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AKTU Itcs kme 602 unit 1
1. INDIAN TRADITION, CULTURE AND
SOCIETY(ITCS)
By –Anwer Ahmed
Asst Proff- Mech. Engg. Dept.
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2. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The course aims at imparting basic principles of thought process, reasoning
and inference to identify the roots and details of some of the contemporary
issues faced by our nation and try to locate possible solutions to these
challenges by digging deep into our past.
To enable the students to understand the importance of our surroundings and
encourage the students to contribute towards sustainable development.
To sensitize students towards issues related to ‘Indian’ culture, tradition and its
composite character.
To make students aware of holistic life styles of Yogic-science and wisdom
capsules in Sanskrit literature that are important in modern society with rapid
technological advancements and societal disruptions.
To acquaint students with Indian Knowledge System, Indian perspective of
modern scientific world-view and basic principles of Yoga and holistic health
care system.
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3. Chapter Index
Module -1
S.No. Reference No. Particulars Slide From-To
1 Topic1 State in Ancient India
2 Topic 2 Evolution Theory
3 Topic 3 Force Theory
4 Topic 4 Mystical Theory
5 Topic 5 Contract Theory
6 Topic 6 Stage Of State Formation In Ancient India.
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4. STATE IN ANCIENT INDIA
A State is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern
the people in one or more societies, having internal and external sovereignty over a
definite territory.
In Max Weber’s influential definition, it is that organization that has a “monopoly on
the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." It thus includes such
institutions as the armed forces, civil service or state bureaucracy, courts and police.
‘’Geographically delimited segment of human society bound by a common obedience
to a single sovereign.
The question about the origin of the state and organized government has been
discussed for centuries. There is no concrete evidence to support any of the proposed
theories, it all just remains as speculation.
Each of these most accepted theories do agree that the state must have certain basic
elements: territory, population, government and sovereignty.
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5. Process of State Formation
State formation: a natural transition from a tribal society to a segmentary state
to a republic
to monarchies
to empires
transition is characterized by growth in surplus, brought about by agrarian
expansion, military expansion and in India by co-option of local population and
cultures
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6. Beginning of state formation in India
State could come about only through creation and appropriation of surplus
Therefore state formation is linked with growth and spread of agriculture,
consequently trade, industry and urbanization
In ancient India this process began with the spread of agriculture along river valleys
Agricultural surplus generated led to trade, commerce and urbanization
The first states (Janapadas) came about in these river valleys
Pattern replicated in the South and east
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8. Monarchy
The over-riding theme in the texts is of a unified expansive state. Ideal is
Chakravarti, borne out from the epics and treatises like Arthashastra
• Allusion to Matsya Nyaya in Manusmriti
• Magadha kings used administrative and military abilities as basis of their
legitimacy
• Ritual sanction - buttressed by sacrifices such as rajasuya (enthronement
ceremony), raja-abhisekha (coronation), asvamedha (horse-sacrifice). Endorsed
by Buddhist tradition too
• Asoka’s time – inscriptions show allusion to divinity - devanampiya piyadassi
(beloved of the Gods)
• Military prowess however remained the mainstay of the monarchical state
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10. State has been the key concept in political science since the period of grand
thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. To look into the origin and evolution of the state
has been one of the greatest issues in Political Science. In ancient India also
thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya, Kamandakahave looked at
the problem. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect four
important theories regarding the origin of the state in ancient India, namely :
–Evolutionary Theory
–Force Theory
–Mystical Theory
–Contract Theory
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11. Evolutionary Theory
This theory states that the state evolved over time,
starting with the primitive family.
One person in the family was determined to be the
leader of the family.
On a primitive level, a basic government was formed.
Over decades, the family became a clan and a clan became a tribe.
The state was identified when the tribe settled in a designated area and claimed it as their
own.
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12. Force Theory
This theory proposes that the origin of state is developed
through the use of force.
One person or a small group of people claim control over the
population in a specific area by force.
Once the rule is well established the state is established.
This theory is generally a result of war.
One example: Adolf Hitler and his control over Germany that led to the attempted
control of Europe, as well as the mass genocide of the Jewish population.
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13. Divine Right Theory
The divine right theory holds that God created the state.
God gave certain individuals of royal birth the divine right to rule.
Since God divinely ordained its rulers and they were accountable to God, the
population obeyed the ruler as they were required to obey God.
This theory existed in many countries such as England and Europe throughout the
Middle Ages.
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14. Social Contract Theory
In the social contract theory, a specific population within a given designated area
gave up as much power to a government as needed to promote the well-being of
all.
Specifically, the community population and the leader have a contract. The state
has power and authority over the territory.
The community receives certain services such as a safe, crime-free area in which to
live and keep their rights protected.
This theory was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries by philosophers such as
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. The U.S. political system
is based on the social contract theory.
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16. According to Vedic
literature
Mentions that during the frequent fights between the gods and
demons, it was the latter who always emerged victorious.
The gods therefore assembled and deliberated upon and came to the conclusion
that their defeat was due to they not having a king.
They decided to make Indra as king.
Varuna also wanted to be the king of gods but his claim was
rejected by the gods.
