This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses definitions of educational psychology over time and defines it today as the study of learning and development in educational settings. Major theories of learning covered include classical and operant conditioning, and theories are discussed like Thorndike's law of effect and trial-and-error learning. Student variables that influence learning are also introduced, like individual versus group learning styles. Theories and concepts are explained through examples and implications for teaching are outlined.
1. Educational Psychology
Psychology of Learning
Higher National Diploma in Psychology
Department of Developmental and Cognitive Psychology
Kumari Karandawala
BA Psychology (Hons) (US)
MSc.(MSSW) In Social Enterprise Management
and International Social Work / Development
2. Interesting takes on what Educational
Psychology is over the years…
• According to Crow and Crow, Educational Psychology describes and
explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old
age.
• Skinner defines Educational Psychology as “that branch of Psychology
which deals with teaching and learning”
• Stephen – “Educational Psychology is the systematic study of the
educational growth and development of a child.”
• Judd – “Educational Psychology is the Science which explains the changes
that take place in the individuals as they pass through the various stages
of development.”
• Peel- “Educational Psychology is the science of Education.”
3. Today…
• Educational Psychology is:
- The STUDY OF HOW WE LEARN AND DEVELOP IN
EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS such as schools, institutions
- It considers the EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL
INTERVENTIONS
- It is also about THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING
- And the SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SCHOOLS AS
ORGANIZATIONS
4. Contents for Psychology of Learning
Part I:
• Main Characteristics of Learning
• Theories of Learning (Classical Conditioning, Operant
conditioning, Social Learning,):
• Law of Learning
• Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory of Learning
• Educational Implications of Trial and Error
Theory
• Kohler’s Insight Learning Theory
5. Contents for Student Variables in
Learning Part II:
• Individual Learning
• Co-Operative Learning
• Competitive Learning
• The effectiveness of sex-related /gender
differences in learning style
• the effectiveness of mastery – orientedness
• Failure – avoiding styles
6. Main Characteristics of Learning
• Two main assumptions in formal education
systems:
• A) Students retain knowledge and skills
acquired in school
• B) Students will apply knowledge in situations
outside the classroom
• Question: Are these assumptions accurate?
• Answer: What does the research say?
7. Research says…
• university students who took a child
development course and obtained high
grades, when tested ten years later, showed
that average retention scores of about 30%.
• In contrast those who obtained lower grades
showed average retention scores of about
20%
8. All learners are not equal!
• Variety of sizes, shapes and from many
cultural backgrounds
• …some will learn through text, visual support
and images
• …some will intuitively grasp quickly while
others will prefer to see a strong sequential
and more reflective path.
9. One model of learning styles says that there are
…
• Four learning styles:
• Attending (to the learning) – paying attention using one’s telescopic (focused and
concentrated) or wide-angled (broad scanning) learning style
• Translating (the learning) – taking into account one’s preferences for receiving
learning as a dependent learner (lecture-style), collaborative learner (with others),
and/or an autonomous learner (self-led)
• Relating (the learning to what already knows) – processing information using a
variety of channels (visual, auditory and kinesthetic)
• Understanding – putting the learning into perspective using a dominant style,
which is either global or analytical
• http://blog.readytomanage.com/four-different-learning-styles
10. Theories of Learning
• 1) Behavioral Perspective
• 2) Cognitive Perspective
• 3)Developmental Perspective
• 4)Social Cognitive Perspective
• 5)Constructivist Perspective
• The above comprises learning and cognition.
11. Theories of Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Social Learning
What principle do these theories fall under?
13. Operant Conditioning
• Founded on Edward L. Thorndike’s (1874 – 1949)
research of Cats an puzzle boxes.
– Thorndike founded instrumental learning at the same
time as Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning.
– Thorndike’s research was based on his dissertation.
– His research was influential: showed that animals can
form new associations and described innovative
apparatus for the observation of animal learning.
– He demonstrated the use of such apparatus in
systematic laboratory research.
14. ?Classical conditioning Vs.
Instrumental Learning
One very important difference is:
• in classical conditioning, the learned response (or
conditioned response - the CR) is elicited
involuntarily by a stimulus that comes before it
(the CS)
• in instrumental learning, the learned response
(the instrumental response) is emitted
voluntarily because of its consequence — that is,
because of a stimulus (a reward) that follows it
15. ?Classical conditioning Vs.
