Edci 351-full-course-manual-2015-1

COURSE MANUAL
__________________________________________________________________________
EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION & TECHNOLOGY
BY
MAKINI GETUNO
(0723-803-662; dmakini@egerton.ac.ke)
August 2015
This is work in progress.
Educational Communication & Technology – Course Manual Page 1 of 65

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology is a much misunderstood concept to many people, including those in the
teaching profession. To some the term is associated solely with the technical equipment and
media of education such as overhead projectors, television, radio, computers etc. However,
educational technology is more than this. It has to do with the planned development and use of
suitable materials and methods to enable learning and teaching to be more effective.
The use of media in education has made important contributions to the effectiveness of
teaching and learning Hyden and Nagel (1977) have argued that media and materials can ;
• Provide concrete or semi-concrete experiences through the use of realia, film
,pictures
• Motivate and arouse interest
• Increase retention of learned materials
• Provide variety in learning
• Solve language barriers
• Save instructional time
• Provide experiences not otherwise easily or readily obtainable
There is not one definition acceptable to all practitioners in educational technology. A number of
definitions have been developed by different bodies and organizations. We shall examine three
of them;
Definitions of Educational Technology
Definition 1
Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.
(Association for Educational communication & Technology (AECT)
Definition 2

Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques
and aids to improve the process of human learning (Council for Educational Technology,
United Kingdom).
Definition 3
Educational technology is a systematic way of designing implementing and evaluating the
total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in
human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non- human
resources to bring about more effective instruction (Commission on Instructional
Technology, USA).
All the three definitions are similar in that each emphasizes the primary function of educational
technology as that of improving the efficiency of the process of teaching and learning.
Educational Technology as an academic discipline
As an academic discipline Educational Technology prepares individuals by helping them acquire
a deeper understanding and mastery of:
(1) Learning resources : i.e messages, people, materials, devices, techniques and settings;
(2) Processes for analyzing and deriving solutions to educational problems through research,
design, production, evaluation and utilization.
(3) The processes involved in organization & personnel management where the focus is on
effective processes to facilitate learning using technologies and understanding the impacts of
technology on learners and organizations.
Why Should Practicing teachers study Educational Technology?
1. For the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process
2. For the analysis of the teaching and learning process in an attempt to maximize its
effectiveness
3. For the planning and development of suitable resources and methods for effective

teaching and learning.
The Practice of Educational technology
From the foregoing it is clear that Educational technology is concerned with a clinical and
systematic analysis of the entire teaching and learning process in an attempt to maximize its
effectiveness. It also has to do with planned development and use of suitable resources and
methods to enable learning and teaching to be more effective. The practice of Educational
technology is usually defined in three ways:
i) Technology IN education: This means the development and application of audio –
visual aids in education.
ii) Technology OF education: This means the systematic design and evaluation of
instruction to improve efficiency.
iii) Educational development: this means the study, use and development of media and
methods to promote educational change.
Each of these practices (Technology IN Education, Technology OF Education and Educational
development) are explained below;
Technology IN Education
The use of media in education has made some irrefutable contributions to the effectiveness of
teaching and learning. This embraces every possible means by which information can be
presented. It is concerned with the gadget of education and training, such as television, the
various projected media like OHP, OP slides etc, in other words, technology in education is
basically the popular impression of what educational technology is all about, namely
audiovisual aids. The aids have made some of the following contributions to making teaching
and learning more effective, for example;
i. Provided concrete experiences than when words are used alone.
ii. Motivated and aroused interest.
iii. Increased retention of learned material
iv. Provided variety in learning
Addressing such educational issues can be addressed by employing the Technology IN

Education.
Technology OF Education
Technology of education is concerned with ways in which education and training could be
improved by thinking more carefully about all aspects of the design of the teaching /learning
situations. Technology of education is therefore to help improve the overall efficiency of the
teaching learning process. The mechanical or electronic gadgets like television, radio and the
computer form only a small part of what educational technology in all about. The principal role
of educational technology is to help improve the overall efficiency of the teaching learning
process in education and training. Improved efficiency may manifest itself in many ways, for
example:
i. Increasing the quality of learning or the degree of mastery
ii. Decreasing the time taken for learner s to attain desired a objectives
iii. Increasing the efficiency of teachers in terms of members of learners taught without
reducing the quality of learning.
iv. Reducing costs without affecting the quality
Addressing such educational issues would require application of technology of education.
Technology of education involves a systematic, scientific approach to a problem together with
application of appropriate scientific research. In applying technology of education approach,
changes to an educational system are not more for their own sake only, but for good educational
reasons that are generally based on research findings. Most practitioners view educational
technology as technology of education.
Recommendations on how efficiency and effectiveness in teaching and learning can be achieved
will need studying the particular as a whole. Fields such as psychology, sociology, business
management are combined with technical fields like audiovisual aids to produce the optimum
learning- teaching system. Educational technology emphasizes on techniques of teaching and
learning rather that audio visuals only. It is the technology OF education that most
practitioners view as educational technology. Within this concept, technology IN education is
seen mainly as one of the possible means of achieving an end. The following theories help to

unravel human learning and the place of educational technology in teaching and learning;
• Gestalt
• Cognitive
• Reinforcement
The application of systems approach to Educational Technology
The process of education and learning can be considered to be very complex system indeed. The
input to a given learning system consists of people, resources and information, and the output
consist of people whose performance has to be improved in some way. In such a system, the
learning process may be so complex that it may be considered as a black box whose
mechanisms are not fully understood . However, research into the nature of the learning process
has thrown some light into what happens inside the black-box. This has enabled educational
technologists to structure the input to systems of this type in such a way as to try to improve
the output through increasing the efficiency of the learning process. This has led to a systems
approach to course design based on existing knowledge of how people learn. Such a systems
approach attempts to organize the input to a course in such a way as to (a) enable the
optimum assimilation of knowledge and skills to take place during the learning process and
hence (b) maximize the quality of the output. In order to apply the the systems approach to
Educational Technology, the following steps are necessary:
Steps in systems approach:
1. Consider the target population characteristics and topic area – this takes into account
the type of learners and the area to be studied.
2. Estimate relevant existing skills and knowledge of learners i.e entry behavior. This
takes account of the relevant skills and pre- knowledge which the potential learners
should possess
3. Formulate objectives: objectives or desired learning outcomes for the target population
of learners need to be specified.
4. Select appropriate method: teaching /learning methods by which the objectives have a
reasonable chance of being achieved have to be related. This selection i.e attempting
to match appropriate methods to given objectives

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Teaching or instruction is the arrangement of information to produce learning. The transfer of
information from a source to a destination is called communication. Learning takes place when
we take in new information. Effective learning therefore cannot take place unless communication
takes place. Berlo (1960) identified the components of the communication process to consist of
the source, the message the channel (medium) and the receiver.
Communication Models
Several models of communication have been developed. We shall examine two of them – the
basic communication model and the transactional communication model.
The Basic Communication Model
The following are the components (or elements) of a basic communication process:
1. Sources of message (sender)
This is a person or device from whom a message originates. In the classroom this is mostly the
teacher. However, in some situations it can be a radio or television.
2. The message
This is what is to be communicated. It has to be encoded converted into transmittable form. The
message can be encoded into verbal, written or non- verbal (body languages)
3. The medium
The medium is the bridge which carries the message to the minds of the learner. The medium
could be spoken words, printed words pictures etc. Media (plural) refers to anything that carries
information between a source and a receiver. Film, television, radio audio recordings,
photographs, projected visuals, printed materials and the like, are media of communication. They
are considered instructional where they are used to carry message with an instructional intent. It
is difficult to convey new ideas and unfamiliar information by words alone we hear words,
but sometimes we may not have an understanding of the concepts they present. For words to
have meaning they must be related to either personal experiences or to known concrete objects.
4. The receiver