This indicates that kingship arouse out of a military necessity.
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17. According to the
Mahabharatha
In the early years of Krita Yuga there was no sovereignty, no king and no
government.
All men used to protect one another righteously. After some time however they
found the task of righteously protecting each other painful.
Error began to assail their hearts. Having subject to error, the perception of men
became clouded and as a consequence their virtues began to decline and chaos
descended.
The gods then approached Brahma for protection and advice. Brahma created
by a fiat of his will, a son named Virajas and made him the ruler of the world.
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18. According to Arthashastra
When anarchy prevailed, people agreed to elect Manu Vaivasvata as their king and
agreed to pay one-sixth of the produce of the soil and one-tenth of merchandise as his
remuneration. In return, the king guaranteed social welfare of the people by suppressing
the act of mischief.
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19. According to Buddhist
canonical
Work Digha Nikaya, paddy was the main crop in east India.
The chief discord was hoarding of rice by some people
over and above what they required for their consumption
and stealing of rice from the fields.
Hence people assembled and agreed to choose a chief to prevent such occurrence
mentioned above.
In return they agreed to contribute him a portion of their paddy.
That individual had three titles like Mahasammata i.e. chosen by the whole people,
Khattiya i.e. lord of the fields and Raja i.e. one who pleases by means of dharma or
act.
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20. According to Prof. Altekar the institution of the joint family gradually led to the evolution
of kingship. The patriarch of the family was revered and obeyed and this reverence and
obedience was similarly shown to the head of the village or tribe who gradually acquired
the status of a chief or king. The powers of the king gradually increased as the states
become larger.
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Duties of
the King
Protection
against cattle
lifters
fight battles
Protection of
private
property
prevention of
adultery
Social
Responsibility
22. Functions and duties of the King
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To offer protection to the subjects against cattle lifters as social position of a man in Rig-Veda
was judged by the number of cows he possessed.
To fight battles in order to repulse external attacks.
Protection of private property. So great was this responsibility that the king was to restore to
the subject the stolen wealth at any cost.
Preservation of family and prevention of adultery.
As time passed the concept of welfare state developed and development of agriculture, trade
and commerce, promotion of industries, etc. were other responsibilities which the king carried
on his shoulders. His other functions included removal of poverty and misery of his subjects
and to support the helpless, aged, blind, cripple, orphans and widows.
23. Council of Ministers
The Ministerial Council was the chief administrative
authority in the kingdom.
The king was supposed not to do anything without
the consent of the council.
Ministry has been regarded by the ancient Indian political
thinkers as a very vital organ of the body called politic.
Only men who possessed wisdom, purity of purpose, bravery and loyalty were
appointed as ministers.
These ministers were no yes-men but known for their integrity, leadership qualities and
concern for the welfare of the kingdom.
For instance Ashoka’s extravagant charity was curbed by his minister.
During the time of emergencies they played an important role in the selection of the
king. After the death of Rajyavardhana, the Prime Minister Bhandi in consultation with
other officials made Harshavardhana as the king of Thaneshvar.
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24. The early Vedic
During the early Vedic period the king was assisted by the
Purohit (royal priest),
Senani (commander of the army)
Gramani (village chief).
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25. The later early Vedic
At a later period we find reference in Samhitas of the Yajurveda and the Brahmana
literature to high functionaries known as Ratnins (jewels), who probably formed the king’s
council. These Ratnins consisted of Purohit (priest), Mahisi (queen), Suta (chronicler),
Gramani (head of the village), Senani (general), Kshattri (chamberlain), Samgrahitri
(master of treasury), Bhagadugha (collector of revenue), Aksavapa (superintendent of
gambling), Govikartana (king’s companion in the chase) and Palagala (courier). The
Ratnins took an important part in the consecration ceremony of the king. It was before
them that the king took his coronation oath administered to him by the priest.
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28. In Mahabharatha
Thirthas: In Mahabharatha we have reference to the 18 thirthas who were officials assisting the king in the
administration of the state. These officials were-
Mantri- councilor,
Purohit- priest,
Yuvaraja- crown prince,
Camupati- commander-in-chief of the army,
Dvarapala- chamberlain,
Antarveshika- superintendent of the ladies apartments,
Karagaradhikari- overseer of prisons,
Dravyasamcayakrt- steward,
Krtyakrtyesvarthanamviniyojaka- in-charge of treasury,
Etc..
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29. ADMINISTRATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India, bureaucracy
developed as a well organised, hierarchical, cadre based administrative system
The Mauryas developed a well organised bureaucracy With the help of this
centralised bureaucratic structure not only did the government regulate the
economic life of the country, but it also took an important part in it.
All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state,
and were either worked directly with the labour of criminals or serfs, or let out to
entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a percentage of their output as
royalty.
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30. Arthashastra
Arthashastra, a Manual for Administrators With the establishment of the Mauryan rule, a
systematic administrative set-up came into vogue in India.
Kautilya or Chanukya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya wrote the
Arthashastra incorporating the teachings of earlier works on polity and administration.
The Arthashastra contains instructions on matters of statecraft and was used as a manual
by kings of successive generations all over India to administer their domains.
