
and sheep, with no commander-in-chief as ruler, living in temporary settlements and by nature
they are corrupt and violent, with no sense of honour, therefore they often violate and block the
passes, so there has been no peace for a long time. … In the past the Xiongnu rebelled and the
Duliao General Ma Xu, and the Wuhuan Colonel, Wang Yuan, sent 5,000 Xianbei cavalry and the
governor of Wuwei, Zhao Chong, also led Xianbei to attack the rebellious Qiang. … but the
Xianbei were increasingly excessive and many behaved lawlessly. … They raided the people,
robbed the travelling merchants, stole livestock… and because their rewards were great, they
weren’t willing to leave, wanting again to exchange their goods for iron. … Today the crafty
invaders (i.e. the Xianbei) have not been destroyed and the Qiang are still causing enormous
damage, … The officials stupidly think it’s possible to recruit the Qiang Hu of Longxi as good
defenders who won’t rebel, but will simply be excellent and brave, reliable and admirable.
Governor Li Can calmly has a plan, but he will have to reward evil to gain the military force [of
the Qiang].
The final Qiang reference in Chapter 78 emphasises how beneficial it was to have officials who
were culturally adaptable and sensitive:
Shi Jun was the governor of Jincheng. He was intelligent and broadminded as well as sincere and
magnanimous. He was able to use favour and trust to deal with those of different customs and
he was greatly esteemed by the Qiang Hu.
Chapter 81: 卷五十一 李陈庞陈桥列传第四十一 The Biography of Li, Chen Chan, Pang,
Chen Gui and Qiao
Early in the chapter there is a useful description of the Western Regions:
The Western Regions are very prosperous with many precious gems, and the rulers and the Hu
officials and merchants of these various vassal states often presented Li Xun with slave servants,
Yuan horses,135 gold and silver, and fragrant ‘Ji’ cloth.136 The Northern Xiongnu frequently cut of
Jushi (nr Turpan) and Yiwu (Hami) in the Western Regions so missions were not able to go west
beyond the sands of Long (陇沙). Li Xun set up rewards and then beheaded the commander of
the enemy (i.e. the Xiongnu), hanging his head at the entrance to the military camp. From then
on the road was smooth and clear and power and kindness went hand in hand.
Xun then became the governor of Wuwei but he was dismissed for some misdemeanour and
returned to his native place, living in seclusion in Shanze,137 making a hut from grass, … When
135宛马: this is the character used in 大宛 Ferghana, so these are probably the famous Ferghanan horses.
136罽: Ji was a kind of woollen fabric.
137山泽: A place name? The literal translation is ‘mountain swamp/marsh,’ two words which seem
topographically incompatible.

26. the Western Qiang rebelled, Xun reached Tianshe138 and was captured by them. The Qiang had
often heard his name so they released him. … He died aged 96 years old.
In the first Yongchu year (107 AD), the Xianlian type of Qiang in Liangzhou rebelled and Deng
Zhi, the General of Chariots and Cavalry, was sent to fight them. Pang Can made his son Jun write
saying: “At present, the refugees are in uproar in the western provinces and there are endless
military expeditions, endless floods, and the soil has lost its fertility. The strong ones are in the
main army, the exhausted ones are in the distant garrisons, agricultural harvests disappear in
the grain transports and wealth is all used up in the military expeditions. Farmland is not
cultivated, there is no income from crops, and (people are) impoverished with no hope of a
harvest in the autumn. Life has become intolerable for the common people. The officials stupidly
think they can transport grain across 10,000 li, moving far away towards the Qiang Rong, not
like the garrison commander supporting his people, caring for his exhausted ones. Deng Zhi, the
General of Chariots and Cavalry, should for the time being bring the army back, and leave Ren
Shang, the Attacking the West Colonel, to oversee the people of Liangzhou, and move to live in
San Fu….
Another quote also mentions the trouble being caused by the Qiang Rong and a large army
stationed in the west.
In the 4th Yongchu year (110 AD), the Qiang invaded and flourished, soldier expenses were
increasing daily, … and Can wrote to Deng Zhi saying, “In recent years the Qiang invaders have
exerted a lot of pressure on Longyou…. Externally we have the damage inflicted by the Qiang
and internally we have the pressure of heavy taxation.”
It is clear at this juncture that the losses inflicted by the Qiang rebellion were making many
officials consider withdrawing from the western regions.