This is the person for whom the message is intended. When the message is received he has to
decode it (conversion into mental symbols) in order to understand it. There cannot be effective
communication unless the sender and the receiver have had an exchange of meaning.
5. Feedback
Effective communication depends upon the receiver being active. He reacts by answering,
questioning, or performing, mentally or physically. There is then a return loop of this cycle, from
the receiver to sender. This is termed as feedback. Feedback enables the originator of a message
to correct omissions and errors in the transmitted message etc.
Other terminologies in the communication process
Encoding: Because the receiver cannot read the source’s mind, the source must put the
information into a code or symbols in the process known as encoding. Most often, the code we
use is language either written or spoken, but encoding can also involve numbers, pictures,
graphs, and even physical gestures and movement. To communicate effectively, the source
must take care to choose symbols that the receiver can decode properly.
Transmission: This is the process of sending the message to the receiver through a medium.
The source (sender) sends the symbols to the receiver through the process of transmission,
which takes place in a particular medium- i.e a transmission path or channel.
Decoding: Decoding is the process of deciphering the meaning of a message. The receiver
interprets the meaning of the message through the process of recoding.
Noise: This is any disturbance that interferes with or distorts the transmission of the message.
Transactional Model of Communication
A more realistic model of communication is the transactional model of communication. During
human communication the sender of a message (teacher) encodes the message according to his
or her skill and knowledge (field of experience) and the receiver decodes the message according
to his skill and knowledge. During the feedback however, the receiver (student) does more than
just decode the message. He or she must also encode his/her interpretation of the message and

relay it back to the sender (teacher) who in turn must decode it. In effect, the receiver becomes
the sender and the sender becomes a receiver; and both interpret the message according to their
fields of experience. It is extremely important to keep in mind the fact that you must decode your
students’ feedback signals according to their interpretation of instructional content which may or
may not be yours. For example teaching information say animals Kenya, in U.S, the owl is often
used a symbol of wisdom while in Kenya it is regarded as an omen of evil. You must therefore
be aware that students’ response to a message is a product of their experience.
Barriers to effective communication in the classroom
Even the best teaching plans can be ineffective when they come against communication barriers
that originate in the classroom. Success in learning is closely related to the clarity and under
stability with which message are communicated by the teacher, either directly or by the
information sources he has chose to use. The general efficiency of the message being
transmitted being received will depend or the avoidance of the following communication
barriers.
1) Verbalism
Human beings concentrate their mental attention on what in interesting and desirable on
occasion, we may completely shut out unattended audio stimulation, letting our minds
occupy themselves with pleasanter experiences we have had elsewhere. Similarly, many
learners in the classroom, find it very easy to literary tune us out when our teaching approach
becomes too repetitive, uninteresting or unattractive. Learning efficiency of words actually
declines as more and more words pour forth endlessly. To alleviate this problem the teacher
may draw from a variety of instructional materials activities which use the best of the
communications techniques to transmit a great deal of solid subject content.
2) Referent confusion
It is natural for us in the absence of adequate background experience, to turn automatically
to seemingly related experiences for help in understanding something new, hoping to draw

conclusions that may apply to the new problem. When such reference to previously learned
material in successful in helping us comprehend the new material, it is referred to an positive
transfer. Referent confusion occurs when the words used by the teacher to describe an idea or a
process do not convey adequate meaning to all his students. Each student’s unique background
influences his interpretation and understanding in a unique way. The greater the degree of
abstractedness as remoteness of the subject describes the less will be the similarity between the
meaning inferred and that achieved by the learners.
3) Day dreaming
This common yet avoidable experience occurs when the student turns away from the flow of
classroom communication and dwells upon his own private experiences and fantasies. Day
dreaming is a remarkable defense mechanism by pupils to protect themselves against the
tedium and boredom of a classroom environment. Day dreaming can be reduced by increasing
the interest level of classroom communication by the application of media and techniques that
are interest -captivating.
4) Physical discomfort
One’s physical environment can produce either a favorable or an inhibiting emotional tone.
There is therefore need for learning to take place in comfortable physical surroundings.
Classrooms that have seen carefully organized in order to make them comfortable and pleasant
are likely to influence the ability of learners to learn. Therefore a broad and varied use of modern
communication devices can effectively offset a host of barriers to effective learning especially if
the physical environment is depressing and chaotic.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR TEACHERS
Teaching is a balancing act between knowledge and performance. Some brilliant people are
unable to impart the knowledge that they have onto other people because they lack effective
communication skills. The concept of a good teacher includes the ability to connect with
students, to encourage inquiry and to project a caring attitude while maintaining discipline. The
balancing act facilitates your work by focusing how you perform in the classroom.

1. Emotional communication
A great movie is one where the actors are able to reach the audience and create emotions that
evoke a particular feeling in the audience. Likewise, a successful teacher is able to connect
with students. This encourages participation and stimulates learning. A successful
communicator shows empathy ; he is able to convince the students that he cares about their
learning and is there to support them throughout the process. By establishing an emotional
connection with a student, a teacher can identify what motivates the particular student and
create a collaborative learning environment.
2. Non –verbal Language
A key component for establishing an emotional connection is the use of non- verbal clues , an
encouraging smile can motivate a student as much as the phrase “you can do it” No –verbal
languages such as eye contact, facial expressions, posture and tone help to establish a
relationship with students and to produce a positive learning environment. Teachers who
maintain a negative stance standing with arms folded while frowning, for example ---
implicitly imply that they do not care about the students and will find it difficult to build a
learning friendly environment.
3. Humor
Humor can help add to learning environment by lowering stress levels and making learning
fun. Students will often remember examples that were presented in a humorous manner.
Furthermore, it relaxes the distance between authority (teacher)and those being ruled (students)
and will be more willing to approach her and ask for guidance or help.
4. Reflective communication
A successful teacher must be able to discern how he should behave in a specific classroom. If
a teacher is in a classroom where students are having particular difficulties with a topic, he
must be able to reflect on the situation and develop a new method for dealing with the topic.
An essential method for reflective communication is the use of questions. This helps a teacher
assess what the students understand and what they find difficult . reflective communication is
also helpful in cases where there are disciplinary problems, as a reflective teacher is able to
engage in a dialogue about the behavior instead of reacting with scolding or yelling. This is

beneficial as a student is more likely to modify her actions if she feels that she is included in
the process.
5. Technological communication
Today’s tech-savvy generation is often bored by traditional classroom methods. Therefore , a
successful teacher must be able to incorporate technology into his teaching. Teachers should be
up-to date and try to engage students by using familiar media in the classroom and for
assignments.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
The business of the teacher is to organize the experience of the learner in a way that helps them
change their performance in a meaningful way.
Jerome Bruner, an educational psychologist proposed that instructions should proceed from:
i) Direct experience – concrete experience facilitates learning and the acquisition,
retention and ability to use abstract symbols
ii) Iconic representation of experience where direct experience is not possible,
representations of experience such as pictures, films etc, can be used.
iii) Symbolic representation of experience use of words visual symbols such as graphs,
line drawings etc. words are symbols that have little relationsly with what they
represent. Best where the learner has relevant experience to help understand new
learning.
Instructional media may be classified on the basis of concrete abstract continuum, beginning
with direct experience to symbolic representation.
Abstract symbols = words numbers formula
Instructional media
Tapes, video, pictures
Direct experience real things
Hoban, Hoban and Zissman in their book on the use of audio visual materials indicated that the
value of audio – visual materials is a function of their degree of realism. In developing this
concept the author arranged various teaching resources in a hierarchy of greater and greater
abstraction beginning with what the referred to as the total situation, ending with words and the
top of the hierarchy.

- Words
- Diagram
- Maps
- Flat pictures
- Slides
- Films
- Models
- Objects
- Total situation
• Learner as a participant in the actual experience
• Learner as an observer of the actual experience
• Learner observing of symbols that represent an event
The development of instruction should follow the sequence provided by the hierarchy leaving of
experience. This should apply to all lecturers from children to adults. When a learning task is
presented to adults who have no previous relevant experience on which to draw, learning can be
facilitated to them by a teacher
Instructional Media
Audio
- Audio cassette
- Compact disc
Visual Audio - Visual
- Video/ Tv
- Film
Projected
- Slides
- OHP
Non - Projected
- Still pictures
- Models

Following a sequence from actual experience through iconic to symbolic representations.
[ Improving the balance between concrete and abstract learning experiences was one of the key
reasons of using instructional media. However most instructional materials use a combination of
presentation form that vary in their degree of relation - for example films, film strip. However,
sometimes line drawings may be more effective than realistic images for example line drawings
to show interval structures than the real thing].
Media may also be classified according to the senses the appeal to Broadly media can be
classified as either Audio or visual.
Audio Visual Audio – Visual
- Audio cassettes (tapes) - Real objects TV
- Compact disc - Models Video
- Radio - Still pictures
- Charts & graphics
The value of using teaching Aids in the Classroom
A good teaching aid helps a teacher to overcome limitations of verbal communication. If
should appeal to as many senses as possible. This is because the more senses it appeals to the
greater the impact of its contribution to learning effectiveness.
Teaching aids serve to open more channels of communication of information and create a
variety of sensory impressions. When using a teaching aid, the teacher does not have to rely on
talking while students listen for the transmission of knowledge. Teaching aids promote the
process of perception and retention and consequently improve the efficiency of learning.
Boredom among students is an enemy the teacher has to keep on fighting constantly. It is
difficult for teachers to maintain attention for periods longer than 15 minutes without involving
students in active participation. Teaching aids serve to brighten up a lesson’s presentation

(alleviate boredom).
The experience of handling the actual object, participating in a process or observing a factory in
operation involves the use of all senses and provide the best aid to learning. Well thought out
teaching aids can act as effective substitutes to the real experience.
Advantages of using teaching aids in the Classroom
1. Form a focal point during a lesson and attract attention
2. Supplement descriptions and help to explain words
3. Give an accurate impression of concepts
4. Promote retention and memory
5. Stimulate imagination
6. Save teaching time