During the Mauryan period the council of ministers was called Parishad. There were two
types of ministers-
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31. Mantris – Who were councilors to the king and supervised the working of the Amatyas
and
Amatyas– Who were in charge of actual administration (executive officers).
The size of the council (mantri parishad) varied. According to Brihaspati it should be 16,
while Usanas mention it as 20 and Manu as 12.
Chanukya felt it should depend upon the needs of the state. Scope of work of the Ministry
included the whole administration; to enunciate new policies, to ensure their successful
working, to remove any difficulties which may crop up, to supervise and direct the state
policy regarding taxation and expenditure, direct foreign policy, etc.
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32. The Secretariat
For the conduct of state business, a highly organized Secretariat with 30 departments was
established.
These departments dealt with all the activities of a modern government such as
education, medical relief, revenue, irrigation, commerce, forests, agriculture, audit and
accounts, etc. and were in charge of a Superintendent known as Adhyaksha.
The works of these departments were supervised by the Amatyas.
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33. Political Ideals in Ancient India Conditions’ of
the Welfare of Societies
Hindu kingship was the highest ideal of sacrifice on the part of the individual
whose privilege it was to be the king of the Hindus.
The time-table to be followed by the king as given by Kautilya allows him just four
and a half hours of sleep and three hours for eating and recreation; the rest of the
hours devoted to the administration of the state.
So as to ably shoulder this responsibility the king was instructed in the four
branches of knowledge, namely.
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35. The king was also to practice self-control and conquer lust, anger, greed and pride. He
was to shun hunting, gambling, intoxicating drinks and women.
Hindu kings held their kingdom not as personal property but as sacred trust.
A classic example for this ideal was Rana Sangram Singh, the Sisodia ruler of Mewar.
Once he offered to step down from his throne giving an analogy as how like a broken
idol which is considered unfit for worship, he has become unfit to rule after having lost
one of his arms, eye and getting one of his legs maimed. But the nobles and other
officers dissuaded him from relinquishing the throne saying that his physical disabilities
were the result of the injuries received in the battlefield, where he had by heroism and
valour, defeated the enemy and won victory for Mewar. Therefore they said that he was
the fittest person to enhance the glory of that exalted throne. Hence the Mahabharatha
says that of all dharmas (duties), rulership is the highest in society for all times.
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36. THE SAPTANGA THEORY
ELEMENTS OF STATE:
The historic method being then unknown, the evolution of the state through various
stages is not discussed by ancient Indian writers. It is the first time in Arthashastra of
Kautilya find enumerated seven elements of state. The state as seven-limed is
contemplated by ancient Hindu thinkers. The state is defined for the first time in the
Arthashastra of Kautilya as consisting of seven elements. In Manusmriti, Manu deals with
seven Prakritis of the state like king, the ministers, the capital, the realm, the treasure, the
army and ally. But Kautilya in his Arthashastra put the same in a different order like the
swami, the Amatyas, the Janapada, the Durgas, the Kosha, the Danda, the Mitra and
the enemy.
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37. Swami (The
Ruler)
Amatya (The
Minister)
Janapada (The
Population)
Durga (The
Fortified Capital)
Kosha (The
Treasury)
Danda (The
Army)
Mitra (Ally and
Friend)
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SAPTANGA
THEORY
38. Swami
(The Ruler) It is the first and the most important element. Swami means the
monarch. He should be a native of the soil and born in a noble family. He should
be brave and well learned.
He makes all the important appointments and supervises the government. He has
to be virtuous and should treat his subjects like his own children.
Kautilya has given extensive powers to the monarch but those powers are meant
for the welfare of them subjects. In the welfare and happiness of his subjects, lies
his own happiness.
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39. Amatya
(The Minister) It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials
and subordinate staffs.
They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the state. Amatya
gives suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages and cities, ensures
defense of the state and all other tasks as assigned by the king.
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40. Janpada
(The Population) It refers to territory and people of the state.
The territory of the state should be fertile and should have abundance of forest,
rivers, mountains, minerals, wild life etc.
It should have have good climate. People should be loyal to their king, hard
working, disciplined, religious, ready to fight for their motherland, should pay taxes
regularly and happily.
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41. Durga
(The Fortified Capital) It refers to forts.
The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at strategic
locations for ensuring defense against foreign invasions.
Forts should be built near hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and big water
bodies.
They garrison soldiers, store food grains for emergency and also serve as a hideout
for the king when his life in danger.
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42. Danda (The Army)
Danda can be understood as a reference to force or justice.
The Arthashastra lays out the judicial system in detail with references to dharmasthas
(judges) and pradeshtris (officers responsible for suppression of criminals).
For Kautilya, the nature of punishment depended not only upon the nature and gravity
of the crime, but also on the varna of the offender.
For the same crime, Kautilya set aside lighter punishments for higher varnas. For
example, if a kshatriya had sexual relations with a brahmin woman, he was to pay the
highest fine. For the same offence, a vaishya could have his entire property confiscated.
The worst punishment was reserved for a shudra.
In Ashoka’s inscriptions the judicial responsibilities lay with the city mahamatas. The
edicts urge the mahamatas to be impartial and ensure that people are not imprisoned
or punished without sufficient evidence.
