Teaching critical thinking and reasoning to pupils. Teachers's skills matter.
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How do the teachers shapes the philosophical reasoning and critical thinking of pupils durign P4C workshops?
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Teaching critical thinking and reasoning to pupils. Teachers's skills matter.
- 1. Teaching critical thinking and philosophical reasoning to pupils: teacher’s skills matter. Gabriela Fiema Postdoctoral Fellow University of Montreal Canada
- 2. Critical thinking and reasoning • Stimulating youths’ critical thinking and reasoning is one of modern societies’ fundamental aims, in order to allow pupils and students to become committed and responsible citizens (UNESCO, 2011). 2
- 3. Teaching curricula • Moral and civic instruction (MEN, 2015). • Teaching the critical thinking (Daniel & Gagnon, 2011). 3
- 4. P4C • Critical thinking as a tool to counter non-reflective thinking and action (Lipman, 2003) • P4C as a means to teach critical thinking (Lipman, Sharp, & Oscanyan, 1980; Lipman, 2003). 4
- 6. P4C • P4C develop children’s CT and PHILOSOPHICAL REASONING (Fiema, 2014) • Reasonableness (Lipman, 2008) 6
- 7. Philosophical reasoning • Linking in the exchanges is necessary; • Use of words in different ways: – Purely referentially; – To illustrate an idea; – As a stage to a conceptual basis for reasoning (Fiema, 2014). 7
- 8. Collective reasoning • Specific reasoning during P4C : PHILOSOPHEMES • Collective philosophical reasoning 8
- 9. Philosopheme • philosophically conclusive piece of reasoning that delimits a conceptual field considered as having reached a sufficient degree of completion. • shared attempt to advance the definition of the referent through the interplay of ideas, and to tend towards meanings. • speech acts serve to validate or to invalidate, to support or to challenge. 9
- 10. CONSTRUCTION OF PHILOSOPHÈME Referent Concept Mind’s object • REFERENT : the topic from the beginning of the discussion • MIND’S OBJECT: is an attempt to carry the discussion forward starting a shared referent through new ideas • CONCEPT : is the result of the collective construction of the meaning of a shared referent through the production of mind’s objects 10
- 11. Philosophemes • Four types of philosophemes: –Conceptual –Assimilative –Cumulative –Embedded 11
- 13. Questioning Are teachers prepared to teach a philosophical reasoning and critical thinking to pupils? 13
- 14. Data Sources
- 15. Research context • The study took place in France, where participants were pupils from primary and secondary school grouped in 9 group-classes. • They were aged from 6 to 14 and had been all experimenting P4C at least one year. • Each group-class counted an average of 25 pupils. 15
- 16. Data • Data collection consisted of video recordings of a one-hour discussion in each of the 9 group-classes. • The recordings were integrally transcribed. • 19 transcriptions. 16
- 17. Teachers’ training • Two training sessions for teachers: – Presentation of traditional supports of Lipman; – Recommendations for managing P4C workshops. 17
- 18. Analysis • We analyzed the transcriptions with the aim to delimit philosophemes constructed by pupils. • This analysis took into consideration the teachers’ interventions and workshops animation. 18
- 19. Results
- 20. Teachers’ training • We found that pupils’ thinking abilities and their ability to construct philosophemes, depends on teachers’ running the P4C workshops. • The analysis of discussions assesses the necessity to form teachers in how to run the P4C workshops before they teach the thinking abilities to pupils. 20
- 21. Results Differences between group-classes in philosophememes’ construction. 21
- 22. 22 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 sample 1 sample 2 sample 3 sample 4 sample 5 conceptual cumul assimil embed
- 23. Conclusion
- 24. Conclusion • P4C workshops is meant to stimulate pupils’ philosophical reasoning and critical thinking. • Without a good stimulation from teachers, pupils are unlikely to have a fructified and efficient philosophical reasoning and CT. 24
- 25. Conclusion • In conclusion, our results assert that it is necessary to form teachers in running the P4C workshops. • The efforts to implement P4C in the classrooms are worthwhile, namely if we want our children to become critical and committed citizens. 25