USE OF MODELS FOR TEACHING PURPOSES
Models are 3 dimensional representation of a real thing. A model may be smaller/larger or the
same size as the object it represents. It may be complete in details or simplified for instructional
purposes. Models may provide learning experiences that real things cannot provide. Important
details can be emphasized for example by colour. Some models can be opened up to provide
interior views not possible with a real thing.
Models of almost anything can be purchased for classroom use. A wide variety of plastic models
kits are also available for assembly by the teacher or the students. Assembly itself can be an
instructional classroom activity. Classroom construction of models appeals to learners of all ages
including adults and can stimulate inquiry and discovery. Assembly activities help sharpen both
cognitive and psychomotor skills.
Models are best used where there is movement, for example of planets around the sun or where 3
dimensional representation is necessary for example, atomic structure and animal skeletons.
Models are developed in order to describe a phenomenon and make it easy to comprehend.
Models are used in the teaching of abstract concepts so as to make visualization possible.
Visualization is important in order to understand abstract concepts such as atoms and molecules
and other abstract mathematical concepts.
Models have a greater impact in teaching and learning that pictures because they can be handled.
Factors to consider when using models in teaching
1. Scale: The scale of a model is very important .For minute objects there is need to scale them
visible to the learner from a reasonable distance.
2. Dismantling: This is done to reveal inner details of an object and how they relate to one
another .Some parts may be made of transparent materials in order to reveal inner details,
example the structure of earth.
3. Simplification: Some nonessential details may be omitted in order not to confuse the
learners or coloured to emphasize detail.
Models are often used where movement has to be illustrated for example, the motion of the

planets round the sun, wave motion ets or where a 3 dimension representation is necessary
(es. Crystal structures, animal skeletons etc. However, it should be remembered that to a
large audience in a lecture situation, ever the best three dimensional mode appears 2
dimesional except to those who are very close. Thus it is usually worthwhile to get learners
gathering round the model when salient features are being remonstrated.
STILL PICTURES
Still pictures are photographic like representation of people, animals things and places. They can
easily be obtained from newspapers, books, catalogues and magazines still pictures are the most
readily available forms of teaching aids. It is not always possible to expose learners to read – life
experience that are far removed from their classroom experiences. This can be done by using still
pictures flora and fauna which are easily be made available in the classroom. Still pictures are
especially useful when the objectives intended to be achieved are the identification of places,
people or things. Consequently they can be used for testing and evaluation. Still pictures can also
be used to stimulate creative expression such as telling or writing stories or composing of poetry.
Advantages of using still pictures
1. They can translate abstract ideas into a more realistic format. They allow teaching to
move from verbal symbols to the more concrete level of still pictures
2. They are readily available in books (including text books) magazines, newspaper,
catalogues and calendars.
3. Still pictures are easy to use. They do not require any equipment
4. They are relatively inexpensive many can be obtained at little or no cost
5. Still pictures can be used in many ways and all levels of instruction, and in all disciplines
Limitations
1. Some photographs are too small for use before a group. It is possible to enlarge any
picture, but that can be an expensive process
2. Still pictures are dimensional the lack of 3 dimensionality can be compensated by
providing a series of pictures of the same object or scene from several different angles or
positions

3. They do not show motion

SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF MEDIA
All effective teaching requires careful planning in order to use instructional media effectively.
The teacher requires to plan systematically. The ASSURE model in a procedural guide to
planning and delivering instruction that incorporates media the model helps to assure learning. It
has six steps.
1. A – analyze learner characteristics.
The first step in planning instruction is to identify the learners. Your learners could be
students, trainees, Sunday school, youth group or civil club. You must know your students in
order to select the best medium to meet the objectives. The audience can be analyzed in
terms of two types of characteristics:
(i) General characteristics age, grade, intellectual, amplitude, social culture.
(ii) Specific entry competencies, knowledge skills and attitudes about the topic.
2. S – state objectives
The next step is to state the objectives as specifically as possible. The objectives may be
derived from a needs assessment, course syllabus, stated in a textbook, or from a curriculum
guide. Whatever the source of objectives, they must be stated in terms of what the teacher
will be able to do as a result of instruction. The conditions under which the student or trainee
is going to perform and a statement of acceptable performance level should be included.
3. S – select, modify or design materials. Once you have identified your audience and stated
your objectives and have established the beginning (audience’s present knowledge, skills
and attitudes) and the ending points (objectives), your task is to now to build a bridge
between the two. There are three options:-
(i) Select available materials
(ii) Modify existing materials
(iii) Design new materials

4. U – utilize materials
Having either selected, modified or designed your materials, you then must plan how the
materials will be used and how much time will spent in using them. Next prepare the
class and ready the necessary equipment and facilities. Thereafter present the materials
using the correct methods. Finally, make follow-ups with class discussion, small group
activities or individual projects.
5. R- Require learners’ response. There should be activities within the lesson that allow
learners to respond and to receive feedback on their performance or responses. Learners
should then practice what they have learned and this should be reinforced through a
requirement for them to provide correct responses to the teacher’s questions.
6. E- Evaluate – After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact and effectiveness.
To get the total picture, you must evaluate the entire instructional process.
• Did the learners achieve the objectives?
• Did the media assist the learners in reaching the objectives?
• Could all the students use the materials properly?
• Was the environment comfortable i.e. room temperature suitable and no
distracting noises?
• Did the instructor facilitate learning by providing the necessary assistance to
individual students?
THE AUDIO MEDIA
Audio media means the various means of recording and transmitting the human voice and other
sounds for instructional purposes. It can carry words, music and special sounds like machinery,
speech defects, heart beats etc. The purpose of teaching ideas that can only be effectively
communicated through the audio media are:-
• Correct pronunciation of technical terms
• Sound of a local dialect
• Enthusiasm and emphasis

University students spend nearly 90% of their time listening to lectures and seminar discussions.
Therefore, the importance of audio media in the classroom should not be under estimated [A
typical primary and secondary school student spends nearly 50% of the time listening].
HEARING AND LISTENING PROCESS
Hearing and listening are not the same thing. Hearing is a process in which sound waves entering
the outer ear and are transmitted to the eardrum are converted into mechanical vibrations in the
middle ear and the changed in the middle ear into nerve impulses which travel to the brain. The
listening process begins with someone’s awareness of and attention to sounds or speech patterns,
proceeding through identification and recognition of specific auditory signals, and ends in
comprehension. The efficiency of audio communication is also affected by the hearing / listening
process as the message passes from the sender to the receiver. The message can be affected by:-
(i) Impaired hearing mechanism
(ii) Auditory fatigue resulting from extraneous noise, droning of voice, lack of
animation or enthusiasm
(iii) The receiver’s listening skills or lack of them
(iv) Encoding/ decoding process
DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS
In formal education much attention is given to reading, a little to speaking and none to listening.
Listening is a skill that can be improved with practice. There are a number of techniques which
the teacher can use to improve student listening abilities.
(i) Directed listening – before orally presenting a story or lesson, give the students some
objectives or questions to guide their listening. Start with a short passages with one or
two objectives and gradually increase the length and the number of objectives.
(ii) Following directions - Give the students directions individually or in a group on audio
tape and ask them to follow these instructions. The teacher can evaluate the students’
abilities to follow audio instructions by examining the products of the activity.
(iii) Listening for main ideas, details or influences - Keeping the age level of the
students in mind, you can present an oral passage and ask the students to listen for main

ideas and then write down. A similar techniques can be used with details and in reference
to be drawn from the passage.
(iv)Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information - After listening to an oral
presentation of information, the student can be asked to identify the main idea. Another
technique is to ask a learner to identify irrelevant words or sentence in paragraphs.
ADVANTAGES OF THE AUDIO MEDIA
(1) Audio media tend to be inexpensive forms of instruction. In the case of audio tape, once
the tapes and equipment have been purchased there is no additional cost, since the audio
tape can be erased after use and a new message recorded if so desired.
(2) Audio materials are readily available and very simple to use. They can be used for group
or individual instruction
(3) Students who cannot read due to blindness or illiteracy can learn from audio media. For
young and non-reading students, audio can provide early language experiences.
(4) Audio can present stimulating verbal messages more dramatically than print can
(5) Cassette tape recorders are ideal for home study many students already have their own
cassette machines.
DISADVANTAGES
(1) Audio media tends to fix the sequence of a presentation even if it is possible to rewind
the tape and hear a recorded segment again or advance the tape to the upcoming portion.
(2) Without someone standing over them or speaking with them face to face, some students
do not pay attention to the presentation. They may ‘hear’ the presentation but not ‘listen’
to the presentation
(3) Development of audio materials by the instructor is time – consuming
(4) Determining the appropriate pace for presenting information can be difficult it.
AUDIO FORMATS
(1) Phonograph Records
These may be used for music, long narrations, classroom listening, historical speeches, drama or
poetry.