Pillar Edict IV contains Ashoka’s claim that he had introduced samata in judicial
procedure. According to some interpretations this meant that he had established a
uniform rule of law, abolishing varna distinctions in punishments.
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43. Mitra (Ally and Friend)
This element refers to ‘friends’ of the realm, or political allies.
At the centre of Kautilya’s polity is the vijigishu – the would-be conqueror.
The inter-state policy is about the several players around the vijigishu – the ari
(enemy), madhyama (the middle king), and the udasina (the indifferent or
neutral king).
Kautilya further listed various policies and strategies that the king could adopt
according to the circumstances, ranging from peace treaty (sandhi) if the enemy
was stronger, to vigraha (hostility) if the enemy was weaker.
Other options included military expeditions or teaming up with the enemy’s
enemy and attacking together.
Ashoka sent missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms in the north-west, with the
purpose of enhancing trade with them. Of these the most prominent was the
Mauryan relationship with the Seleucids, right from the treaty signed under
Chandragupta.
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44. Purushatha
For the purpose of the Self. Take a moment and ask yourself, ‘Am I managing my
life in a way to support my spiritual growth?’ and ‘What do I really, really want at
the level of my Soul?’”
The original Vedic texts only suggested the three goals of
• Dharma
• Artha
• Kama
In the later Upanishadic era, when people began to seek higher consciousness, the
fourth goal of Moksha was added.
Although the first three are somewhat interwoven, it is felt that the “right action”
of Dharma is a necessary requirement for Artha to be meaningful and the
abundance of Artha will be needed to support Kama. The path to liberation or
enlightenment of Moksha is supported by the harmonious interaction of Dharma,
Artha, and Kama.
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46. Dharma
Dharma means truth, the right way of living, and human behaviors considered
necessary for the order of things in the world. On a grander scale, it refers to the
cosmic law or rules that created the Universe from chaos.
On an individual level, you can think of Dharma as your true purpose in life or the
ethical basis on which you live your life. It is also:
Being conscious in your actions, words, and thoughts.
Having compassion and sensitivity to the needs of others.
Being awake to the existence of the Divine within you.
Ultimately, Dharma leads you to remember who you really are.
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47. 2. Artha
Artha provides the foundation for Dharma and Kama.
Without prosperity and security in society or at the individual level, both moral life
and sensuality become difficult. However, it’s important that your "worldly success"
doesn’t violate the moral responsibility of your Dharma and your journey toward
Moksha (spiritual liberation).
Ultimately, Artha is the pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous and
pleasurable life.
Vedanta says that you should:
• Discover a way so money runs after you and not vice versa.
• Do work that is compatible to your nature and capabilities.
• Do work that serves society.
• Do work you really love.
• Trust in the infinite organizing power of the Universe.
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48. 3. Kama
The desire for pleasure is what drives human behavior. A life without pleasure and
enjoyment is hollow and empty.
Kama relates to this pleasure, which can be sensuality, but is also art, music, beauty,
love, intimacy, affection, fellowship, and kindness—it’s what brings a sense of
delight to your life. The right kinds of pleasure lead you toward your Dharma and
help you fulfill it with passion.
Kama is good and necessary when it exists to support Dharma and becomes part
of the richness of life. However, excessive Kama can lead to overindulgence,
addiction, sloth, greed, and lust.
To successfully practice Kama, you must ask, “Are my pleasures aligned with my
life’s purpose?”
The Upanishads tell us, “As is your desire so is your will, as is your will so is your
deed, as is your deed so is your destiny and You are what your deep driving desire
is.”
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49. 4. Moksha
When you live your Dharma, fully supported by Artha and Kama, Moksha or the
final liberation dawns.
Moksha is your true nature—it’s who you really are.
It includes:
• Liberation.
• Freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth.
• Freedom from ignorance.
• Self-realization and self-knowledge.
• Consciousness of the Oneness of the Supreme Soul.
• The removal of obstacles to an unrestricted life.
• Access to our full human potential of creativity, compassion, and understanding.
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50. VARNASHRAM SYSTEM
Various texts talk of varnā shrmadharma or the dharma of different classes and
dharma in the different stages of life.
In ancient India there was a common dharma for all members of society which
must be followed by all equally.
But at the same time there were different codes of conduct for different classes or
varnas called varna dharma .
Similarly , it was desired to follow different dharma at the different stages or ā
shrama of life called ā shrama dharma
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51. ASHRAMA OR THE STAGES OF LIFE
The āshrama system denotes the Hindu scheme of life according to which
different stages in the life of an individual are well ordered.
The average life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and it is
divided into four stages each stage having a time span of 25 years.
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52. ASHRAMA OR THE STAGES OF LIFE
Brahmacharyāshrama or the Stage of Studentship
This is the first stage of life.
It is meant for acquiring knowledge, developing discipline and moulding character.
This stage starts with the ceremony called upanayanamaor investiture with the
sacred thread.
Now the person became a brahmachārina, leading a celibate and austere life as a
student at the home of his teacher.
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53. ASHRAMA OR THE STAGES OF LIFE
Grihasthāshrama or the Stage of Householder
This stage starts at marriage when the student has completed his studentship
is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of household life.
