3. 3
Unaware of their
hypertension
Unaware of their
hypertension
Not treated
and not
controlled
Not treated
and not
controlled
Treated and not
controlled
Treated and not
controlled
Treated and
controlled
Treated and
controlled
דם לחץ יתר של השכיחות
כ הוא העולם ברב בוגרת באוכלוסיה
22%
16%
42%
23%
19%
11. 13 3
RECOMMENDED BLOOD PRESSURERECOMMENDED BLOOD PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUEMEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
2.
• The cuff must be level with heart.
• If arm circumference exceeds 33 cm,
a large cuff must be used.
• Place stethoscope diaphragm over
brachial artery.
2.2.
•• The cuff must be level with heart.The cuff must be level with heart.
•• If arm circumference exceeds 33 cm,If arm circumference exceeds 33 cm,
a large cuff must be used.a large cuff must be used.
•• Place stethoscope diaphragm overPlace stethoscope diaphragm over
brachial artery.brachial artery.
1.
• The patient should
be relaxed and the
arm must be
supported.
• Ensure no tight
clothing constricts
the arm.
1.1.
•• The patient shouldThe patient should
be relaxed and thebe relaxed and the
arm must bearm must be
supported.supported.
•• Ensure no tightEnsure no tight
clothing constrictsclothing constricts
the arm.the arm.
3.
• The column of
mercury must be
vertical.
• Inflate to occlude the
pulse. Deflate at 2 to
3 mm/s. Measure
systolic (first sound)
and diastolic
(disappearance) to
nearest 2 mm Hg.
3.3.
•• The column ofThe column of
mercury must bemercury must be
vertical.vertical.
•• Inflate to occlude theInflate to occlude the
pulse. Deflate at 2 topulse. Deflate at 2 to
3 mm/s. Measure3 mm/s. Measure
systolic (first sound)systolic (first sound)
and diastolicand diastolic
(disappearance) to(disappearance) to
nearest 2 mm Hg.nearest 2 mm Hg.
StethoscopeStethoscope
MercuryMercury
machinemachine
43. 46
ESRD Due to Any Cause
In 332,544 Men Screened for MRFIT
Adjusted Relative Risk§
1.0 1.2
22.1*
11.2*
6*
3.1*
1.9*
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
Optimal Normal High
Normal
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Blood Pressure Category
AdjustedRelativeRisk
Hypertension
§ Men with optimal blood pressure was the reference category.
Klag MJ, et al. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(1):13-18.
* p<0.001
44. 47
Nephrosclerosis
• The kidney is small
• With a finely
granular cortical
surface
• The granularity is
due to “pits” formed
from cortical
vascular scars
alternating with
elevated areas of
normal parenchyma
48. 54
Pathologic Processes Leading to
Glomerular Injury and Proteinuria
Ang II
Increased
glomerular
pressure
Ang II
Urinary protein
Glucose
AGEs
Glycoxidation
(glycation)
Efferent
arteriolar
constrictio
n
=angiotensin
AT1 receptor
49. 55
Imbalance in Factors Affecting
Vascular Tone and Structure
Nephron
destruction and
renal failure
Angiotensin II
Catecholamines
Endothelin-1
ROS
Cytokines
EDCF
Nitric Oxide
Prostacyclin
Bradykinin
EDHF
Constrictors/
Growth
Promoters
Dilators/
Growth
Inhibitors
Vascular tone
and
structure
EDHF= endothelium-derived
hyperpolarizing factors
ROS= reactive oxygen species
EDCF= endothelium-derived
constricting factors
50. 56
Vascular and/or Tubular Injury
Glomerular cells Tubular cells
Lymphocytes Macrophages
Fibroblasts
TGF-β
ET-1
CTGF
Ang II
PAI-1
PDGF
bFGF
TNF-α
IL-1
FIBROSIS
Fibrosis and Nephron Loss:
A Renal Response to Injury
55. 61
What Are the Benefits of Treating
Hypertension?
