Economic Notes

1. Economic Issues and Concepts
Chapter 1
LIPSEY & CHRYSTAL
ECONOMICS 12e

2. Learning Outcomes
• Modern market economy uses price signals to
solve the complex problems involved in using
resources to produce goods and services that
people want.
• The choice between competing demands for
scarce resources.

3. Learning Outcomes
• Interaction between production, employment, and
consumption decisions.
• Market economy generally delivers outcomes
desired by consumers.
• Governments step in when markets fail to
produce results that are regarded as successful.

4. ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS
The Complexity of the Modern Economy
• A market economy is self-organizing in the sense that
when individuals act independently to pursue their own
self-interest, responding to prices set on open markets,
they produce co-ordinated and relatively efficient
economic activity.

5. ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS
Resources and Scarcity
• Scarcity is a fundamental problem faced by all
economies because not enough resources - land, labour,
capital, and entrepreneurship - are available to produce
all the goods and services that people would like to
consume.
• Scarcity makes it necessary to choose among alternative
possibilities: what products will be produced and in what
quantities.

6. • The concept of opportunity cost emphasises scarcity and
choice by measuring the cost of obtaining a unit of one
product in terms of the number of units of other products
that could have been obtained instead.
• A production-possibility boundary shows all of the
combinations of goods that can be produced by an
economy whose resources are fully employed.
• Movement from one point to another on the boundary
shows a shift in the amounts of goods being produced,
which requires a reallocation of resources.
ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS

7. Who Makes the Choices and How
• Modern economies are based on the specialization and
division of labour, which necessitate the exchange of goods
and services.
• Exchange takes place in markets and is facilitated by the use
of money.
• Much of economics is devoted to a study of how markets work
to co-ordinate millions of individual, decentralized decisions.
• Three pure types of economy can be distinguished:
traditional, command, and free market.
• In practice, all economies are mixed economies in that their
economic behaviour responds to mixes of tradition,
government command, and price incentives.
ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS

8. • Governments play an important part in modern mixed
economies.
• They create and enforce important background
institutions such as private property.
• They intervene to increase economic efficiency by
correcting situations where markets do not effectively
perform their co-ordinating functions.
• They also redistribute income and wealth in the
interests of equity.
ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS

9. Unattainable combinations
Production possibility
boundary
Quantity of public sector goods
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods
A Production-Possibility Boundary
0
Attainable
combinations

10. Production possibility
boundary
Quantity of public sector goods
c0
g00
a
Attainable
combinations
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods
Unattainable combinations
A Production-Possibility Boundary

11. Production possibility
boundary
c1 b
•d
c
c0
Attainable
combinations
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods
0
a
g0 g1
Quantity of public sector goods
Unattainable combinations
A Production-Possibility Boundary

12. Production possibility
boundary
c0
g0
c1 b
•d
c
g1
∆C
∆G
Attainable
combinations
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods
Quantity of public sector goods
0
a
Unattainable combinations
A Production-Possibility Boundary

13. A production-possibility boundary
• The quantity of public sector goods produced is measured along the
horizontal axis.
• The quantity of private sector goods is measured along the vertical
axis.
• Any point on the diagram indicates some amount of each kind of
good produced.
• The production-possibility boundary separates the attainable
combinations, such as a, b, and c, from unattainable combinations,
such as d.
• Points a and b represent efficient uses of society’s resources.
• Point c represents either an inefficient use of resources or a failure
to use all the resources that are available.

14. • The boundary is negatively sloped because in a fully employed
economy more of one good can be produced only if resources are
freed by producing less of other goods.
• Moving from point a (with coordinates c0 and g0) to point b (with
coordinates c1 and g1) implies producing an additional amount of
public sector goods, indicated by ∆G in the figure
• The opportunity cost of this increase in G is a reduction in private
sector goods by the amount indicated by ∆C.
A production-possibility boundary

15. The effect of economic growth on the
production possibility boundary
• Economic growth shifts the boundary outwards.
• Some combinations of goods that were
previously unattainable become attainable.

16. Quantity of public sector goods
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods
0
The Effect of Economic Growth on the Production-Possibility Bound
Production possibility
boundary before growth

17. Production possibility
boundary after growth
Quantity of public sector goods
0
a
b
d
Production possibility
boundary before growth
Quantityofprivatesectorgoods The Effect of Economic Growth on the
Production-Possibility Boundary

18. services
services
Factor
Goods Market
Factor Market
Individuals
(consumers)
Firms
(producers)
Goods and
The Circular Flow of Income and
Expenditure

19. services
goods and Services
factor Services
services
Payments for
Factor
The Circular Flow of Income and
Expenditure
Goods Market
Factor
Market
Individuals
(consumers)
Firms
(producers)
Payments for
Goods and

20. The circular flow of income and expenditure
• The yellow line shows the flows of goods and services while the
white line shows the payments made to purchase these.
• Factor services flow from individuals who own the factors
(including their own labour) through factor markets to firms who
use them to make goods and services (yellow arrow).
• The goods and services then flow through goods markets to those
who consume them (yellow arrow).
• Money payments flow through factor markets from firms to
individuals (white arrow).
• When individuals spend this income buying goods and services,
money flows through goods markets back to producers (white
arrow).

21. Absolute Advantage
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Sweaters Suits
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
10

22. Absolute Advantage
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Time divided equally
between producing the
two products
Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
10
50 20
200 5
250 25

23. Absolute Advantage
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Time divided equally
between producing the
two products
Full Specialization
Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
10
50 20 - 40
200 5 400 -
250 25 400 40

24. Absolute advantage
• The first columns show that, working full time on his own,
Peter can produce either 100 sweaters or 40 suits per year,
whereas Jane can produce 400 sweaters or 10 suits.
• Thus Jane has an absolute advantage in producing sweaters
and Jacob has an absolute advantage in producing suits.
• The second columns show the outputs if they both spend
half their time producing each commodity.
• The third columns show the results when Peter specializes in
suits, producing 40 of them, and Jane specializes in
sweaters, producing 400.
• Sweaters production rises from 250 to 400, while suits
production goes from 25 to 40.

25. Comparative Advantage
48
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
Sweaters Suits

26. Comparative Advantage
48 24
44
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Time divided equally
between producing the
two products
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
50 20
200
250
Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits

27. Comparative Advantage
48 24 12
44 300 52
Time spent fully
producing one
or the other
Time divided equally
between producing the
two products
Full Specialization
Peter
Jane
Total
either
100
400
either
or
40
or
50 20 - 40
200 300
250
Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits Sweaters Suits

28. Comparative advantage
• The first columns in the table show that Jane is more productive than
Peter in both suits and sweaters.
• Compared with Peter, Jane is 400 per cent more efficient at
producing sweaters and 20 per cent more efficient at producing suits.
• The second columns give the outputs when Peter and Jane each
divide their time equally between the two products.
• It is possible to increase the combined production of both
commodities by having Jane increase her production of sweaters and
Peter increase his production of suits.
• The third column gives an example in which Peter specializes fully in
suits production and Jane spends 25 per cent of her time on suits
and 75 per cent on sweaters.
• Total production of sweaters rises from 250 to 300, while total
production of suits goes from 44 to 52.

29. • This example is only an illustration. The principles
can be generalized in the following way.
• Absolute efficiencies are not necessary for there to be
gains from specialization.
• Gains from specialization occur whenever there are
differences in the margin of advantage one producer
enjoys over another in various lines of production.
• Total production can always be increased when each
producer becomes more specialized in the production
of the commodity in which it has a comparative
advantage.
Comparative advantage