- 27. References • Daniel, M.-F., & Gagnon, M. (2011). A developmental model of dialogical critical thinking in groups of pupils aged 4 to 12 years. Creative Education, 2(5), 418–428. • Fiema, G. (2014). Étude des mouvements de pensée collective lors des ateliers philosophiques au primaire et au collège. Extraction de philosophèmes en tant que structures formelles de raisonnement. Université Blaise Pacal Clermont II. • Lipman, M. (1995). A l’école de la pensée. Bruxelles: De Boeck Université. • Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Lipman, M. (2008). Renforcer le raisonnement et le jugement par la philosophie. In C. Leleux (Ed.), La philosophie pour enfants. Le modèle de Matthew Lipman en discussion. Bruxelles: De Boeck Université. • Lipman, M., Sharp, A., & Oscanyan, F. (1980). Philosophy in the classroom. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. • Nationale, M. de l’Éducation. Programme d’enseignement moral et civique, Pub. L. No. 12-6-2015 - J.O. du 21-6-2015 (2015). France: Journal Officiel. • UNESCO. (2011). Réunion régionale de haut niveau sur l’enseignement de la philosophie en Europe et Amérique du Nord. Milan. 27
- 28. French educational system • Major transformations in educational system France • Changes in teachers’ education • Changes in curricula 28
- 29. Moral and Civic Instruction • Secondly, the directives for teaching thinking abilities seem not sufficient to form CT and philosophical reasoning. In Moral and Civic Instruction pupils are further expected to learn the theoretical knowledge about moral values than encourage to think in an autonomous way about those values. 29
- 30. Construction of philosopheme The philosopheme is constructed around a concept; it exploits ideas forming a chain of discursive entities that are extensions of the starting referent. The philosopheme comprises argumentation and abstract reasoning. It is characterized by lexical shifts, repeated lexical items and new lexical items. 30
- 32. Exemple • Questions provoquant les cumulatifs • Questions provoquant les assimilatifs 32
Notes de l'éditeur
- UNESCO recommends stimulating ….
- In this exposé I will present the results from a reaserch conducted in France. In teaching curricula in France, the Moral and Civic Instruction (MEN, 2015), is considered as one of major curriculum that aims at fostering/rising the critical thinking (CT) of the pupils (Daniel & Gagnon, 2011). Here, I use the definition of critical thinking of Daniel and Gagnon, which considers four thinking abilities; logical thinking, creative thinking, responsibe thinking and metacognitive thinking as components of critical thinking.
- According to Lipman, CT is a tool to counter non-reflective thinking and action, as well as a tool to select the most relevant information with regard to the objective pursued (Lipman, 2003). Critical thinking is taught during P4C workshops and so one of objectives of P4C is to stimulate in youth a complex or critical thinking as early as possible in order to improve the quality of individual and social experience (Lipman, Sharp, & Oscanyan, 1980; Lipman, 2003).
- Most of the research on CPI has studied the impact of this type of discussion on critical thinking, and on the skills assumed to be required for this type of activity, such as decentring, argumentation, conceptualisation, abstraction and creativity (Auriac-Peyronnet & Daniel, 2002; Daniel, 2005; Tozzi, 2007; Auriac-Slusarczyk & Daniel, 2009; Auriac, 2007). In recent years, research has shifted its focus away from testing towards an analysis of the productions obtained through CPI. Through case studies, researchers have sought to explicitate the process by which reflexivity develops (Tozzi, 2007), and more generally to characterise the thought movements that are specific to the philosophical nature of the discussions held (Cappeau & Auriac-slusarczyk, 2013; Daniel & Auriac, 2011). In Fiema (2014), we established that P4C workshops develop children’s philosophical reasoning. Our approach to reasoning requires parenthesis. Like Lipman, we are interested in reasonableness. For Lipman, the term reasonableness supersedes that of reasoning (Lipman, 1995, 2005). The main concern for Lipman, and for those following him, was to emphasise the dynamics of reasoning, i.e. the activity at the core of reasoning, rather than the result. Reasonableness denotes the process at work that links reasoning to argumentation, in the sense that the process tends towards meaning (Lipman, 2005). It is this tension, this thought movement, that is important, as in François (1980).