In this stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets children.
The individual pursues wealth (artha) and pleasure (kāma) within the limits of the
moral law (dharma).
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54. ASHRAMA OR THE STAGES OF LIFE
Vānaprasthāsharmaor the Stage of Retirement from Active Life
After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the individual
enters into the Vānaprasthastage.
•It consists of the third quarter of person’s life.
•In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates himself to a
of spiritual contemplation.
•He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit.
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55. ASHRAMA OR THE STAGES OF LIFE
Sanyāsāshramaor the Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic
This is the last stage of life.
Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer
(sanyāsin) with all his earthly ties broken.
The sanyāsinaspires and acts to attain liberation only.
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56. MARRIAGE
Marriage or vivāhawas a very important samskārain ancient India.
•Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes:
1.Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.
2.Progencyor the happy after life of father and his ancestors and continuation of
family line or kula.
3.Ratior pleasure.
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57. Manu and other law givers have mentioned about eight forms of marriage.
Out of these eight forms of marriage the first four have been described as
prashastaor approved or desirable marriage whereas the rest of the four forms
have been considered to be aprashasta or disapproved or undesirable marriages.
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58. MARRIAGE : PRASHASTA OR DESIRABLE
Brahma Vivāha: This is considered to be the purest form of marriage. In this form
of marriage the father of the bride offers his daughter to a man of character and
learning. The daughter who is decked with ornaments and richly dressed is given
a gift to a man of good character and high learning.
DaivaVivāha: In the daivaform of marriage the father offers her daughter as a
dakshinā(sacrificial fee) to a young priest who officiates the yajñawhich is
arranged by him.
ĀrsaVivāha: In ārsavivāhafather of the bride gives his daughter to the bridegroom
after receiving a cow and a bull or two pairs of these animals from the
PrajāpatyaVivāha: In this type of marriage, the father offers the girl to the
bridegroom. But neither does he offer any dowry nor does he demand bride-
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59. MARRIAGE : APRASHASTA OR UNDESIRABLE
AsuraVivāha: This is a form of marriage by purchase in which the bridegroom has
to give money to the father or kinsman of the bride.
GandharvaVivāha: This was a marriage by consent of the boy and the girl.
Mutual love and consent of the bride and bridegroom was the only condition
required to bring about the union.
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60. VARNA VYAVASTHA : FOUR CLASS
CLASSIFICATION
First reference of varnais seen in the Rig Veda.
The tenth chapter of Rig Veda called Purusasūktamentions the organic theory of
the origin of varnasaccording to which varnasoriginated from the different organs
of the Prajāpatior the creator.
Manu also mentions that God created various varnasfrom his various organs.
He created brahminsfrom his mouth, kshatriyasfrom his arms, vaishyasfrom his
thighs and shudrasfrom his legs. Though logically this explanation cannot be
accepted
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61. VARNA VYAVASTHA : FOUR CLASS
CLASSIFICATION
Brahmins
Brahminswere at the top of varnahierarchy.
They were believed to possess great spiritual powers.
Thus they had a divine existence.
In law, they claimed great privileges.
Normally brahminswere exempt from execution, torture and corporal
The main functions prescribed for brahminswere learning, teaching and
priesthood.
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62. VARNA VYAVASTHA : FOUR CLASS
CLASSIFICATION
Kshatriya
The second class was the ruling class described as kshatriyaor rājanya.
Kshatriyasrepresented heroism, courage and strength.
They constituted the warrior class.
The duty of kshatriyaswas protection which had both internal and external
External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion where as
internal protection meant governance in peace and protection from anarchy.
Kshatriyashad the right to possess arms.
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63. VARNA VYAVASTHA : FOUR CLAS CLASSIFICATION
Vaishyas
Vaishyasrepresented the trading and commercial class.
Though they were entitled to the services of the priesthood and to the ceremony
yajñopavīta, they were third in the social hierarchy.
According to Manu the main task of the vaishyawas to keep and maintain cattle.
But it seems that later on vaishyasbecame economically a very important class of
society.
The ideal vaishyapossessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals, cloth,
spices, perfumes etc.
In this sense vaishyaswere the ancient Indian businessmen.
In brahmanicliterature, vaishyasare given few rights and humble status but
Buddhistand Jainaliterature mention many wealthy merchants living a luxurious
life.
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64. Shudras
Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas.
They were not twice born.
They were deprived of various rights.
They were in fact second class citizens of the society.
Text maintains that shudraswere of two types—‘not excluded’ or anirvāsitaand
‘excluded’ or nirvāsita.
The distinction was made on the basis of the customs of the shudragroup and
profession followed by the members of the group.
Anirvāsitashudraswere the part of Indian varnasystem where as
nirvāsitashudraswere quite outside the pale of Hindu society and virtually
indistinguishable from the strata of people known as untouchables.
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VARNA VYAVASTHA : FOUR CLAS
CLASSIFICATION
65. UNDERSTANDING GENDER AS A SOCIAL
CATEGORY
The gender perspective looks at the impact of gender on people's opportunities, social
roles and interactions.