In the first Yuanchu year (114 AD), Can became the Colonel Protector of the Qiang and the
rebellious Qiang appreciated his kindness and trust. The following year, many of the Shaodang
type of Qiang surrendered and began to return to their old capital at Lingju,139 opening the Hexi
route. At that time, the Xianlian Qiang chief took upon himself a title in Beidi, an action seen as
illegal by the Han. Can was ordered to lead 7,000 men of the surrendered Qiang and the Yicong
Hu of Huangzhong140 and to meet the Attacking the West General Sima Jun in Beidi and attack
the Xianlian. Can was defeated by the Qiang on the road. Since he was already late [because of
this defeat], Can pleaded sickness and led his soldiers back. He was punished for feigning
sickness and was imprisoned. [He was later pardoned.]
When the Qiang Hu invaded the borders, they killed the high officials, driving out and
plundering the people. Emperor Huan (146-168 AD) ordered Gui Shi to have a good knowledge
of the border customs and made him Duliao General.
Chapter 84: 卷五十四 杨震列传第四十四 The Biography of Yang and Zhen
This chapter just has one reference which again emphasises that the Qiang were exacting a
terrible toll on the Han empire. The speech is by someone called Zhen Fu, around the 2nd Yanguang
year (123 AD):
138 田舍 This can mean ‘farmhouse’ or ‘peasant family’ but is possibly a place name here.
139令居: northwest of Yongdeng in Gansu. This was the seat of the Colonel Protector of the Qiang in the
Han dynasty.
140 See n.84 above.

27. Zhen Fu had heard that in the old days in nine years of harvest there had to be three years of
reserves, so when Yao141 encountered floods, the people didn’t starve. Zhen Fu considered that
“in the calamities which have arisen in this present time, which are even more severe, the
common people are exhausted and unable to provide for themselves. There are the problems of
agricultural pests and locusts, the Qiang enemies are plundering, we are shaken and harassed
on three sides. Those doing combat service are never able to rest and we cannot maintain the
expenses of military equipment and army provisions.”
Chapter 86: 卷五十六 张王种陈列传第四十六 The Biography of Zhang, Wang, Zhong
and Chen
Gao became governor of Yizhou. It was his habit to be generous, rewarding meritorious service.
When he had been governor for 3 years, he proclaimed kindness to the distant Yi and
proactively sought to understand their different customs. And the varied settlements of the Min
Mountains142 all yielded to Han culture (virtue). The various states of Bailang (white wolf),
Panmu, Tangzou, Qiong, and Bo143 had all cut themselves off after their earlier governor, Zhu Fu,
died. When Gao arrived he again proposed that they come back into relationship with the Han.
Later, the Liangzhou Qiang were on the move and Gao was made governor of Liangzhou, and
became much liked by the common people there. He had to leave for (a military expedition) but
the officials and people requested of the emperor that he be allowed to stay. Tan’s mother144
said “I have never heard of a governor winning people’s hearts in this way.” And he was allowed
to stay… Gao again stayed one year and was then transferred to be governor of Hanyang. The
Rong Yi 戎夷145, both men and women, accompanied him to the Hanyang border. Gao thanked
them, … When he reached the commandery, he transformed the behaviour of the Qiang Hu and
stopped their invading and plundering.
When the Xiongnu invaded Bing and Liang provinces, Emperor Huan promoted Gao to the
position of Duliao General. When he arrived at his camp, Gao first let his policy of kindness and
trust be known in order to tempt the various ‘Hu’ to surrender. There were some who wouldn’t
obey so then he (discussed things further). In earlier times the Qiang Lu had had hostages146 in
the commanderies and counties, and these were all returned. In response to Gao’s sincerity of
heart and with the rewards of trust very clear, the Qiang Hu, Kucha, Shache (Yarkand), and the
Wusun147, all came to submit. Gao then removed the beacon towers and watchposts and the
border regions were peaceful with no alerts.
Chapter 88: 卷五十八 虞傅盖臧列传第四十八 The Biography of Yu, Fu, Gai and Zang
The first Qiang reference in this chapter precedes a major discussion on whether or not to abandon
Liangzhou during the major Qiang rebellion which began in 107 AD:
141 A legendary emperor of ancient China
142岷山: the Min Range runs from southern Gansu into northern Sichuan. “The Minshan covers parts of six
counties and 19 nature reserves and is populated by close to one million Han, Tibetan, Qiang, and Baima
people.” http://www.wwfchina.org/english/sub_loca.php?loca=43&sub=92
143白狼、盘木、唐菆、邛、僰. Some of these may have been in areas now populated by Qiang. In the Han
period the majority of the Qiang were spread across Gansu, Qinghai and into Ningxia.
144 See n.124 above.
145戎夷: presumably including the Qiang of Liangzhou.
146 Hostages sent to court as a guarantee of good relations between the Han and their neighbours. I am
not clear about the full meaning of 生见获质.
147 This is an interesting juxtaposition of the Qiang Hu alongside the people of Kucha (along the northern
Tarim route) and Yarkand/Shache (in southwestern Xinjiang) and the Wusun people.