All types of communication from the spoken word, through sounds of a strong wind, through the
calls of various birds are recorded on phonograph records. They are relatively inexpensive to
buy. Sections are separated by bands making cueing easy, and records and phonographs are
compatible. There is a wide selection of records available. However, at present this technology is
facing extinction because of the entry into the market newer digital formats such as compact
discs.
Disadvantages
(a) One must economically prepare own records
(b) The record is easily damaged if someone drops the stylus (needle) or the disc or
accidentally scratches the surface.
(c) Excess heat and improper storage may cause the disc to warp and make it difficult to play
(d) Storage can pose a problem because they take up more space as compared to tapes
AUDIO TAPES
Magnetic tapes can be recorded on easily, can be erased and re-used. This is a major advantage
over the disc. Tapes are not easily damaged as compared to the discs and are easily damaged as
compared to the discs and are easily stored unlike discs, broken tapes can be repaired. There are
two main types of tapes.
Disadvantages
(1) It is easy to erase a tape accidentally
(2) It is difficult to locate a particular segment you need
(3) Deteriorate quality with age
(2) Open reel tapes
Open reel tapes are ones which wind from one exposed reel to another exposed reel. This
accessibility of the tape makes it easier to edit the message on it.
1. Cassette tapes audio cassettes
This is in essence a self-contained reel to reel tape with the two reels permanently installed in a

plastic case. Cassette tapes are identified according to the amount of recording time they contain.
For example a C - 60 cassette can record 60 minutes of sound using both sides. A C-90 can
record 45 minutes on each side. Other lengths exist for example C-30 and C-120.
Advantages
• It is durable- it is immune to shock and abrasion.
• It is the easiest of the tape formats to use because it does not require manual threading
of tape.
• It is not necessary to rewind the tape before removing it from the machine. You just
stop the tape and push the eject button.
• Accidental erasures can be avoided by breaking out the small plastic tabs on the rear
of the cassette
• Easily stored.
Disadvantages
1) Cassettes sometimes become stuck and tangles in the recorder , especially the C-
120s.
2) The overall quality of cassette play back units are not as good as reel – to real machine
or record players.
THE USE OF RADIO IN INSTRUCTION
Like broadcast television, radio programs broadcast through the replaced by other firms of
Delivery such as cassettes played in the classroom because this is more flexible and
economical. Educators consist media that have to be used according to someone elses’ schedule,
and educational administrators want to avoid the big budgeting outlays needed to support
broadcasting stations. As educators become more and more expensive to the needs of
individual learners , there is less and less demand for programs that are aimed at mass
audiences simultaneously.
How to prepare learners for a radio broadcast
1. Room preparation- the room should be one in which audibility should be clear

without distortions caused by echoes.
2. Learners preparation
The teacher should endeavors to introduce the learners to the difficult terms and
words to be encountered in the radio lesson in order to make comprehension easier.
3. The teacher should encourage the learners to respond where appropriately in order
to stimulate their active participation- it a question is addressed to an individual learner
, the teacher should point to one learner to answer the question.
4. Because a radio broadcast in eplemeral unless recorded, one’s a statement has been
made, it cannot be repeated. The teacher should ensure that the class discipline is
high in order not to interfere with the presentation
Computer discs
The more technology becomes more sophisticated, the more becomes like magic that is
certainly true of the compact disc. Physically, the compact disc looks like a small silver
phonograph record without grooves. The disc is only 12 centimeters in (4.72 inches) in dismeter.
This small disc rotating much faster than a phonograph record, stores an incredible amount
of information some cds contain as much as seventy five minutes of music.
The information in the CD is lead by a laser beam and which moves independently o the CD
unlilke the styles in the phonograph record. This means that it can be programmed to locate
information quickly. It is resistant to damage :There are no groves to scratch or tape to tangle
and tear. Stains can be washed off and ordinary scratches do not affect play-back of the record.
Because information on the CD us digitally recorded there is a complete absence of
background noise. While playing a CD it is possible to determine which track is playing , the
sequence in which music will be played, how many tracks are on the disc, and remaining
music time.
APPLICATION OF AUDIO MEDIA
The uses of audio media are limited only by the imagination of teachers and students. They
can be used in the following cases:
1) From introducing a new topic to evaluation of student learning

2) In self- paced instruction in mastery learning. A slow student can go back and repeat
segment of instruction on often as necessary since the recorder play-back machine is a
very patient tutor .
3) Tapes and records can be used for rhythm development, story telling , playing games
and acting out stories, songs etc.
4) Tapes recorder can bring the voices of persons who have made history into the
classroom
5) One special application is the telling books program for blind students recording of
books and periodicals to assist blind students learn.
STILL PICTURES
These are photographic (or photograph-like) representations of people, places or things. Still
pictures mostly used in instruction are photographs and illustrations from books, periodicals
and catalogues.
Types of still pictures
1. Flat opaque pictures
Photographic prints- These are exact visual recording of something on
photographic through the use of the camera.
Illustrations - These are non- photographic representations of reality e.g drawings or
painting of a scene or object.
2. Still transparent pictures
i) Slides – These are small photographic transparencies . slides are
made using a special type of film and mostly they are 2”x2” in
dimension.
ii) Film strips – These consist of a series of still pictures on a 35mm
film reel. They are usually viewed through a special type of projector
referred to an film strip projector. Film strips can either be in colour
or black /white , silent or having a narrative component in the form of
a cassette tape or disc record.
Advantages of using still pictures in teaching

Still pictures are readily available can be found in magazines, newspapers, advertisement,
brochures, textbooks, calendars etc. Teachers should find it helpful to develop once collected,
pictures could be mounted, filed and store laminating material i.e sealing them with plastic
makes them last longer.
Easy to use- No special equipment is necessary sometimes holding the picture by hand is the
only thing necessary.
They arrest motion and action in activities that occur too fast for our eyes to study e.g
Translate abstract ideas into more concrete/ realistic visual format of still pictures. Dinosaur+
pre- historic animals.
Very useful in objectives that require the identification of people , places or things.
At the beginning of a new topic pictures, if well chosen can arouse the curiosity of learners
and prepare pupils for new subject matter to be presented
A geography teacher by showing pictures of foreign countries would excite interest and
evoke many questions
Still pictures evoke other emotions or feelings e.g.
Picture of Kenyatta (appreciate him)
Slums like Mathare
Malnutrition
Can be used to stimulate creative expression such as telling or writing of stories or composing
poetry.
Disadvantages
1. Small in size
Pictures may be too small to be used in front of the class. Therefore they may not be
seen clearly enough by every pupil in the class.
This limitation can be overcome in 3 ways
i) Walk around the room and display the picture from 2 or more spots
ii) Enlarge them through the use of opague projection
iii) Make a transparency
It is advisable to pass the picture around the class? No. takes too much time and distracts may
not become back?

2. Lack of depth
Pictures are two – dimensional (2-D). If the perception of depth is essential to show the
precise relationship, then a series of picture from different sides or angles
Lack of motion where this is essential for clearer understanding in this case use of
pictures that give clues to motion or action would be needed.
- Blur the image
- Take pictures in positions (freeze positions) which cannot be maintained naturally e.g.
- High jump
- Falling tree
Use a series of scenes to indicate a process e.g. in milk production
- Animals grazing
- Being milked
- Milk being transported ‘
- Processed
- Sold
- At a breakfast table
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF MEDIA
Audio visual media should be carefully chosen for use in particular teaching or training
situations because of their suitability and not merely because they happen to be available. When
you the teacher wishes to communicate with the learner, this can only be done through the
senses. The learner perceives the environment through his eyes, ears, nose, tongue, sense of
touch, etc. The teacher’s job is the structure the environment so that the learner receives the
stimuli in such a way that desired learning is encouraged. Numerous learning activities are
possible from first hand experiences to abstract instruction. The pyramid of experience below
illustrates some of the available learning experience.