• Heart attack by 15%
• Heart failure by 50%
• Stroke by 38%
• Death by 10%
For a decrease of 10/5 mm Hg:
57. Aggressive BP Reduction
For Individuals With:
<140/90 mm Hg (JNC 7)
BP Goal:
Hypertension
(no diabetes or renal
disease)
Diabetes Mellitus
IHD or CHF
Renal Disease
proteinuria >1 gr/24h
or diabetic kidney disease
<130/80 mm Hg (ADA, JNC 7)
< 130/80 mm Hg (JNC 7, NKF)
< 125/75 mm Hg (JNC 7, NKF)
58. 64
JNC7
גיל מעל50SBPמ חשוב יותרDBPל סיכון כגורם
CVD
מ החל115/75mmHgל הסיכון ,CVDעל מוכפל
של עליה כל20/10mmHgבטווח
בגיל אנשים55של סיכון בעלי הם ,תקין ל"ד בעלי
90%לפתחHTNחייהם במהלך
ל יזדקקו החולים רוב2לאזן מנת על ויותר תרופות
הדם לחץ את
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al, and the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. JAMA. 2003; 289:2560-2572.
59. 65
JNC7
בעליSBP 120–139 mmHgאוDBP 80–89 mmHg
נחשביםprehypertensiveבאורח לשינוי זקוקים והם ,
קרדיו-וסקולריות מחלות למנוע מנת על החיים
לבד ,החולים במרבית הראשוני הטיפול הם תיאזיד משתני
אחרות תרופות עם בשילוב או
הוא הדם לחץ אם<20/10mmHgהטיפול ,המטרה מעל
עם יהיה הראשוני2בד"כ היא מהן שאחת ,תרופות
תיאזיד
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al, and the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. JAMA. 2003; 289:2560-2572.
60.
61.
62. 68
Blood Pressure Thresholds (mmHg)
for Definition of Hypertension
with Different Types of Measurement
SBP DBP
Office or Clinic 140 90
24-hour 125-130 80
Day 130-135 85
Night 120 70
Home 130-135 85
64. 70
Algorithm for Treatment of Hypertension
Not at Goal Blood Pressure (<140/90 mmHg)
(<130/80 mmHg for those with diabetes or chronic kidney disease)
Initial Drug Choices
Drug(s) for the compelling
indications
Other antihypertensive drugs
(diuretics, ACEI, ARB, BB, CCB)
as needed.
With Compelling
Indications
Lifestyle Modifications
Stage 2 Hypertension
(SBP >160 or DBP >100 mmHg)
2-drug combination for most
(usually thiazide-type diuretic and
ACEI, or ARB, or BB, or CCB)
Stage 1 Hypertension
(SBP 140–159 or DBP 90–99
mmHg)
Thiazide-type diuretics for most.
May consider ACEI, ARB, BB, CCB,
or combination.
Without Compelling
Indications
Not at Goal
Blood Pressure
Optimize dosages or add additional drugs
until goal blood pressure is achieved.
Consider consultation with hypertension
specialist.
76. 82
Monotherapy versus combination
strategies
Choose between
If goal BP not achieved
If goal BP not achieved
Previous agent
at full dose
Switch to different
agent at low dose
Previous combination
at full dose
Add a third drug at
low dose
Two-to three-drug
combination at full dose
Full dose
monotherapy
Two-three drug combination
at full doses
Mild BP elevation
Low/moderate CV risk
Conventional BP target
Marked BP elevation
High/very CV high risk
Lower BP target
Single agent at low dose Two-drug combination at low dose
&lt;number&gt;
Hypertension can lead to LVH, diastolic or systolic dysfunction and heart failure.
Progression from hypertension to LVH is due to the macro and micro changes in the ventricle (LV remodeling). This remodeling can lead to diastolic dysfunction without clinical signs or symptoms of heart failure. This emphasizes the importance of treatment in some patients prior to development of overt heart failure.
Hypertension, in conjunction with other risk factors for atherosclerosis may lead to myocardial infarction. LV remodeling again takes place, but does so differently, leading to systolic dysfunction. Again, remodeling is taking place within the ventricle in response to the injury but may not lead to overt heart failure. Progression will lead to heart failure, with decreasing ejection fractions.
&lt;number&gt;
Primary Diagnoses for Patients Who Start Dialysis
Diabetes is the major cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Hypertension is the second most common cause. But, a substantial proportion of diabetics will have hypertension (blood pressure &gt; 140/90 mm Hg) as an important contributing factor to their loss of renal function.