Successful implementation of the policy, programme and project goals of
international and national organizations is directly affected by the impact of
gender and, in turn, influences the process of social development.
Gender is an integral component of every aspect of the economic, social, daily and
private lives of individuals and societies, and of the different roles ascribed by
society to men and women.
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66. Planners and policy-makers must be mindful of the major aspects of socially ascribed
gender functions and the specific needs of men and women. If development policies are
to be sustainable, they must consider existing gender disparities in
–employment.
–Poverty.
–family life.
–Health.
–Education.
–the environment.
–public life and decision-making bodies.
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UNDERSTANDING GENDER AS A SOCIAL
CATEGORY
67. Employment / Work
Households in all societies differentiate various household activities and
responsibilities by gender. For women, production and reproduction are two
interlinked activities, and much of the work women do, although productive, is
unpaid. Men have always played a minor role in domestic work; societies tending
to assume that they have paid work outside the home.
Gender disparities in access to economic resources, including credit, land and
economic power-sharing, directly affect women's potential for achieving the kind
of economic autonomy they need to provide a better quality of life for
and their dependants. Limited access to agricultural inputs, especially for food
crops, severely curtails women's potential productivity.
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68. Poverty
Poverty can be defined as the combination of uncertain or non-existent income and a
lack of access to the resources needed to ensure sustainable living conditions.
It often goes hand-in-hand with hunger, malnourishment, poor health, high mortality
and morbidity rates, insufficient education and precarious and unhealthy housing.
In rural areas, where services and job opportunities are even fewer than in urban
poverty is also more acute. The situation is worse for women, who are less likely to
access to production factors, services and resources such as credit, land, inheritance,
education, information, extension services, technology and farm inputs, as well as a
in decision-making.
Another reason for the persistence of female poverty is gender vulnerability within the
home. When poor families cannot afford to send all of their children to school,
favour investing in the boy-children, keeping the girls at home to help with domestic
work or some income-generating activity.
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69. Family Life
In all societies women are the prime carers of children, the elderly and the ill, and
do most of the domestic tasks. Women's lives are greatly affected by
which has an incisive and direct impact on their health and on their educational,
employment and earning opportunities.
The differences between female-and male-headed households usually have a
bearing on all aspects of family life: the size and composition of the family and
it is run; nutrition; raising children; and available income.
A single female head of household has a double responsibility -she must earn a
living and, at the same time, run a home.
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70. Health & Nutrition
Biologically, men and women have different health needs, but lifestyles and
ascribed roles arising from prevailing social and cultural patterns also play a part
the health picture.
Men are more likely to be the victims of occupational diseases, accidents at work,
smoking, alcohol and other forms of substance abuse.
Menhave a higher incidence of cancer and of cardiovascular lesions and diseases
(the principal cause of male mortality).
Women's health risks, which are mainly linked to reproduction, make them more
vulnerable during pregnancy to anaemia, malnutrition, hepatitis, malaria,
and other illnesses.
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71. Education
The increasingly competitive labour market demands ever-higher levels of
education. People without it are at a growing disadvantage.
At the same time, there is broad consensus that education can, in times of
move marginalized, excluded people into the mainstream.
Despite this, socio-cultural barriers and prejudices that restrict women's access to
education persist in a number of societies.
More women than men are illiterate; and the lower a country's literacy rate, the
wider the gap between the two sexes.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
estimates that 41 percent of women in developing countries are illiterate,
compared with 20 percent of men.
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72. Environment
The impact of environmental degradation is gender-differentiated in terms of
workloads and the quality of life; women are the first to be affected by the
depletion of natural resources.
•In rural areas in most developing countries, women are responsible for the daily
management and use of natural resources, as well as providing for the family by
raising food crops, gathering forest products and fetching wood and water.
•Widespread and growing deforestation and the drying-up of water sources
women to range ever further afield, spending more time and energy in
and finding essential commodities and making it even harder for them to engage
in more productive, more lucrative activities.
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73. Policy making
Gender inequality is a persistent feature of the public and policy-making spheres.
Women continue to be under-represented in governments, legislative bodies and
many other crucial sectors affecting public opinion, such as the mass media, the
arts, religion and culture.
•Worldwide, there are only 16 countries in which more than 15 percent of
ministerial posts are held by women, and in 59 countries there are no women
ministers at all.
•Although women have the right to vote in nearly every country in the world, there
are very few women in government.
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74. FEMALE REPRESENTATION IN
HISTORICAL TRADITIONS OF INDIA
1848:SavitribaiPhule, along with her husband JyotiraoPhule, opened a school for
girls in Pune, India. SavitribaiPhulebecame the first woman teacher in India.
1879:John Elliot Bethuneestablished the Bethune School in 1849, which
developed into theBethune Collegein 1879, thus becoming the first women's
college in India.
1883:ChandramukhiBasuand KadambiniGangulybecame the first female
graduates of India and theBritish Empire.
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75. 1886:KadambiniGangulyandAnandiGopal Joshibecame the first women from
India to be trained inWestern medicine.
1898:Sister NiveditaGirls' School was inaugurated.
1905: Suzanne RDTatabecomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.