In order to decide on the most effective way to communicate a particular educational message, it
is important to consider interacting factors in the teaching/ learning situation.
These are:-
(1) Specific learning objectives intended to be achieved by the teacher
(2) Learner characteristics
(3) The media characteristics
(4) Costs and other practical constraints
1. The nature of subject (The Nature of learning objective to be achieved)
The nature of the taste and the behavioural objectives will affect the method of instruction. If you
are trying to teach the relationship between two movements of a musical week, you will almost
certainly use want some instruction through the audio channel.
(What medium would you use to teach the testing skills?)
(1) Effects of nitrogenous fertilizers on growing plants
(2) Difference in milk production between an exotic and indigenous cow
2. The learners
The :
(1) Size of the learning group is one important factor. If you are teaching how to wire a plug;
Abstract symbols words,
numbers formulae etc
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA tapes,
slides, films models, charts, objects
et c
FIRST HAND EXPERIENCE field trips,
interviews, projects experiments, visits, role
plays etc.
TOWARDSABSTRACTION
Pyramid of experience

a practical demonstration is quite effective with only two students. If you have two
hundred students and all of them gather around you to watch a live demonstration, only
the few at the front would be able to see. Some pre-pared A – V presentation such as tape
– slide or film would be needed.
(2) More you know about your learners, the better you are able to decide the best way to
teach them their age, interests and previous knowledge are all significant. If they suffer
from low motivations they may need the ‘big-bang’ aspect of the media to catch and hold
their attention. If they are highly motivated you can concentrate solely on your teaching
message.
(3) Some learners may have sensory defects e.g blind, deaf, physically and mentally
handicapped children. For these, specific use of certain media may be very appropriate
• Which senses are particularly appropriate in teaching blind students?
3. Media characteristics
Certain media have special characteristics which make them or not make them be used in certain
circumstances. [Audio communication and moving pictures are sequential presentation. Whereas
a slide can be perceived as a whole]. If you wish to convey colour, it is obvious to use a visual
communication. Let us look at some aspects of the various media.
Visual Media
The visual media have three dimensions and you must decide for each dimensions which
characteristics you need. The dimensions are largely independent and are these:-
Still   Moving
Black   Colour
Realistic   Abstract
If you are are teaching about the structure and the function of the human heart, you will need to
make a decision in relation to media selection. For example, if you have already delivered that
first hand experience is impractical and that visual instructions in most appropriate, you will still
face them questions.
• Will you use a still medium such as slides or charts or a moving stimulus like a film or

television or a working model.
• Will you use colour/ more realistic or black and white cheaper and will not make your
audience queasy
• Will the heart you use for teaching have all the complex detail of red life or will it be an
abstract diagram, highly simplified but conveying the concept efficiently.
To a certain extent, the objectives of the teaching can provide the answer i.e if you are concerned
with the understanding of how the heart operates – diagram might be clearer, if recognition of
the heart operating in real life is the concern, then still or moving photographs are more
appropriate.
PRINT
Print is a perfectly valid visual medium. If you wish to communicate with thousands of people
using a rapidly produced method that could be used anywhere, it would be difficult to make a
better choice than a newspaper. Print is used in the job instructional manual for a medium unless
working conditions are wet or dirty.
Audio
The audio channel carry words, music and special sounds such as machinery, speech defects,
heart beats. It is possible to change the speed of the original sound for purposes of analysis of for
example bird song.
Certain ideas can only effectively communicated by sound. The correct pronunciation of
technical terms and sound of local dialect are instances. Enthusiasm and emphasis can be
communicated in the tone of voice, which adds a personal note to the presentation.
Audio visual combinations
The audio and visual channels of communication are often combined for greater effectiveness
and impact. Example of such combinations are tape slide sequences sound film and television.
Practical aspect
It is essential to consider practical aspect too. There is no point of planning to use a movie film if
electricity is not available. The desired media must be available, obtainable at reasonable cost.

Do not forget that the simplest aids such as books or blade – board can be highly effective if used
properly.
RESOURCE BASED LEARNING
Resource based learning individualized or student centred teaching methods which cater for
individual study, including some measure of self teaching and self pacing. The classes of
resources based learning systems encompasses all the individual learning approaches that include
fexistudy and distance learning causes, including all correspondence courses.
Duck courses make wide use of learning resources.
Learning Resources
Basically, a resources in education or training is a system, set of materials or situation that is
deliberately created or set up in order to enable an individual student to learn. To qualify as a
true learning resource, the resource must satisfy all of the following three conditions:-
(a) It must be readily available
(b) It must allow the student self – pacing
(c) It must be individual, i.e it must cater for the needs of the students working on their own
A resource by definition it follows them must be student centred. Thus in traditional teacher/
institutions centred system involving teaching methods such as lectures or talks, timetabled
classes, only the text book which would satisfy the criteria for being resources. However lectures
can be resources if they are purchased in some way, e.g video cassettes or audiotapes or making
them available to students in some form of self study format similarly, a laboratory situation can
be made into a resource by allowing a more flexible access.
THE USE OF REALIA INSTRUCTION
Realia are real things, objects such as coins, tools plants and animals. They are not usually
thought of as visuals since the term visuals implies representation of an object rather than the
object itself.
Being by definition concrete objects, realia are instructional aids most closely associated with the
bottom of the pyramid of learning experiences i.e direct purposeful experience.

Pupils should be encouraged to collect such objects while they are being taught about them. Such
objects bring learners into direct contact with real things. Museums and Zoos are important
sources where pupils can come across real things by means of a field trip when they visit a local
bakery and each pupil tastes the fresh bread as it comes from the oven. There are countless real
things in the immediate school environment when these real materials or people are readily and
economically available and can help us to attain our objectives they should be used other
examples could be:
• A demonstration using fittings and magnet to reveal the magnetic field around a magnet.
• A talk by people intimately associated with an event for example a doctor who has
treated people with aids or drug addicts can give authentic reports about the danger of the
disease or drugs.
SPECIMENS
These are actual plants, animals or parts of the same when a teacher talks about flowers in
general and represents all flowers by a typical flower e.g. a hibiscus, then, it is a specimen
similarly, if the teacher is describing rocks and represents all rocks by a piece of granite or
marble, then these are specimens.
But if he teaches about properties of granite or marble itself, these are realia. A specimen is a
sample of a particular type of realia or a part of the real object. Hence an object may be realia or
a specimen depending on the way it is used.
• The teacher should in cooperation with pupils collect all important specimens especially
the local ones which can be used in the classroom teaching.
• The school should procure specimens which the school cannot collect.
Advantages of using Realia in instruction
1. Realia are argued to be the supreme instructional medium because they supply flesh and
blood mental images to what would otherwise be merely abstract words. Thus remove
referent confusion.
2. Real things enable learners to authenticate an object or experience if necessary. This is
because learners see, handle or taste, rather than being told verbally of the same.
3. Realia save instructional time by reducing length of abstract explanations of things which

could be unfamiliar to the students.
4. Realia brings realism when distinguishing between the characteristics of objects. for
example premise and granite types rocks through handling which no amount of verbalism
could handle.
5. Real things aid in the transfer of learning because they reduce the gap between learning
and application
Difficulties in using Realia
It may not always be possible to use real things in instruction. This could be for some of the
following reasons.
1. Time constraints – A teacher may find it too time consuming in using a particular type of
realia for example demonstrating the reactions of different types of metal when heated
during a forty - minute lesson
2. Availability – the real thing or experience may not be readily available. For example
demonstrating the role of haemoglobin during the gaseous exchange in the lungs.
3. Accessibility – the object or experience may be available, but not easily accessible
4. Safety of learners – the real thing could endanger the safety of learners for example
dangerous poisonous gases in chemistry experiments, poisonous animals like snakes etc.
instead of using realia the teacher may use a vicarious experience such as still pictures
film etc.
5. Costs – the cost for providing a real experience could be too prohibitive for example
enabling learners in a school in Kisumu or Kisii to see Marine animals at features in
Mombasa. This would be costly in both time and money while it may be possible to
provide alternative experience
6. Dangerous experiments – Where such considerations have to be taken into account a
trade – off needs to be more between the concreteness of an experience and such
constraints.
Relia may be used as is or modified to enhance its instructional utility. Examples of such
modifications would include:-
• Cut aways – Devices such as machines with one wall cut away to allow close observation
of the inner workings

• Specimens – Actual plants, animals or parts of the same preserved for convenient
inspection.
• Realia exhibits – Collection of artifcats (man made objects) often of historic or scientific
nature, brought together with printed information to illustrate a point.
Learning is modification of behaviour as a result of experience. Behaviour modifications
annoing out of learning could be cognitive, affective or psychomotor or a combination of
them

CHARTS AND POSTERS
INTRODUCTION
Certainly the primary aim of designing posters, charts and graphs is effective communication through
presentation of clear visual summaries of important processes or set of relationship through the
combination of pictorial graphic, lettering, numerical, or verbal material.
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this topic unit is to:-
1) Apply drawing and lettering techniques in planning executing posters, charts and graphs
2) Apply different enlargement methods in planning and designing the three teaching visual media
above.
3) Execute these different teaching visual materials, posters, charts and graphs according to the
following criteria:
a) Layout – Emphasis, unity, balance, contrast, rhythm and proportion
b) Proper finish
c) Neatness
d) Consistency of lettering or drawing
e) Size for visibility at 30ft
f) Choice of colour for contrast
g) Margins for appeal
4) Select the appropriate teaching visual from posters, charts and graphs for different purposes.
5) Be able to choose the right materials, (that is, tools paper, ink, pens, colour, etc) for executing the
positive effectiveness.