Reference:
United States Renal Data System (USRDS) 2000 Annual Data Report. National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases – Division of Kidney, Urologic and Hematologic Diseases. USRDS Coordinating Center operated by the Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation. Internet Address: www.usrds.org
&lt;number&gt;
ESRD Due to Any Cause in 332,544 Men Screened for MRFIT
Relative risks were estimated with the proportional-hazards regression model, with stratification according to clinic and adjustment for age, race, income, serum cholesterol, number of cigarettes smoked per day, use of medications for diabetes mellitus, and previous myocardial infarction. Elevations of blood pressure are a strong independent risk factor for end stage renal disease (ESRD). To demonstrate the risks of renal failure associated with a wide range of blood‑pressure levels, 332,544 men screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) were studied prospectively from 1973 to 1975. In this large cohort, followed for 16 years, 814 cases of end stage renal disease were identified. Mortality data from the MRFIT study also provided the opportunity to identify subjects in the cohort who died of ESRD without having received dialysis or a renal transplant. In this slide, there is a continual, progressive increase in the risk for ESRD from optimal blood pressure to stage 4 hypertension (22.1-fold). Hypertension stages 1 to 4 refer to the classification of adult blood pressures in the 1993 JNC-V Report.
References:
Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, Neaton JD, Brancati FL, Ford CE et al. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(1):13-18.
The fifth report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC-V). Arch Intern Med. 1993;153(2):154-183.
-The kidney will be shrunken due to decreased blood flow
-some kidneys may have cysts present as well
-the scarred area will cause pitting (areas of normal cortex alternating with granular areas)
&lt;number&gt;
Hypertension and Renal Disease: Mechanisms
The functional integrity of the kidney is vital to the maintenance of cardiovascular homeostasis. The nephron, comprised of the glomerulus (shown in the scanning electron photomicrograph on the top left and in the center of the light micrograph on the bottom left) and the tubules (surrounding the glomerulus in the light micrograph on the bottom left), is the primary functional unit of the kidney. The kidney plays a critical role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Thus, pathological abnormalities primary to the kidney may lead to an elevation of blood pressure. As a corollary, hypertension due to non-renal causes can damage the kidney. The resulting loss of renal mass, in turn, can secondarily lead to further elevations in blood pressure. This module summarizes some of the mechanisms that are thought to link hypertension with abnormal renal function.
Photo Sources:
Scanning electron micrograph (top): trc.ucdavis.edu/mjguinan/apc100/modules/Urinary/mammal/glomeruli0/glomeruli.html
Light Photomicrograph (bottom): trc.ucdavis.edu/mjguinan/apc100/modules/Urinary/mammal/cortex1/cortex.html
&lt;number&gt;
Components of the Normal Nephron
The architecture of the single nephron units that comprise the kidney facilitates interaction of its perfusion and filtration components and of the molecules produced by each of these components. A rich innervation of both the vascular and tubular structures of the nephron provides the conduit by which the kidney sends and receives signals from the brain. Cells in all layers of the arterioles (intima, media and adventitia), in the tubules and in the interstitium have the capacity to produce molecules that can modulate arteriolar tone, tubular reabsorptive function, amount and composition of the extracellular and mesangial matrix, and growth or replication of arteriolar and tubular cellular components. Differentiated vascular smooth muscle cells in the afferent arteriole, the juxtaglomerular cells, can produce renin in response to mechanical, chemical and neuronal stimuli. Some stimuli, such as stretch, originate in the systemic circulation as changes in arterial pressure while other stimuli, such as transcellular sodium flux, are produced by changes in tubular reabsorptive function. The close proximity of modified distal tubular cells, the macula densa, to the afferent arteriole and to the glomerulus facilitates transfer of these signals. The mesangial cells and their surrounding non-cellular matrix, the mesangial matrix, provide a structure to support the delicate glomerular capillaries. These cells also produce or transport molecules such as cytokines and growth factors that affect glomerular and tubular function.
&lt;number&gt;
Renin-Angiotensin Cascade
This slide shows the renin-angiotensin cascade. There are at least two alternative pathways for angiotensin II formation that do no rely on either renin or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). In the non-renin pathway, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) forms angiotensinsin II directly from angiotensinogen, bypassing the renin-mediated production of angiotensin I as an intermediate. A second alternative pathway involves enzymes like chymase that can form angiotensin II from angiotensin I via an ACE-independent mechanism. These alternative pathways are implicated in the gradual return toward pre-treatment angiotensin II concentrations during treatment of patients with ACE inhibitors, and provide a rationale for considering angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) that directly inhibit the binding of angiotensin II to the AT1 receptor either in conjunction with or as an alternative to ACE inhibitor therapy.
