Study the thermal management of Li-ion batteries using looped heat pipes with different nanofluids The production of electric vehicles and their accessories is grooming day by day in the automotive industry. The heart of these electric vehicles is the power source, which is known as batteries. The capacity and performance of such batteries demand a high rating, due to the customer’s need and improved vehicle features. Unfortunately, the batteries are facing thermal failures caused by the poor thermal management approach. Li-ion batteries are the most familiar ones which have a very high energy density compared to others. But, these batteries lead to the breakdown of ions and lithium plating because of the fluctuation in temperature distribution and fast charging characteristics. The temperature distribution varies with respect to loading and application. However, this process is accompanied by thermal runaway, which may result in the fatal destruction of batteries. To overcome such issues, the present work selected looped heat pipes (LHP) as a device to transfer the excessive temperature on batteries using nanofluids. Water, Ethylene glycol and acetone were selected as working fluids along with graphene oxide (GO) Nanoparticles. The experiment is conducted for a constant heat input of 30W and various filling ratios (20%, 35%, 50%, 65%). Stability, thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and temperature distributions are discussed. The experiment results are validated with Computational fluid dynamics.

1. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
Available online 19 July 2022
2214-157X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Study the thermal management of Li-ion batteries using looped
heat pipes with different nanofluids
Ghassan F. Smaisim a,b,*
, Hayder Al-Madhhachi a
, Azher M. Abed c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, 54001, Iraq
b
Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Research Unit (NAMRU), Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, 54001, Iraq
c
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Techniques Engineering Department, Al-Mustaqbal University College, Babylon, 51001, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Heat pipe
Nanofluids
Li-ion battery
Cooling system
CFD
A B S T R A C T
The production of electric vehicles and their accessories is grooming day by day in the automotive
industry. The heart of these electric vehicles is the power source, which is known as batteries. The
capacity and performance of such batteries demand a high rating, due to the customer’s need and
improved vehicle features. Unfortunately, the batteries are facing thermal failures caused by the
poor thermal management approach. Li-ion batteries are the most familiar ones which have a
very high energy density compared to others. But, these batteries lead to the breakdown of ions
and lithium plating because of the fluctuation in temperature distribution and fast charging
characteristics. The temperature distribution varies with respect to loading and application.
However, this process is accompanied by thermal runaway, which may result in the fatal
destruction of batteries. To overcome such issues, the present work selected looped heat pipes
(LHP) as a device to transfer the excessive temperature on batteries using nanofluids. Water,
Ethylene glycol and acetone were selected as working fluids along with graphene oxide (GO)
Nanoparticles. The experiment is conducted for a constant heat input of 30W and various filling
ratios (20%, 35%, 50%, 65%). Stability, thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and tempera­
ture distributions are discussed. The experiment results are validated with Computational fluid
dynamics.
1. Introduction
Environmental pollution increases the number of greenhouse gases which is closely related to global warming. Transportation
causes the maximum pollution and it is being reduced gradually by alternative fuels, renewable energies and electric vehicles. The
current scenario encourages the automotive industries to develop electric vehicles to decrease the effect of greenhouse gases and other
emissions [1–3]. The major part of electric vehicle technology is batteries, preferably lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. Lithium-ion
batteries are holding an unavoidable place in the automobile sector due to their maximum energy efficiency, power density and
less discharge rate [4–8]. To overcome the global warming issues, industries are focusing on harmless energy systems. Batteries are one
of the possible solutions which can be developed for many applications, like energy storage and electrification of transportation
[9–11]. Large-scale implementation of batteries provides a sustainable energy supply that are reducing CO2 emissions and assists
mitigation of climate change. Although it has good features, the working characteristics should be monitored and maintained properly
and for the lithium battery, the safety and useful working temperature lie between 25◦
C and 40 ◦
C [12,13] and its standard deviation
* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, 54001, Iraq.
E-mail address: Ghassan.Smaisim@uokufa.edu.iq (G.F. Smaisim).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102227
Received 13 May 2022; Received in revised form 20 June 2022; Accepted 21 June 2022

2. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
2
should not go beyond 5 ◦
C in a battery pack [14,15]. However, electric vehicles may tend to spontaneous combustion due to the high
surface temperature of the Li-ion battery which leads to thermal runaway when the temperature of the batteries rises continuously. If
the heat is not eliminated in time, the thermal runaway of the battery may continue. Also, certain chemical reactions are set up inside it
and generate heat during the battery charging and discharging process [16,17]. This will cause the battery inoperative. Therefore, it is
important to have a proper thermal management system (TMS) to monitor and control the temperature in the specified working
temperature. The function of the battery thermal management systems (BTMS) is to avoid thermal runaway when the batteries are
being subjected to high temperatures and high discharge rates. Additionally, it maintains uniform temperature distribution over the
battery pack and ensures its reliability of it. The thermal management of batteries could be obtained by passive (natural convection)
and active (additional heating/cooling media) heat transfer methods. Here, heat pipes, Phase change materials, and fans can be
operated in both active and passive methods [18]. Many experimental investigations have been carried out on battery pack heat
dissipations and temperature control. Such as experiments on heat dissipation through forced air [19], heat dissipation through flow
ducts [20] and combined cooling channels (air + water) [21] are reported. It is observed that the air cooling system is unable to meet
the demands of the battery pack system [22], the liquid cooling system for a cylindrical battery pack is provided optimal efficiency
[23] and oil cooling provided nearly 10 ◦
C temperature reduction [24]. Several studies reported that heat pipes are suitable for thermal
management of computer processors [25–27], Electronic cooling [28–30] and electric vehicle batteries [31–33]. So heat pipes are
considered in this study due to the demand for a better cooling medium, larger heat transfer capability in smaller thermal gradient,
Low maintenance cost and lesser weight.
The heat pipe is a kind of passive cooling system with selected working fluids. Generally, the thermal conductivity of a heat pipe is
approximately 90 times higher than a normal copper bar for the same geometric [34]. When the heat generation is lesser than 10W per
cell, the system could control the operating temperature of batteries using heat pipes [35]. Flat heat pipes have been used in several
electronic cooling appliances [36,37] and particularly in electric vehicles [38,39]. A Combination of different cooling methods using
flat heat pipes [40], ultra-thin flat heat pipes [41], and flat heat pipes with fin arrangement [42] are previously reported. An
experimental study [43] employed an array of micro heat pipes for the thermal management system of 96 prismatic batteries. They
reported that the fast-changing working temperatures are achieved to a maximum extent using the micro heat pipes. In addition to the
heat pipes, working fluids play a vital role in achieving the expected reduction in temperature. Due to the advanced heat transfer
characteristics of nanoparticles, they are blended with base fluids. The addition of the nanoparticles will change the thermal properties
like density, dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity of conventional fluids [44] and these will enhance the heat transport
characteristics and thermal performance of heat pipes [45]. However, these are influenced by the type of particle, shape, size, pH,
surfactants sonication time and concentration of the nanoparticles [46,47]. By constituting all these parameters, the present work has
selected three base fluids such as water, Acetone and ethylene glycol along with graphene oxide (GO) Nanoparticles.
2. Materials and methods
The present study has taken three copper looped heat pipes, filled with Nanofluids such as GO-Water, GO-Acetone and GO-Ethylene
glycol. Graphene oxide is used as Nanoparticles in the size range of 90–100 nm. These base fluids are selected based on the previous
investigation report [48] which shows the greater stability values as presented in Fig. 1. Two-step methods were used to arrange the
nanofluid under the ultra-sonication process, as shown in Fig. 2. Screen mesh wick has been selected and the characteristics are
calculated as shown in Table 1.
Permeability of wick material is,
Kp =
ΔPl.ρl.A
μl.Le.m
(1)
ΔPl =
μl × Le × m
ρl × Kp × A
(2)
Le =
LEvaporator
2
+ LAdiabatic +
LCondenser
2
(3)
Fig. 1. Stability of Various fluids with Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles.
G.F. Smaisim et al.

3. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
3
The porosity of wick structure,
ε =
Wt − Ww
Ww
ρw
× 100 (4)
3. Experimental setup
The experimental investigation is carried out as per the representation shown in Fig. 3. In the electrical vehicle, a bunch of Li-ion
battery cells joined together will provide the power to drive. Considering the complexity of framing more cells, 10 Li-ion cells have
been taken for this experimental study. The cells are arranged in a series manner and the heat pipe is built in between the cells along
their vertical surface, as presented in Fig. 3. The length of the section where the Li-ion cells have direct surface contact with heat pipes
is known as the evaporator section. The output of the heat pipe from the evaporator section will be exposed to liquid circulation which
is known as the condenser section.
The heat pipe at the condenser section will have three turns to drop the pressure of the circulating medium. There is a wick chamber
after the condenser section to reduce the heat and pressure of the circulating medium furthermore. Also, the wick chamber supports the
capillary action for the circulation. The wick material is screen mesh type and is inserted inside the wick chamber. The temperature
distribution over 5 different places of the evaporator is monitored, whereas, in the condenser, two different places are noted. The
observed values are tabulated in Tables 2–4.
Fig. 2. (a) Nanofluids Sample and (b) wick material.
Table 1
Properties of wick material.
S. No Parameter Value
1 Wick type Screen Mesh
2 Mesh type Mesh no.25
3 Pore radius 1.3–1.9 μm
4 Porosity 71–80%
5 Permeability 1.2-2.75 × 10− 12
m2
Fig. 3. Arrangement of Li-ion battery cells with heat pipe.
G.F. Smaisim et al.

4. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
4
4. Observations
Tables 2–4 displays the temperature distribution of the heat pipes at a different location, taken from the thermocouples. But, the
filling ratio of each trail has been changed to 20%, 35%, 50% and 65% respectively. Table 2 shows the temperature distribution for the
water-GO combination and Tables 3 and 4 belong to Ethylene glycol-GO and Acetone-GO combinations respectively.
5. Result and discussions
5.1. Stability of nanofluids
The stability test has been carried out in two ways. The sedimentation method is a common method where the prepared Nanofluids
have been subjected to ultra-sonication, and then it will be collected in a beaker. This has been kept in the atmosphere for two weeks to
monitor the rate of sedimentation of Nanoparticles. Based on the sedimentation time and quantity, the stability of the nanofluids will
be considered.
Zeta potential is another method which records the degree of repulsion of similarly charged particles dispersed in the solution as
shown in Fig. 4(a). Nanofluids with a high zeta potential amount of less than − 30mV or more than 30 mV cause the attraction force
between the particles to be less than electrostatic force. Hence, the nanofluids with a zeta potential value of more than 30 mV can be
stable over a period of time. While Fig. 4(b) shows the pH of the solution is affected by the value of the zeta potential, as the value of pH
changes, the electrostatic charge changes too. Using the noted temperatures in Tables 2–4, the following parameters have been
calculated and discussed.
5.2. Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of fluids has been theoretically calculated from Hamilton and Crosser heat conduction model [49]. It may
be expressed as,
Kn =
Kp + (n − 1)Kb + (n − 1)(Kp − Kb)φv
Kp + (n − 1)Kb − (Kp − Kb)φv
× Kb (5)
Kp = Thermal conductivity of Nanoparticles.
Kb = Thermal conductivity of the base fluid.
Kn = Thermal conductivity of Nanofluid
φv = Volume fraction of Nanoparticles
n = Shape factor.
The thermal conductivity of prepared nanofluids has changed drastically when related to base fluids. The average thermal con­
ductivity of water, acetone and Ethylene glycol are 0.629 W/mK, 0.357 W/mK and 0.512 W/mK respectively. The thermal conduc­
tivity of liquids before adding nanoparticles are 0.582 W/mK, 0.204 W/mK and 0.257 W/mK respectively. The thermal conductivity of
nanofluids increased up to 7.47%, 42.8% and 49.8% respectively. Fig. 5 (a), shows the increase in thermal conductivity in accordance
with base fluids.
5.3. Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance is an essential parameter in heat transport characteristics. It characterizes the heat transfer capability of the heat
pipe. It describes the cooling efficiency of the condenser and the heat transfer capacity of the evaporator. It has been calculated by,
Thermal ​ resistance ​ Rhp = =
T(Eva) − T (Con)
Q(Input)
(6)
The thermal resistance of the heat pipe can be decreased by developing the evaporator construction and the condenser cooling
efficiency. The overall thermal resistance of heat pipe is ranged from 0.01 ◦
C/W to 0.23 ◦
C/W, 0.006 ◦
C/W to 0.17 ◦
C/W and 0.027 ◦
C/
W to 0.34 ◦
C/W for water, Ethylene glycol and Acetone respectively. Ethylene glycol shows the reduced thermal resistance as shown in
Fig. 5(b).
5.4. Simulation results
To validate the observed temperature during the experiment, a CFD model of the looped heat pipe is designed using ANSYS-Fluent
software. The temperature distributions have been validated by considering the three loops for the evaporator and two loops for the
condenser section.
Table 2
Temperature distribution of Nanofluid (Water + GO).
Filling Ratio Evaporator Section Condenser Section
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
20% 41 44.4 46.2 49 52.5 48.9 44.6
35% 40.7 43.2 45 48 52 48.2 44
50% 40 41.5 43.5 46 49.8 47.7 43.2
65% 39.5 40 42 43.8 46 43.6 41
G.F. Smaisim et al.

5. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
5
Fig. 6, displays the temperature variation of Water-GO Nanofluid at many filling ratios such as 20%, 35%, 50% and 65%. This
numerical result shows the maximum temperature of 49 ◦
C, 52 ◦
C, 52 ◦
C and 52.5 ◦
C which is almost lying with experimental results of
52.5 ◦
C, 52 ◦
C, 49.8 ◦
C, 46 ◦
C. The standard deviation of this analysis is approximately in the range of 4–11%.
Similarly, the results have been observed for Ethylene glycol-GO nanofluid as shown in Fig. 7 and Acetone-GO nanofluid as shown
in Fig. 8. Fig. 7 indicates the standard deviation of 4.9%–22% while Fig. 8 shows 10.4%–18.6%. The uncertainty of any experimental
work may be considered up to 20%, since the experiment may be subject to environmental and manual errors during the investigation.
6. Conclusion
The experimental and numerical study on looped heat pipes for battery cooling application has been carried out and made the
following conclusions.
Table 3
Temperature distribution of Nanofluid (Ethylene Glycol + GO).
Filling Ratio Evaporator Section Condenser Section
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
20% 42 45 49.6 53.8 58 52.7 47
35% 41.5 44 48 52 55 51.6 46.3
50% 41 43.4 49.2 51 54.5 50.7 45
65% 40 43 47 51.5 54 49.8 44.3
Table 4
Temperature distribution of Nanofluid (Acetone + GO).
Filling Ratio Evaporator Section Condenser Section
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
20% 38.7 40.1 41.9 44 49.6 45 43
35% 38.5 40 41 44.2 48.5 44 42.2
50% 38 39.8 40.6 43 47 43 40.1
65% 37 39 40.5 42.2 44.4 40.9 38.7
Fig. 4. Zeta Potential analysis (a) Ultra sonication time (b) pH of fluids.
Fig. 5. (a) Thermal conductivity (b) Thermal resistance.
G.F. Smaisim et al.

6. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
6
Fig. 6. Simulation results of Water-GO Nanofluid.
Fig. 7. Simulation results of Ethylene glycol-GO Nanofluid.
Fig. 8. Simulation results of Acetone-GO Nanofluid.
G.F. Smaisim et al.

7. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 37 (2022) 102227
7
⁃ The operating temperature of the selected application reduces the possibility of exceeding the boiling limit of the heat pipe.
⁃ Nanofluids are prepared as per the standard techniques. In the stability test, a higher Zeta potential value (45–52 mV) was observed
for GO-Ethylene glycol nanofluid than GO- Water (40–45 mV) and GO-Acetone (24–30 mV).
⁃ In the thermal conductivity test, GO-Ethylene glycol nanofluid improves the thermal conductivity value from 0.257W/mK to
0.512W/mK (49.8%). GO-Acetone and GO-Water Nanofluids attain 42.8% and 07.47% improvement.
⁃ The thermal resistance of GO-Ethylene glycol is in the range of 0.06 ◦
C/W to 0.17 ◦
C/W which is comparatively less than GO-
Acetone and GO-water nanofluids. But, GO-Acetone is higher than both.
⁃ When the filling ratio increases the temperature distribution at the evaporator and condenser goes on the decreases. But, gradual
variation of temperature was obtained at 35% and 50% filling ratio.
⁃ The experimental temperature distribution is compared with Numerical analysis using ANSYS Fluent and the deviation is obtained
in the range of below 20% for validation.
Author statement
• The corresponding author is responsible for ensuring that the descriptions are accurate and agreed by all authors.
• The role(s) of all authors are listed.
• Authors have contributed in multiple roles.
Methodology, Software and Validation: Ghassan F. Smaisim1,2 Hayder Al-Madhhachi1
, Azher M. Abed 3.
Writing - Review & Editing: Ghassan F. Smaisim1,2 Hayder Al-Madhhachi1
, Azher M. Abed 3.
Writing – Original: Ghassan F. Smaisim1,2 Hayder Al-Madhhachi1
, Azher M. Abed 3;
Draft, Ghassan F. Smaisim1,2 Hayder Al-Madhhachi1
, Azher M. Abed 3.
*Investigation: Ghassan F. Smaisim1,2 Hayder Al-Madhhachi1
, Azher M. Abed 3.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
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