POSTERS AND CHARTS
DEFINITIONS
Posters and charts mean different things to different people. The functions and intentions of both
differentiate the two. It not unusual to hear someone asking for the difference between them.
POSTERS
A poster is a visual combination of bold design, colour, and message (words) intended to catch and hold
the attention of the passer –by at least long enough to communicate a brief message. Billboards along the
highways are examples of posters in large scale.
Characteristics of a good poster
A poster qualifies or passes for a good poster when it fulfills the following:-
- It must have a dynamic compelling quality and colourful
- It must be essentially simple
- It must be striking to grab attention and convey the message quickly
- It must be a good looking enough to be an eye – catcher
- It must encourage action
- It should have a title (heading) and subtitle
In learning situations posters stimulate interest in a new topic, a special class, or a school event. They can
lure students to a school meeting, or to the media centre, or encourage them to read more. In science
laboratories and other situations where danger may be involved, posters can be used to remind students of
safety factors. “Remember – Mains off” Good health practices can be promoted by using posters. “Don’t
Smoke Keep fit”
Classification of posters
1. Single – Glance posters
These are read and understood quickly without any spoken word.
2. Stop and Study posters. One needs time to look at the variety of pictures and captions with no
verbal explanations example

Obtaining and selecting posters
When in need of commercial printed posters, it would be a good idea to consider the purpose and type of
posters for your audience. The posters you may get might not be of the exact subject matter but they may
be adapted to suit that subject. Explore every available source within Kenya for posters. Sources include:
- Government ministries or departments e.g Agricultural Information Centre (AIC) Ministry of
tourism and wildlife, National Hospital, Ministry of Education etc.
- Commercial firms
- Voluntary organization
- Non governmental organization(NGO’S)
DESIGNING POSTERS
When designing posters it is important to observe the following:
a) Brevity
A poster must be brief so that:
i. It can be read in a few seconds
ii. The letters can be large and bold and can be read at a glance from a distance.
iii. A simple presentation of a single idea can be read at a glance as well.
No hard and fast rules as to the exact number of words a poster should contain. Usually there should be
no more than eight words, but four or five words are better. Informative captions are better than those
arousing only general interest and they should point to the heart of the matter.
Captions can have any one or a combination of the four forms below:
1. Command – Eat more fruits for health
2. Question – Do not read the Kenya Times?
3. Suggestion – Your crops may suffer
4. Positive statement – Malaria Kills.
Malariaquine saves lives
b) Simplicity
A good poster should be compact , have a minimum of individual units should have a bold illustration
containing only essential details.

c) Originality
Express the poster idea in a clever and original way. There should be link between the words and the
illustrations. You should write the first slogan that comes to mind and make a rough sketch of your idea.
Keep on thinking and do not be content with your first idea until you find a way of getting the point
across to the viewer that no one else has ever thought of before.
d) Lettering
Striking captions with bold and loud (shouting) letters will make people OBSERVE.
e) Illustrations
A clever caption will often be remembered and an effective poster may be designed with words only.
The viewer’s attention, however, is usually caught by the illustration poster’s message. You should
synchronize your picture and the words to convey the same idea. Pictures relating to the local situation
will always provoke the viewer, particularly if it show how their families, home or farms should be.
Other than the copying and enlarging methods of illustrations, cut- outs of large close-up
photographs of various kinds are particularly effective as illustrations if unnecessary details are
removed by trimming.
f) Layout
Proportions, contrast and impact are aspects of layout and design which can best be learned by
experiment. Various parts of the posters drawn separately and cut out can experiment for various
layouts by moving the pieces around.
Observing and evaluating other people’s designs help a great deal in creating ideas for a poster.
g) Colour
Colour helps to attract attention if properly used, and it is often the best method of emphasizing a
particular point. Colour is never applied just for decoration. In choosing colours we should be careful
because certain colours may be associated with certain political parties or with certain cultural ideas.
Too many colours add confusion but in practice two colours are usually considered adequate. White is
usually an important additional colour and can be used as part of the dark colours on light backgrounds
or vice versa.black on yellow strikes best, and the reverse, amongst the many combinations.
PRE- TESTING POSTERS

You should be critical of your own poster designs and ready to test them out with potential audiences.
1. View your poster design from a distance of about 10 metres (or 30ft). Find out if you can see the
message clearly remembering that the ordinary viewer will not be familiar with idea and will
therefore not find it easy.
2. Publics the poster and watch how long people stop to look at it. Does it really attract attention?
3. Comments from your friends and colleagues o the message your poster conveys are often
helpful. Ask them to look at it from a distance and give you their impressions.
4. Select other pre- testing people in order to see if the poster really does encourage some
response and action.
The pre- testing must be done as objectively as possible, all criticisms against your design must not
be defended so as to discover the poster’s weak points for improvement.
CHARTS
A chart is the presentation of a clear visual summary of an important process or set of relationship
through the combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical. Or verbal materials:-
The term “chart” has a number of interpretations:-
To a navigator- a specialized map
To a businessman – a graph or tabular arrangement of scales or data.
To the engineer- a technical diagram for teaching purposes charts have certain values and characteristics
of their own.
Characteristics of good charts for teaching
1. A chart should have clear and well defined purposes. It should concentrate on one main idea,
concept or process.
2. Good charts do not provide large amounts of information. Complex ideas or processes can be
presented in a simplified manner by the use of chart drawings
3. Adequate size for main features to be seen across a room (30ft.away)
4. A chart should contain minimum visual and verbal information needed for understanding. For
a lot of information to convey it is clever to design or develop a series of simple charts rather
than a single complex one. “Simplicity” is the word to remember.

Types of charts
The distinctiveness and ways of classifying charts depends on their functions more than on the kinds of
visual or verbal materials used on them.
There are two types of charts
1. Wall charts – These are sometimes similar to stop- and –study posters but may include more
information with symbols and diagrams.
2. Teaching charts- Usually accompanied by a teacher’s verbal explanation as he uses them to
help in formal education.
Wallcharts to be studied
A wall chart can be as simple or as complex as the subject and the training situation or demand. The
main purpose of a chart is to present facts in a visual form.
Displaying wall charts
The eye must be attracted and the attention held by good design and effective display techniques. Put
up the wall charts where people have time to stop and read.
Teaching charts
A teaching chart is one designed to be used by a teacher with a class or group. It saves a lot of time
spent in chalkboard preparation especially in teaching the same subject to different classes. A teaching
chart used as an introduction to a subject needs to be simple and provocative.
Using teaching charts
For concentration on the chart, remove all unrelated material nearby so that attention can be directed to
the chart to be discussion by posing stimulating questions and problems and summarize the key
points as you proceed.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHARTS
a) Organization charts:

These show the relationship or chain of command in an organization such as a corporation, company,
civic group or government department. Usually they deal with the interrelationship of personnel or
departments.
b) Classification charts
organization charts are similar to classification charts but classification charts are mainly used to
classify or categorize objects, events, or species. A chart showing the taxonomy of animals and plants
according to natural characteristics is a good example.
c) Time line charts
These are linear charts which illustrate chronological relationships between events. In time relationships
of historical events or the relationship of famous people, time lines communicate effectively. They are
very important in summarizing the time sequence of a series of events.
Stage coach train Car plane Rockets Space ship
1800 1900 2000
d) Outline and tabular (or tables) charts
The outline of key points and sub points can be organized in content nature to form a useful chart.
Tabular charts contain numerical information or data. Time information can also be shown conveniently
when the data is presented in columns as in timetables for railroads and airlines.
An example of an outline chart.
GRAPHIC CRITERIA
1. Simple
a. Eliminate the nonessential
2. Bold
a. Make bars dominate
3. Legible
a. Large open letters

4. Brief
a. Precise title
5. Adequate margins
a. Top and sides equal , bottom larger.
An example of a tabular charts
CROPS- RESISTANCE VARIETIES
CROP RESISTANCE ACTUAL VARIETY
Wheat Rust ( Puccinia) All the varieties have resistance
Sorghum Striga disease Serena
Cotton Jassids ( Hopers) U.K. 51
Groundnuts Rosette Virus Asirya Mwitunde
Potatoes Blight (infestanus) B53 Kenya Baraka
Maize Maize virus All varieties being released
e) Flow charts ( process charts)
This type of charts are well suited to showing a sequence, a procedure, or the “flow” of a process.
Flow charts show how different activities , ingredients, or procedures merge into a whole in a
horizontal direction. When the “ flow” rather than the individual steps is emphasized, such diagrams
are frequently referred to as flow charts, or flow- process diagrams.
f) Tree and stream charts
The tree chart is developed from a base composed of several “roots” that lead into a single “ trunk”. In
turn the “branches “represent developments and relationships which result from a combination of major
factors. A good example is a genealogy chart in which two individuals are the roots from which a family
“tree” grows. The reverse form of the combination of a great variety of elements form one important
product.
g. Technical diagram
These diagrams are used for functions that are essentially technical in nature, for example , electric ,
circuit layouts, construction blueprints, fuel systems and similar complex assemblies.