References:
Balcells E, Meng QC, Johnson WH, Jr., Oparil S, and Dell&apos;Italia LJ. Angiotensin II formation from ACE and chymase in human and animal hearts: methods and species considerations. Am J Physiol 1997;273(4 Pt 2):H1769-H1774.
Petrie MC, Padmanabhan N, McDonald JE, Hillier C, Connell JM, and McMurray JJ. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and non-ACE dependent angiotensin II generation in resistance arteries from patients with heart failure and coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:1056-1061.
&lt;number&gt;
Angiotensin II
Angiotensin I (Ang I) formed in the afferent arteriole via the action of renin synthesized and secreted by the modified vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) in the arteriolar tunica media (juxtaglomerular cells) then interacts with angiotensin converting enzyme, a membrane bound enzyme on the luminal plasma membrane of the endothelial cell to form angiotensin II (Ang II). Ang II can bind to and activate angiotensin AT1 receptors located on VSMCs, endothelial cells, tubular cells and mesangial cells. Binding of angiotensin II to afferent arteriolar juxtaglomerular cell AT1 receptor diminishes further renin production, thus providing an intrarenal feedback loop for the control of renin secretion and angiotensin II generation.
&lt;number&gt;
Role of Angiotensin II in Chronic Renal Disease
Angiotensin II plays a pivotal role in pathological processes in hypertension that ultimately leads to renal glomerular and tubular destruction and renal failure. Angiotensin II, acting either through signal transducing mechanisms (top left box) or directly on cells to stimulate the production or activation of mediators (top right box) causes infiltration of inflammatory cells, increased production of mesangial and interstitial matrix with resultant glomerular and tubular injury and destruction (nephron loss). The remaining normal nephrons are forced to compensate by increasing filtration rate which, in the presence of increased angiotensin II, increases glomerular capillary pressure and perpetuates this progressive spiral of deteriorating renal function.
Abbreviations: TGF-, transforming growth factor-beta, CTGF, connective tissue growth factor, PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
&lt;number&gt;
Oxidative Stress: Endothelial Dysfunction and CAD/Renal Risk Factors
A variety of conditions or insults listed at the top of the illustration that are known risk factors for either coronary artery disease (CAD), progressive renal insufficiency, or both, adversely affect endothelial cell or vascular smooth muscle cell function by increasing the formation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide. The resultant reduction in the actions of endothelium-derived vasodilators/growth inhibitors such as prostacyclin and nitric oxide with maintenance or increased formation of endothelium-derived vasoconstrictors/growth promoters, such as angiotensin II, endothelin-1, and PAI-1, has significant vascular and renal pathophysiological consequences. Some of the mechanisms by which progressive coronary and renal injury occur include increased apoptosis or programmed cell death that contributes to vascular wall remodeling, activation of cell adhesion molecules resulting in adherence of both mononuclear and polymorphonuclear leukocytes to the vascular wall with subsequent infiltration, deposition of oxidized lipids in the vessel wall, vasoconstriction, both hypertrophy and hyperplasia of vascular smooth muscle cells, and a propensity for thrombus formation.
&lt;number&gt;
Pathologic Processes Leading to Glomular Injury and Proteinuria
When Ang II is increased, greater AT1 receptor-mediated constriction of efferent than afferent arterioles increases single nephron glomerular filtration rate and raises intraglomerular pressure, causing glomerular hypertension. Sustained or severe increases in intraglomerular pressure can lead to glomerular basement membrane damage, glomerular endothelial dysfunction, and ultimately, extravasation of protein into Bowman’s capsule. In addition to hypertension, conditions like diabetes that are associated with increased oxidative stress (increased formation of reactive oxygen species) independent of hypertension and glyco-oxidative modification of proteins (advanced glycation endproducts or AGEs) comprising the glomerular basement membrane can lead to extravasation of protein.