- For reasoning to be brought into play, neither a strong interest in the subject concerned nor a smooth flow of dialogue is sufficient (François, 1980). There can be a confrontation on a shared theme supported by a discourse or by experience, but the interlocutors may remain parallel and never meet. A qualitative degree of linking in the exchanges is necessary. Repeats, rewording and additions to a thematic series of aspects or viewpoints are a minimal condition without which no philosophical argument is possible. The interlocutor’s discourse must be integrated in the speaker’s. All discourse is bounded – in particular through the constraints of the institutional setting and the context of interaction (Vion, 1992) – in referential fields: we talk of or about something. Words can be used (i) purely referentially, to illustrate an idea or (iv) as a conceptual basis for reasoning. The shift in use of a word through these different levels –referent, idea and concept – proceeds through successive stages. This conceptual framework was tested on 19 CPIs (Fiema, 2014).
- Recent research (Fiema, 2014) shows that the children’s reasoning during the P4C activity is specific and is termed philosophemes which isn’t a new term. We borrowed it form Aristotle. In our research, philosophemes are specific in their collaborative and collective construction. In P4C workshops, the collective philosophical reasoning, as a cognitive process, can be constructed in different ways. This type of conversational context is conducive to the emergence of thought movements and reasoning patterns characteristic of CPI. Surprising though this may seem, the age of the pupils is not an important consideration from our point of view. Pupils can make use of the CPI to deploy their reasoning irrespective of their level of educational attainment.
- A philosopheme is a philosophically conclusive piece of reasoning that delimits a conceptual field considered as having reached a sufficient degree of completion. It is characterized by a shared attempt to advance the definition of the shared referent through the interplay of ideas, and to tend towards meaning. Thus the speech acts that occur, in addition to their informative purpose, serve to validate or to invalidate, to support or to challenge. The philosopheme is constructed around a concept; it exploits ideas forming a chain of discursive entities that are extensions of the starting referent. The philosopheme comprises argumentation and abstract reasoning. It is characterized by lexical shifts, repeated lexical items and new lexical items.
- The construction of philosopheme can be schematized as follow: REFERENT is the representation of an experience, something in the world that is referred to by a linguistic sign. A referent can refer to different representations. These representations will be brought together during the interlocution. A referent arises from explicit sharing ideas (repeat or synonym), which sets, over a certain number of speaking turns, the referential basis for the collectively produced discourse. The most often the referent is contained in the subject of discussion : Example: What is the point of sharing? MIND’S OBJECT is an attempt to carry the discussion forward starting from a shared referent. The ideas that are produced will form the material from which the referent will give rise to a concept. Example: Sharing makes happy The mind’s object is taken up several times in the discussion and validated or invalidated by the interlocutors and can became a stage to create a concept. CONCEPT is the result of the collective construction of the meaning of a shared referent through the production of mind’s objects. Example: Sharing = lending
- Those ingredients are the basis of every philosophical reasoning but the way they occur are different and we observe four main types of philosophemes: conceptual, assimilative, cumulative and embedded. Each of them could be accomplished (contains a concept) or not accomplished (without a concept). The teacher has a core role in philosophemes’ construction: they can influence which philosophemes’ type are constructed.
- Cumultative philosopheme is constucted by ideas’ or mind objects’ accumulation which might be synthetized at the end. The construction is build by lexical shifts, repetitions, personal exemples. The cumulative philosopheme come after more often after a specific question of teacher, the more often its : can you give the personal exemple. In yellow, the succession of mind objects On the right, the stages for concept construction. Le Philosophème cumulatif : ce philosophème se construit par une accumulation d’idées qui aboutissent parfois à une synthèse conceptuelle. Ce philosophème est composé d’un empilement d’idées pour définir le référent sans aboutir à un concept. La construction est toujours constituée de reprises, de glissements lexicaux, de renouvellements du lexique et aussi de répétitions avec des apports personnels. Il faut un ajustement lexical et conceptuel pour parler d'accumulation collective, une simple répétition sans ajout personnel n’y contribue pas.