h. The strip” chart and the “Flip chart”.
These two are used to present data in sequential steps. The strip chart is constructed as a single chart
with various sequential parts covered with strips of paper. Important points may be exposed gradually
by removing each strip of paper at the right time for viewing.
The flip chart (turnover) is useful in presenting graphic information which has sequence but which
cannot be shown on one sheet. Flip charts are made from several sheets of newsprint of the same
size an placed on the appropriate materials on each other. The sheets are then fastened together at the
top with thin metal or wooden strips - one on the front and one on the back. The supporting strip is then
mounted at the top of an easel. When using the flip chart remember:
- To use a pointer to explain details.
- To be sure not to block the view of the audience.
DESIGNING CHARTS
Many of the points which apply for posters also apply for charts. With charts it is advisable to:-
a) Consider the idea you are trying to communicate and have one which is concrete rather
than an abstract idea. It is appropriate to have two or three charts with one idea each than
having a chart with two or three ideas on it .
b) Simplify your one idea
 Get the facts
 Eliminate unimportant facts
 Arrange the facts in a logical order.
c) Have a logical , clear and orderly layout. A chart must be arranged in a neat, eye catching
manner. Boarders on three sides should be equal and the fourth border- the base of the
drawing – should be slightly wider than the other three for a more pleasing effect. These
margins can either be drawn in bold lines or can be determined by the beginnings and
endings of illustrations and lettering , depending on the type or classification of the chart.
d) Consider the drawing surface which can be divided into quadrants to assist in
determining the most effective layout of parts. This lines should be erased later to leave
the drawing neat and clear. Rough layout of the chart should be sketched in approximately
the same proportion as the finished drawings. Illustrations (drawings) make a chart more
attractive and memorable. A line drawing, which is composed of solid colour or no- colour
quality by using varying line widths and spacing. For example the shading illusion to the

viewer may be achieved by using fine, closely spaced lines or dots. Cuttings from
newspapers , magazines etc. may be used as illustrations or tracing s from photographs and
other illustrations can also be used for different ideas as illustrations
o Pictorial statistics are more appealing than numbers.
o Indicates comparison of quantities by the number of symbols rather than by their
size.
e) Have striking titles to make people STOP. Include smaller lettering for people to READ.
Ease of readability is the most important.
f) Have the beginning and ending of a sequence apparent.
Remember : The value of a chart is not in proportion to the amount crowded on to it. Empty space is
not necessarily waste space make the chart direct, clear and easy to follow.
TRANSFERRING ARTWORK TO THE CHART
There are a number of techniques of transferring the lines drawing or lettering from sketch form to an
enlarged or same size to the chart size (poster size). These include:-
- Projection enlargement ‘
- Ruler diagonal enlargement method
- Panthograph enalargment
- Square enlargement – grid system
- Same size carbon paper transfer.
GRAPHS
Visual representation of numerical data is provided by graphs. Relationships between units of data
and trends in the data are also illustrated with graphs. In most cases tabular charts can be converted
into graphs. Data can generally be interpreted more quickly and effectively in graph form than in
tabular form. However well a numerical tabulation is arranged, graphs are usually more interesting to
learn from . thus , a graph’s purpose is to present comparative quantitative information QUICKLY
and SIMPLY. When a graph is intricate and difficulty to read it loses its chief advantage.
By definition then, a graph is a visual representation of numerical data.

Types of Graphs
There are four major types of graphs: bar, pictorial, circle and line. The type to be used depends
largely on the complexity of the information to be presented and of course graph interpretation skills
of the audience.
There are many subtypes of graphs which are all based on one of the four forms. Graphs may also be
classified into two basic groups: those with only one scale measurement (bar and pie) and those with two
( line and pictorial). One – scale graphs are simpler to understand and are especially useful in
communicating
1. Bar graphs:
These are the easiest and simplest to read type of graphs. They are usually constructed by using
vertical bars with the height of the bar being the measure of the quantity . the width of the bars should
be the same. To avoid confusion there should be a limited number of eight or less bars. This type of
graph is appropriate for comparing similar items of different times or different items at the same
time, for example , the height of one plant overtime, variations are only in one dimension.
a) Column bar Graphs
The column bar graph is sometimes called the “ vertical bar” it shows numerical values in two
dimensions – usually quantity and time, the base being TIME and the vertical being QUANTITY.
In preparing a column graph the space between the bars should be approximately one- half the width
of the bar, with at least a full- bar spacing at the left and right hand side. With grouped bars that touch
each other, the recommended spacing is about the width of a single column, left and right.
The bars can sometimes run both ways (upwards and downwards) from a baseline to indicate change
in two different dimensions).
b) Horizontal bar graphs
There are two distinct types of horizontal bar graphs – the index bar and the range bar. On the index
bar graph all bars originate at a common base on the vertical index. It is primarily designed to
measure amounts.
The range bar graph normally has a time- line as a horizontal index, and the items are plotted against
this base, beginning at any point on it. The range bar graph measures the EXTENT or SPREAD (of time
or any other measurable elements). In preparing a horizontal bar graph, the space between the bars

should be approximately one- half the width of the bar, with at least a full- bar spacing at top and
bottom . with grouped horizontal bars that touch each other, the recommended spacing is about the
width of a single
i) Labelling the bars
Identification of the item which the bar measures is done through labeling. This is usually by a listing at
the left called a “stud”
ii) Arranging the bars
The order of the bars will depend on the purpose of the graph, and may be alphabetical, numerical,
chronological, etc. with numerical order, the rank or relative position is important, while alphabetical
order is used when there is a large number of items and ease of reference is desirable. The chronological
order is used when it is desired to pinpoint dates or to show progress or decline.
iii) Breakdown of a bar
Bars may be broken down in two ways – by grouping the elements or by subdividing the bar. Neither
result is entirely satisfactory, as both require calculations.
Grouping emphasizes the parts at the expense of the whole, and the whole can only be arrived at by
subtraction of the unwanted elements.
If grouping is used the sequence of the elements within the group should be maintained. The shading
selected should be such as will make each element stand out clearly from the others. The sub-divided or
segmented bars should have each distinctive section coloured or crosshatched for clarity. The fewer the
segments the easier the graph will be to read.
The 100% Bar graph
The only type of subdivided bar graph which is useful and very effective is the percentage bar. All the
bars are usually of equal lengths and divided into segments representing the percentage distribution
within each category. These graphs properly prepared should have the percentages indicated on the
segments.
Paired Bar Graph

This is used when two sets of factors are to be compared on different indexes. Each index starts at Zero
and one goes to the right and the other to the left.
Surface Graphs
The construction is based on the same indexes as of vertical bars. The data is expressed by whole surface
filled in with shading or color as solid areas, rather than by plotted lines or curves.
2. Pictorial Graphs
This can be abbreviated as pictographs. A series of simple drawings are used represent the value instead
of using bars. They are interesting and appeal to a wide audience.
Pictorial symbols are used to represent a specific quantity, which might be difficult to read than bar
graphs, and partial symbols are used to depict fractional quantities. These graphs are most frequently used
in displays, advertising, magazine articles, and other publicity media. The pictograph goes with the
pictogram which not only illustrates the subject of the graph, but also shows repetitively or in multiple
groups the quantities.
3. Circle (or Pie) Graphs
These can easily be interpreted in that a circle or ‘pie’ is divided into segments, each representing a part
or percentage of the whole. The combined segments of a circle graph should equal 100 percent. An area
of interest can be illustrated separately from the whole pie (circle). The circle graph is most effective
when there are no move than four or five segments involved. Beyond this number, a simple bar graph is
apt to show a better comparison.
4. Line Graphs
These are the most precise and complex of all graphs. Line graphs are based on two scales at right angles
(x-axis and Y axis). Each point has a value on both axis and lines or curves are drawn to connect the
points. Line graphs are very useful in plotting trends of for example, relationship between pressure and
temperature when a certain volume of gas is held constant.
READABILITY OF GRAPHS
Research has shown that:
1. The circle, or pie graph is the easiest of all graphic forms to comprehend, and that such graphs are

useful only for comparing parts of a whole.
2. Horizontal and vertical bar graphs are the next comprehensive graphic forms.
3. Line graphs are the best type in presenting precise, detailed information or in showing significant
trends.
4. Pictorial graphs have the advantages of the graphic forms with which they are combined. Best are
pictorial horizontal bar graphs. If well designed such graphs are more interesting to the
nontechnical reader than other types of graphs.
TYPOGRAPHY AND LETTERING
1. Introduction
Instructional materials that are used for teaching and training purposes in education require the use of
good lettering. Lettering is important for creating effective displays to provide legible and attractive
captions, labels and titles. One needs to know and apply communicating posters, picture captions, flip-
charts, slides titles, charts and graphs, etc.
2. Objectives
The purpose of this topic session is:-
a) To distinguish the difference between typography and lettering
b) To introduce participants on how they can develop skills in constructing and designing legible
and readable lettering styles in different variations.
c) To introduce participants to a few lettering aids and devices
d) To learn to arrange in orderly, appealing and attractive manner the words in lettering for effective
communication
e) To outline factors that contribute towards legibility, readability and suitability for use in relation
to AV materials.
3. Equipment and Materials
To learn simple hand lettering the basic tools and materials required consists of:-
a) Drawing board (or a flat table)
b) Paper

c) Pencils – HB or B (harder pencils H and 2H are difficult to erase).
d) Ink, pens and pen holders
e) Rubber/ Eraser
f) T – squares and set – squares
g) Masking Tape (draughtsman tape)
Other lettering aids for different styles are available in Audio – Visual sections or from dealers in art and
sign supply stores.
4. Typography Terminology
a) Typography is the setting or arrangement of type and printing from it. Typography also refers to
the arrangement and appearance of printed matter.
b) Type is a small block, usually metal or wood, having on its upper and raised letter, number or
other character for use in printing. “Type is the general term and single type is usually called ‘a
piece of type’ “type” may also mean shape or image of printed lettering as we see it in front of us
on the made.
c) Point system is the measure and designation of type sizes. The size of type is the height or depth a
line up and down the page. The width of the type is called its set. Sizes range from 6 points to 192
points.
d) Type face originally meant the printing of the piece of type, but today it refers to the shape and
appearance of the letter as it appears on paper. It is therefore used to refer to any individual style
or design of alphabet. There are many type faces each one carefully designed so that it all the
characters fit together well and each one has its own name. the four commonly used typefaces are
times, Roman, Gothic Helvetice and Univers.
SERIFS - fancy typeface e.g. Z
SANS – SERIFS - without serifs e.g. Z