1916: The first women's university,SNDT Women's University, was founded on 2
June 1916 by thesocial reformerDhondoKeshavKarvewith just five students.
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76. 1917:Annie Besantbecame the first female president of theIndian National
Congress.
1919: For her distinguished social service,PanditaRamabaibecame the first Indian
woman to be awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medalby theBritish Raj.
1925:SarojiniNaidubecame the first Indian born female president of the Indian
National Congress.
1927: TheAll India Women's Conferencewas founded.
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77. 1936:SarlaThakralbecame the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft.
1944:AsimaChatterjeebecame the first Indian woman to be conferred
theDoctorate of Scienceby an Indian university.
1947: On 15 August 1947, following independence, SarojiniNaidu became the
governor of theUnited Provinces, and in the process became India's first woman
governor. On the same day,AmritKaurassumed office as the first female Cabinet
minister of India in the country'sfirst cabinet.
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78. 1951: PremMathurof the Deccan Airways becomes the first Indian woman
commercial pilot.
1953:VijayaLakshmi Panditbecame the first woman (and first Indian) president of
theUnited Nations General Assembly
1959:Anna Chandybecomes the first Indian woman judge of a High Court (Kerala
High Court)
1963:SuchetaKriplanibecame theChief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, the first woman
to hold that position in any Indian state.
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79. 1966: Captain DurgaBanerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state
airline,Indian Airlines.
1966:KamaladeviChattopadhyaywinsRamon Magsaysay awardfor community
leadership.
1966:Indira Gandhibecomes the first womanPrime Minister of India
1970:KamaljitSandhubecomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in theAsian
Games
1972:Kiran Bedibecomes the first female recruit to join theIndian Police Service
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80. 1978:Sheila Sri Prakashbecomes the first female entrepreneur to independently
start anarchitecturefirm
1979:Mother Teresawins theNobel Peace Prize, becoming the first Indian female
citizen to do so.
1984: On 23 May,BachendriPalbecame the first Indian woman to climbMount
Everest.
1986:SurekhaYadavbecame the first Asian woman loco-pilot or railway driver.
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81. 1989: JusticeM. FathimaBeevibecomes the first woman judge of theSupreme
Court of India.
1991:MumtazM. Kazibecame the first Asian woman to drive a diesel locomotive in
September.
1992:Asha Sinhabecomes the First Woman Commandant in theParamilitary forces
of Indiawhen she was appointed Commandant,Central Industrial Security
ForceinMazagonDock Shipbuilders Limited.
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82. 1992:PriyaJhinganbecomes the first lady cadet to join theIndian Army(later
commissioned on 6 March 1993)
1999: On 31 October,Sonia Gandhibecame the first femaleLeader of the
Opposition (India).The first Indian woman to win an Olympic
Medal,KarnamMalleswari, a bronze medal at theSydney Olympicsin the 69kg
weight category in Weightlifting event.
2007: On 25 July,PratibhaPatilbecame the first femalePresident of India.
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83. 2009: On 4 June,MeiraKumarbecame the first femaleSpeaker of LokSabha.
2011: On 20 October, Priyanka N. drove the inaugural train of
theNammaMetrobecoming the first female Indian metro pilot.
2011: MitaliMadhumitamade history by becoming the first woman officer to win a
SenaMedal for gallantry.
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84. 2014: A record 7 female ministers are appointed in theModi ministry, of whom 6
hold Cabinet rank, the highest number of female Cabinet ministers in anyIndian
governmentin history. Prestigious Ministries such as Defence and External Affairs
are being held by Women Ministers.
2015: SumitaBose the first author and first woman to write the autism book in
India.
2016:J. Jayalalithaa, became the first woman chief minister in India to rule the
state consecutively 2 times by winning legislative assembly election.
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85. 2017: On 25 March, TanushreePareekbecame the first female combat officer
commissioned by theBorder Security Force.
2018:ArchanaRamsundaramof 1980 Batch became the first Woman to become
theDirector General of Policeof a Paramilitary Force as DG,SashastraSeemaBal.
2018: In February, 24 year old Flying Officer AvaniChaturvediof theIndian Air
Forcebecame the first Indian female fighter pilot to fly solo. She flew a MiG-21
Bison, a jet aircraft with the highest recorded landing and take-off speed in the
world.
2019: On 2 December 2019, sub-lieutenant Shivangibecame the first woman pilot
in theIndian Navy
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86. CHALLENGES FACED BY THE FEMALE
IN INDIA
•
Women in India face many socio-cultural, economical and political challenges.
These challenges are described as under:
•Challenge against time
Timely maternal care.
Girl child denied timely interventions in nutrition and healthcare.
Education denial.
Early marriage.
Morality : A direct repercussion of challenge against time is the repeated
exhortation against women going out at night by the so-called moral guardians of
the society.
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87. •Challenge against space
–Pink collarisation of jobs.
–Glass ceilings.
–Sexual harassment at the workplace.
–Lack of political participation of women.
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88. OVERCOMING THE CHALLENGES
“India To awaken the people, it is the woman who must be awakened. Once she
is on the move, the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves”. Pt.
Nehru.
Awareness generation and sensitization.
Gender-based legislation.
Women should be respected at home.