- To teach CT and philosophical reasoning to pupils, teachers need to think critically and to be able to have a philosophical reasoning and detect it while pupils discussing.
- 19 transcriptions
- It may seem inconceivable but in France, teachers can run P4C workshops without any training. The teachers who run the CPI had undergone training in the principles of regulation of a CPI. This training was in two phases. In the first phase, the traditional supports of Lipman (1995) used to elicit philosophical issues from the pupils themselves were presented. In the second phase, recommendations for managing discussions in the CPI were produced, such as favoring curiosity, looking more closely at conceptually loaded words, reword if possible, making sure not to thwart discussion, making three mini-recaps during the discussion, and not being judgemental. In practice, the teacher, upstream of each CPI, set in place a session devoted to the production by the pupils of several philosophical questions (generally at least one per pupil) using children’s books as a support and to trigger questioning. At the end of the session, a question was chosen democratically by the class (e.g. Why are there poor people? What is a leader for? Why do people quarrel? Is it good to make fun? What is the point of sharing?).
- We analyzed the verbatim with the aim to delimit philosophemes constructed by pupils with the method and indication that I discribed. This analysis took into consideration the teachers’ interventions and workshops animation.
- For example, the cumulative philosopheme is the one that develop the less pupils’ CT. Its’ construction by the group-class depends on teachers’ animation and the questions they ask.
- Données : 10 DVP du niveau collège : Amour, Capitaine, Courage, Apparence, Handicap, Beauté, Critique, Conflits, Règles, Intelligence Animale. Nous avons créé les échantillons suivants : Échantillon 1 : Les DVP Amour, Capitaine, Courage animées par les deux mêmes enseignantes, la CPE et l’infirmière du collège ; Échantillon 2 : Les DVP Apparence et Handicap animées par la professeure de français ; Échantillon 3 : Les DVP Beauté et Critique animées par la professeure de SVT et l’infirmière du collège ; Échantillon 4 : Les DVP Conflits et Règles animées par la professeure de français et la professeure documentaliste ; Échantillon 5 : La DVP Intelligence Animale animée par la professeure documentaliste. Nous avons comptabilisé le nombre de philosophèmes produits à l’heure dans ces 5 échantillons.
- P4C workshops is meant to stimulate pupils’ philosophical reasoning and critical thinking. Without a good stimulation from teachers, pupils are unlikely to have a fructified and efficient philosophical reasoning and CT. Exemple of group that whished stop the workshops, one of reasons was the bad animation.
- In that trend, for a couple of years, French education system has been deeply changing. Since 2008, the candidates to become a teacher in primary, secondary and high school need a master degree instead of a bachelor. Depuis quelques années des transformations majeures dans l’éducation en France s’opèrent. Changement de formation pour les futurs enseignants : désormais il faut un diplôme de master, 5 années d’études universitaires pour pouvoir accéder au concours de recrutement des professeurs alors qu’avant 2008 il suffisait d’avoir une licence = baccalauréat. Changements dans les programmes d’enseignement réguliers depuis 2005.
- The philosopheme is a collective discursive construction that corresponds to a process that can translate “highs” and “lows” in the reasoning. A “high” is when a philosopheme is in action, and brings out ideas and conceptualisation. A “low” is when the philosophical reasoning comes to an end.
- Unbalance Le Philosophème assimilatif : c'est un philosophème qui apparaît suite à un déséquilibre (après une question provocatrice de l’animatrice ou une idée perturbatrice d’un élève par exemple) ; est une tentative de rééquilibrage. Les enfants captent le déséquilibre pour tenter de rééquilibrer et d’assimiler la cassure. Par exemple, après avoir construit une définition communément acceptée du référent de départ, l’animatrice pose une question ou donne un exemple qui invalide cette définition. Les élèves doivent redéfinir le référent invalidé.