The BODY or SHANK is the largest part of the type and support the smaller parts. (Diagram above).
The FACE consists of the stem, serifs and on some types the Kern. The face is 00 top of body and is the
portion from which the printing is done when it comes in contact with the ink and paper.
A KERN is piece of type that has its face or the printing surface of the letter overhanging the body.
The STEM is the outline of the letter – the main lines of character without the serifs (Diagram below)
The HAIRLINE is the thinnest stroke of letter and the STROKE is the width as the stem. Some types
have very thin strokes and therefore no hairlines.
The SERIFS are the fine horizontal or oblique terminations added to the tops or bottoms of the vertical or
slopping main lines of the face. Without them we refer to SAN SERIFS
The COUNTER is the shallow space between the lines of the face.
The BEARD is the sloping part between the outside edge of the face and the shoulder.
The SHOULDER is the low flat part. Below, above and sometimes at the sides of the face.
The PIN MARK is slight depression. It consists the point size of type of founding mark or name.
The NICK is the slot or slots which are cut into the body at the lowest side near the bottom of type to
guide the composition when the sets the type.
The GROOVE is the hollow part at the bottom running across the width of the body thereby forming the
body.
The FEET are found at the bottom and are the two parts on each side of the groove which support the
type.
LETTERING
“Letters are symbols which turn matter into spirit”
Alphonse de lamar time. Lettering is the art of using letters to form words to present ideas visually.
Lettering enhances communication and for this to happen lettering should be legible and attractive to the
learner’s eye sight. Hand lettering can be used by artists to make effective displays. However, in some
specific cases some lettering aids or devices are available to give a finished professional appearance to
lettered materials.
These lettering guides include:-
(i) Lettering Guides

(ii) A variety of prepared letters (e.g precut letters)
(iii) Rubber stamps
(iv) Stencils
(v) Mechanical lettering
NB: Non –artists should not be worried put off when preparing their teaching aids. In lettering there is no
quick and easy way of learning to letter. But lettering is a skill that is acquired by observation and carefull
practice.
5. Basic Letter Proportion
To determine the correct width of letters. The capital letters can be grouped in four (4) basic divisions.
There are those which occupy ½ a square, ¾ square, 1 full square and just over 1 square.
½ square : B, F, J, P, R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z,
¾ square: A, H, K, L, T, U, N, E
1 square : C, D, G, O, Q (Circle)
Slightly over 1 square M, W
For ease of printing letters of the alphabet, we can categorize them into 3 main groups.
a) Letters made of straight lines
Upper case: ______________________________________
Lower Case : _____________________________________
b) Letters made by drawing circles

Upper case: _______________________________________
Lower case: _______________________________________
c) Letters made by combination of circles and straight lines
Upper case : _______________________________________
Lower case: ________________________________________
UPPER AND LOWER CASE
These are printers’ terms although they are in widespread use. Upper case means capital letters
though in certain cases compositors refers to them as caps
Lower case means small letters. In daily to daily lettering we use the double case, containing both
upper and lower case. Solid areas of upper lettering are not easy to read but with lower case lettering
reading become easier. This is due to the white spaces left in between the curved strokes of the letters.
The ascending and descending strokes give the words an uneven shape which is easy to recognize.
Upper case letters are all the same height. Lower case letters have more variety of shape
6. Legibility and readability
Definition
Legibility is the recognition of a letter or word, while readability is the ease and speed at which
one reads a letter or word.
Legibility and readability of letters and numerals of the alphabet have to be considered in
designing visuals. For effective use of lettering for visuals the following has been recommended in
regards to legibility and readability.
a) The use of readable letter styles, for example san -ser if or gothic type in which all letters are
recognized with a minimum confusion. Avoid script lettering
b) The use of upper case letters should be limited to short titles and labels. For longer captions
and phrases the use of lower case letters with appropriate upper case letters is recommended
limit uppercase lettered caption to six words.
c) Allow 11/2 letter widths for the space between words and 3 widths between sentences.
Example,

Too much or too little space reduces readability
d) Letters should be “optically” spaced to make spaces look equal regardless of the
measurements.
e) Lines should be separated within a piece of lettering to facilitate ease in reading.
f) Contrasting backgrounds in lettering for good legibility should be considered:-
i)Light letters against dark background have greater visibility.
Dark letters on a light background require a wider width stroke.
N.B The contrast may be in terms of tone ( darkness, lightness or paleness). Or colour
(brightness, pigment or hue), or it may be in terms of different patterns and texture that do or
not stand out clearly one from another.
Example:-
Measurement of legibility
The degree of legibility can be measured through:-
Perceptibility
Visibility
Reader preferences.
Factors affecting legibility
a) Reflectancy or contrast, In the case of shinny surfaces the lettering is usually affected by
the infilling of light and might appear blurred . Where the background is not distinct
legibility will be low.

b) Letter size will affect legibility when the viewing distance has not been considered .
c) Typeface or type style will interfere with the ease to recognize and be able to read
especially in the case of script lettering.
Factors affecting legibility
a) Reflectancy and contrast
In the case of shinny surfaces the lettering is usually affected by the infilling of light and might
appear blurred. Where the background is not distinct legibility will be low. The acceptable contrast
between the colour of the background surface and the lettering should be high.
b) Letter size
Letter size will affect legibility when the viewing distance has not been considered . the minimum
viewing distance should be thirty feet for classroom viewing.
c)Typeface or type style
typeface or type style will interfere with the ease to recognize and be able to read. The choice of
lettering style would depend on how familiar the audience are to that typestyle. Script lettering
would not be easy to recognize individual letters.
d) Familiarity, exposure and experience
People tend to recognize that which is familiar to them, exposed at one time to them or have an
experience in that particular area, or existing in their cultural set up.
Culture
What is acceptable within a certain society is easily understood
ii) Factors affecting readability
a) Spacing
Inter character, inter word and interlinear spacing should be constructed in balance and not
mathematically spaced such that each character, word and line stand out distinctly to be seen and read
easily and quickly.
b) Age

Young people have stronger eyesight than the old and children. For the old and children the type size
should be above 12 points
c) Education level
This is in relation to visual literacy. Those visually educated will have a higher capability of reading
different lettering styles.
d) Line length
Long lines strain the eyes while the optimum length of line should be about seven words
e) Culture
What is acceptable within a certain society is easily understood and recognized
iii) Appropriateness
a) Culture
This is in terns if the norms that affect what is acceptable in relation to format, letter variations and
emphasis
b) Typeface or typestyle
The choice depends on the occasion and content of message, for example in the western culture it is
acceptable for wedding cards to be in script lettering .
c) Age
This has to be in connection with the choice of letter size, letter style (typeface), layout and general
spacing. For example children’s lettered materials should be bold, big letter sizes and straight an-
serfed lettering.
d) Education level
For people who are visually literate more than one lettering style, size, format and variation can be
used to create effective lettering without any loss of message.
e) Letter size against viewing distance
The larger the group hence the greater the viewing distance from the lettered visuals. Therefore the
size and weight should be adjusted accordingly for emphasis.
For example

Lettering Height (cm) Viewing Distance (cm)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
7.50
10.00
12.50
f) Familiarity
It is good to use the lettering that is familiar to the specific audience and this will entail more of
lettering styles.
NB: Those factors which affect readability automatically affect legibility.
Spacing
The way the lettering is spaced and arranged can help to make it clear and legible
There are three types to consider
Inter-character spacing - in between characters
Inter-word spacing - in between words.
Interlinear spacing - in between lines
i) Inter-character (letter) spacing :
when letters are placed one after another to form a word, it is the volume of space between
characters that decided where they are placed. Good letter spacing is the arrangement of letters in a
line ( using guidelines) so that they will appear to have equal or uniform distance between them. When
doing that it is also important to consider the style, size and combinations of letters involved because
these factors affect letter spacing, for example . a and V
With different letter shapes, different amounts of space are taken up. Each letter has its own visual

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