Developing and resourcing national plans.
Gender-based surveys.
Technological interventions.
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89. SLAVERY IN INDIA
Forms of modern slavery
Sex Trafficking.
ChildSex Trafficking.
Forced Labor.
Bonded LabororDebtBondage.
Domestic Servitude.
ForcedChild Labor.
Unlawful Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers.
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90. SLAVERY IN INDIA : SEX TRAFFICKING
Sex traffickingis a form of modern-day slavery in which individuals perform
commercialsexthrough the use of force, fraud, or coercion. Minors under the age of
18 engaging in commercialsexare considered to be victims of humantrafficking,
regardless of the use of force, fraud, or coercion.
Human trafficking occurswhen a perpetrator, often referred to as a trafficker, takes
an Action, and then employs the Means of force, fraud or coercion for the Purpose
of compelling the victim to provide commercialsexacts or laboror services.
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91. SLAVERY IN INDIA : CHILD
TRAFFICKING
Sex andhuman traffickersuse many different tactics torecruitandobtain their victims,
including both forcible participation and psychological manipulation.
Sex andhuman traffickers get their victimsthrough the use of physical force, threats,
psychological manipulation, and other tactics.
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92. SLAVERY IN INDIA : FORCED LABOR
Labortraffickingis a form of modern-day slavery in which individuals
performlaboror services through the use of force, fraud, or coercion.
Labortraffickersuse violence, threats, lies, and other forms of coercion to force
people to work against their will in many industries.
Poverty is one of the maincausesofforced labouras well as a lack oflabourin the
agriculture sectors, decent employment opportunities and discrimination.
It is often well concealed, and in some countries ingrained after years of
exploitation.
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93. SLAVERY IN INDIA : BONDED LABOR
Bonded labor, also known as debt bondage and peonage, happens when people
give themselves into slavery as security against a loan or when they inherit a debt
from a relative.
Bonded labourismost widespreadin South Asian countries such as India and
Pakistan. Often entire families have to work to pay off the debt taken by one of its
members. Sometimes, the debt can be passed down the generations and children
can be held in debt bondage because of a loan their parents had taken decades
ago.
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94. SLAVERY IN INDIA : DOMESTIC SERVITUDE
•
Domestic servitudeis the seemingly normal practice of live-in help that is used as
cover for the exploitation and control of someone, usually from another country. It
is a form of forced labor, but it also warrants its own category of slavery because of
the unique contexts and challenges it presents.
Ahouse slavewas aslavewho worked, and often lived, in thehouseof theslave-owner,
performingdomesticlabor.House slaveshad many duties such as cooking, cleaning,
serving meals, and caring for children.
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95. SLAVERY IN INDIA : DOMESTIC SERVITUDE
Forceddomestic servitudeis quitecommonin Haiti, whereby forced child servants
are called restaveks. Restavekcomes from the French “resteravec,” which means
“one who stays with.” Haitian parents send their children to work and live with
other families in exchange for better care and educational opportunities.
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96. SLAVERY IN INDIA : FORCED CHILD
LABOR
Child labourmeans thatchildrenare forced to work like adults and take part in an
economic activity. Whenchildrenwork like adults, this will deprive them of
theirchildhood: Very often, they cannot attend regular school either. This kind of
work is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.
The Constitution ofIndiain the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of
State Policy prohibitschild labourbelow the age of 14 years in any factory or mine
or castle or engaged in any other hazardous employment (Article 24).
According to ILO minimum age convention (C138) of 1973, child labour refers to
any work performed by children under the age of 12, non-light work done by
children aged 12–14, and hazardous work done by children aged15–17.
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97. SLAVERY IN INDIA : CHILD SOLDIERS
Human rights law declares 18 as the minimum legal age forrecruitment and use of
childrenin hostilities.Recruitingand usingchildrenunder the age of 15 assoldiersis
prohibited under international humanitarian law –treaty and custom –and is
defined as a war crime by the International Criminal Court.
Childrenbecomesoldiersin different ways. Some are forciblyrecruited. They may be
abducted, threatened or coerced into joining, while others are enticed with money,
drugs or in other ways. In many cases,childrenchoose to join as a result of
economic or social pressures.
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101. Drekmeier, C., Kingship and Community in Early India, Stanford (California), Stanford
University Press, 1962, p. 252.
•Jayasawal, K.P., Hindu Polity, Bangalore, Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company
Ltd., 1955, p. 28.
•Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Tr. T. Nugent, New York, the Hafner, 1949, p. 225.
•Hegel, G.W.F., Philosophy and History, Tr. T. Sibree, New York, The Hafner, 1949, p. 154.
•Marx, Karl, Historical Writings I, Bombay, PPH, 1994, p. 593.
•Sharma, R.S., Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, (paperback
edition), New Delhi, MunshiramManoharlalPublishers Pvt.Ltd., 2003. Chapter XIV, pp.
211-222
•https://www.civilsdaily.com/mains/accessed on 11/03/2021.
•http://www.fao.org/3/x2919e/x2919e04.htmaccessed on 11/03/2021.
Drekmeier, C., Kingship and Community in Early India, Stanford (California), Stanford
University Press, 1962, p. 252.
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