This document provides an overview and examples of Java arrays, strings, parameter passing, object constructors, and modifiers like static and final. It discusses declaring and using arrays, bounds checking, copying and sorting arrays. It also covers string and StringBuffer objects, passing parameters by value and reference, using constructors to initialize objects, and static and final modifiers to define constants and class methods.

1. Introduction to Java 2
Programming
Lecture 3
More Syntax; Working with Objects

2. Overview
• More new syntax
– Arrays
– String/StringBuffer objects
– Parameter passing
• Working with objects
– Constructors
– Constants

3. Java Arrays – The Basics
• Declaring an array
int[] myArray;
int[] myArray = new int[5];
String[] stringArray = new String[10];
String[] strings = new String[] {“one”, “two”};
• Checking an arrays length
int arrayLength = myArray.length;
• Looping over an array
for(int i=0; i<myArray.length; i++)
{
String s = myArray[i];
}

4. Java Arrays – Bounds Checking
• Bounds checking
– Java does this automatically. Impossible to go
beyond the end of an array (unlike C/C++)
– Automatically generates an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException

5. Java Arrays – Copying
• Don’t copy arrays “by hand” (e.g. by looping over
the array)
• The System class has an arrayCopy method to
do this efficiently
int array1[] = new int[10];
int array2[] = new int[10];
//assume we add items to array1
//copy array1 into array2
System.arrayCopy(array1, 0, array2, 0, 10);
//copy last 5 elements in array1 into first 5 of array2
System.arrayCopy(array1, 5, array2, 0, 5);

6. Java Arrays – Sorting
• Again no need to do this “by hand”.
• The java.util.Arrays class has methods to sort
different kinds of arrays
int myArray[] = new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};
java.util.Arrays.sort(myArray);
//myArray now holds 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
• Sorting arrays of objects is involves some extra
work, as we’ll see in a later lesson

7. Strings
• Strings are objects
• The compiler automatically replaces any string
literal with an equivalent String object
– E.g. “my String” becomes new String(“my string”);
• Strings are immutable
– Can’t be changed once created…
– ..but can be concatenated (using +) to create new
strings
String newString = “abc” + “def”;

8. Strings
• Strings have methods to manipulate their
contents:
int length = someString.length();
String firstTwoLetters =
someString.substring(0,2);
String upper = someString.toUpperCase();
boolean startsWithLetterA =
someString.startsWith(“A”);
boolean containsOther =
(someString.indexOf(otherString) != -1)

9. StringBuffer
• StringBuffer object allows a string value to be
manipulated
– I.e. they are not immutable
• StringBuffer has useful methods like:
– Append, insert, delete, replace, etc
• Compiler automatically replaces String
concatenation with a StringBuffer object
– E.g. “my String” + “ other String” becomes…
new StringBuffer(“my String”).append(“other
String”).toString();

10. StringBuffer
• Take care with String concatenation
– Explicitly using a StringBuffer is often
more efficient
– Can reuse buffer rather than discarding it
StringBuffer.setLength(0)

11. Passing Parameters
• Java has two ways of passing parameters
– Pass by Reference
– Pass by Value
• Pass by Value applies to primitive types
– int, float, etc
• Pass by Reference applies to reference types
– objects and arrays

12. Passing Parameters
public class PassByValueTest
{
public void increment(int x)
{
x = x + 1;
}
public void test()
{
int x = 0;
increment(x);
//whats the value of x here?
}
}

13. Passing Parameters
public class PassByReferenceTest
{
public void reverse(StringBuffer buffer)
{
buffer.reverse();
}
public void test()
{
StringBuffer buffer = new StringBuffer(“Hello”);
reverse(buffer);
//what does buffer contain now?
}
}

14. Overview
• More new syntax
– Arrays
– Constants
– String/StringBuffer objects
– Parameter passing
• Working with objects
– Constructors
– Constants
• Exercises

15. Initialising Objects
• Variables of a reference type have a special value
before they are initialised
– A “nothing” value called null
• Attempting to manipulate an object before its
initialised will cause an error
– A NullPointerException
• To properly initialise a reference type, we need to
assign it a value by creating an object
– Objects are created with the new operator
String someString = new String(“my String”);

16. Constructors
• new causes a constructor to be invoked
– Constructor is a special method, used to
initialise an object
– Class often specifies several constructors (for
flexibility)
– new operator chooses right constructor based on
parameters (overloading)
• Constructors can only be invoked by the
new operator

17. Constructors – Example 1
public class MyClass
{
private int x;
public MyClass(int a)
{
x = a;
}
}
We can then create an instance of MyClass as follows:
MyClass object = new MyClass(5); //constructor is
called

18. What are constructors for?
• Why do we use them?
– Give us chance to ensure our objects are properly
initialised
– Can supply default values to member variables
– Can accept parameters to allow an object to be
customised
– Can validate this data to ensure that the object is
created correctly.
• A class always has at least one constructor
– …even if you don’t define it, the compiler will
– This is the default constructor

19. Constructors – Example 2
public class EmailAddress
{
public EmailAddress(String address)
{
if (address.indexOf(“@”) == -1)
{
//not a valid address, signal an error?
}
//must be valid…
}
//methods
}

20. Destroying Objects
• No way to explicitly destroy an object
• Objects destroyed by the Garbage Collector
– Once they go out of scope (I.e. no longer referenced by
any variable)
• No way to reclaim memory, entirely under control
of JVM
– There is a finalize method, but its not guaranteed to be
called (so pretty useless!)
– Can request that the Garbage Collector can run, buts its
free to ignore you

21. Modifiers
• Public/private are visibility modifiers
– Used to indicate visibility of methods and
attributes
• Java has a range of other modifiers
– Control “ownership” of a method or attribute
– Control when and how variable can be
initialised
– Control inheritance of methods (and whether
they can be overridden by a sub-class)

22. Static
• static – indicates a class variable or
class method. It’s not owned by an
individual object
– This means we don’t have to create an object to
use it
– Arrays.sort and System.arrayCopy
are static methods

23. Static -- Example
public class MyClass
{
public static void utilityMethod() { … }
public void otherMethod() { … }
}
//using the above:
MyClass.utilityMethod();
MyClass objectOfMyClass = new MyClass();
objectOfMyClass.otherMethod();
objectOfMyClass.utilityMethod();
//this is illegal:
MyClass.otherMethod();

24. Final
• final – to make a variable that can have a
single value
– Can be assigned to once and once only
– Useful to ensure a variable isn’t changed once
its assigned.
final int count;
count = 10;
//the following will cause an error
count = 20;

25. Defining Constants
• Unlike other languages, Java has no const
keyword
• Must use a combination of modifiers to make a
constant
– static – to indicate its owned by the class
– final – to make sure it can’t be changed (and
initialise it when its declared)
• Naming convention for constants is to use all
capitals
• Example…

26. Constants – An Example
public class MyClass
{
public static final int COUNT = 0;
public static final boolean SWITCHED_ON =
false;
}
//example usage:
if (MyClass.COUNT > 0) { … }
if (MyClass.SWITCHED_ON) {…}