&lt;number&gt;
Imbalance in Factors Affecting Vascular Tone and Structure
Hypertension is associated with an altered balance in the elaboration or biological action of vasodilator and vasoconstrictor molecules. The production of vasodilators like prostacyclin and nitric oxide is diminished in hypertension while the production of catecholamines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), angiotensin II, endothelin-1 and other endothelium-derived constricting factors is either maintained or increased. Many of the molecules that augment vascular tone also have longer-term mitogenic effects on vascular smooth muscle and glomerular mesangial cells, activate adhesion molecules on leukocytes and platelets with resulting influx of these cells into the vessel wall, decrease apoptosis, and stimulate extracellular (interstitial and mesangial) matrix formation, whereas molecules that promote vasodilation tend to inhibit these processes.
References:
Campese VM. Neurogenic factors and hypertension in renal disease. Kidney Int 2000;57[Suppl 75]:S2-S6.
Asahi K, Ichimori K, Nakazawa H, Izuhara Y, Inagi R, Watanabe T, Miyata T, and Kurokawa K. Nitric oxide inhibits the formation of advanced glycation end products. Kidney Int 2000;58:1780-1787.
Klahr S and Morrissey JJ. The role of vasoactive compounds, growth factors and cytokines in the progression of renal disease. Kidney Int 2000; 57[Suppl 75]:S7-14.
Tharaux PL, Chatziantoniou C, Casellas D, Fouassier L, Ardaillou R, and Dussaule JC. Vascular endothelin-1 gene expression and synthesis and effect on renal type I collagen synthesis and nephroangiosclerosis during nitric oxide synthase inhibition in rats. Circulation 1999;99:2185-2191.
Leehey DJ, Singh AK, Alavi N, and Singh R. Role of angiotensin II in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2000;58[Suppl 77]:S93-S98.
Llinas MT, Gonzalez JD, Rodriguez F, Nava E, Taddei S, and Salazar FJ. Renal changes induced by nitric oxide and prostaglandin synthesis reduction: effects of trandolapril and verapamil. Hypertension 1998;31:657-664.
&lt;number&gt;
Fibrosis and Nephron Loss: A Renal Response to Injury
Angiotensin II stimulates both mesangial and renal tubular cells to produce transforming growth factor- (TGF- ). TGF- stimulates increased production of extracellular matrix proteins. Angiotensin II also stimulates the production of endothelin-1 (ET-1) from the endothelial cells of the arterioles. ET-1, in turn, also stimulates increased production of mesangial and interstitial matrix proteins. This process leads to loss of cellular elements, injury to renal tubules, fibrosis, and ultimately, loss of the entire nephron. In diabetics, increased glucose, via an increase in angiotensinogen, facilitates the production of more angiotensin II.
References:
Eddy AA. Molecular basis of renal fibrosis. Pediatr Nephrol 2000;15(3-4):290-301.
&lt;number&gt;
Lifestyle modifications can reduce cardiovascular risks and lower BP, have the potential for preventing hypertension, and—for those on drug therapy—may reduce the number and dosage of antihypertensive medications needed to manage hypertension.2 JNC VI recommends the following lifestyle changes for patients with hypertension2:
• Weight reduction if overweight: A body mass index of ≥27 is correlated with increased BP. Weight reduction enhances the effects of BP-lowering concurrent antihypertensive agents, and can significantly reduce cardiovascular risk factors (i.e. diabetes and dyslipidemia).
• Moderate consumption of alcohol: Excessive alcohol is a risk factor for high BP and can cause resistance to antihypertensive therapy. Hypertensive patients should limit daily intake to ≤1 oz. of ethanol; women and lighter weight people absorb more ethanol and should limit their intake to ≤0.5 oz.
• Moderate dietary sodium: A positive correlation between sodium intake and BP level has been demonstrated. Hypertensive patients should moderate sodium intake to no more than 100 mmol/day.
• Moderate intake of saturated fat and cholesterol: While these have had little effect on BP, both play key roles in the development of dyslipidemia, a major independent risk factor for CAD. Limited intake is, therefore, an important adjunct to antihypertensive treatment.
• Maintain adequate intake of potassium: Approximately 90 mmol/day is recommended to help protect against hypertension and improve BP control. Inadequate potassium intake may increase BP.
• Maintain adequate intake of calcium and magnesium: Low dietary intake of calcium and magnesium may be associated with higher BP, therefore, adequate intake of both are recommended to maintain general health.
• Increase physical activity: Regular (most days of the week) moderately intense physical activity (maintained for 30 to 40 minutes) can lower BP and reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease.
• Avoid tobacco use: Cigarette smoking is a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Cessation is recommended.
Slide Reference
The Sixth Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2413-2444.