Instrumental Learning
• Thorndike’s method shows that the type of
learning demonstrated by the cats is similar
to, but also different from, classical
conditioning
• The most important similarity is that, in both
classical conditioning and instrumental
learning, subjects learn to associate paired
events.
16. Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory of
learning
Thorndike observed that cats would learn to escape from puzzle boxes
chiefly by trial and error i.e. the cats learned how to escape from the
box through a series of trials and errors
If an action brings a reward, that reward becomes stamped into the
mind. Eg. Cat and the puzzle box the reward is the treat/food
placed outside the puzzle box.
Remember, the cats did not immediately acquire the desirable escape
behavior but gradually increased their ability to do so.
Video: Thorndike:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzNIV0mTROU
18. Educational Implications of Trial and
Error Theory
1) Effect of Motivation
- This is most important. Learning requires a motivated
child
2) Exercise Patience
- Learning is gradual and patience must be exercised
3) Place of exercise
- Learning must be exercised provide repeat drill tests
4) Make Learning Meaningful
5) We must learn basic things needed for it in any learning.
6) This theory has drawn our attention to the principle of
learning by doing. You will learn only when you do a thing.
19. Thorndike – Law of Effect
Any response that led to desirable consequences was more
likely to occur again
Any behavior that led to undesirable consequences was less
likely to be repeated again
This principle is The Law of Effect.
Behavior changes consequences The Law of Effect.
(See video at: http://sccpsy101.com/home/chapter-
4/section-15/)
22. Law of Contiguity
• Says that associations between the responses
and consequences have to be made close
together in time for learning to occur.
• This applies to Classical and Operant
Conditioning.
23. Thorndike’s Law of Learning and
Educational Implications
• Basically a number of factors must be present for learning
to take place:
• 1) Law of Readiness
Implication: Task started from the easier aspect to the
more difficult and will benefit the more learning
challenged children
• 2) The Law of Exercise
-Also known as the law of use and disuse (connections or
bonds in brain cortex Thorndike’s S – R bond theory)
Implication: The child rectifies the writing after committing
mistakes
24. Thorndike’s Law of Learning and
Educational Implications
• 3) Law of Effect
Implication: More emphasis laid on motivation.
Thus students should be properly motivated for a
lesson before starting the lesson.
25. Thorndike – Law of Learning –
Educational Implications
• 5 subordinate laws:
• 4) Law of multiple response
Implication: Practice the main feature of Trial &
Error. Practice helps in reducing errors
committed by the child
• 5) The Law of Set or Attitude
Implication: Habit forming. Habits are formed as
a result of repetition. The wrong habits may be
modified and the good habits strengthened
26. Thorndike – Law of Learning –
Educational Implications
• 6) Pre-potency of Elements
Implication:The effects of rewards and punishment
also affect the learning of the child. Emphasizes the
use of reward and punishment by the teach in the
classroom
• 7) Law of Response by Analogy
Implication: Helpful in changing the behavior of
delinquent children. But not clear how?
27. Thorndike – Law of Learning –
Educational Implications
• 8) The Law of Associative Shifting
Implication:The teacher can control the negative
emotions of children such as anger, jealousy etc.
Implications are interchangeable with above :
• 9) Teacher can improve teaching methods. Observe
teaching methods on the students and make necessary
changes as required.
• 10) the theory emphasizes oral drill practice. A teacher
should conduct oral drill of the taught contents which
would help in strengthening the learning more.
28. Kohler’s Insight Learning Theory
• Kohler proposed that insight follows from the characteristics
of objects under consideration
• His theory suggested that learning could occur by "sudden
comprehension" as opposed to gradual understanding
• This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs,
no review, training, or investigation are necessary
• Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another
person
Video: Insight Learning: Chimpanzee Problem Solving
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPz6uvIbWZE
29.
30. Educational Psychology
Student Variables in Learning
Higher National Diploma in Psychology
Department of Developmental and Cognitive Psychology
Kumari Karandawala
BA Psychology (Hons) (US)
MSc.(MSSW) In Social Enterprise Management
and International Social Work / Development
31. "Education is an admirable thing, but it is well to remember
from time to time that nothing that is worth knowing can be
taught." - Oscar Wilde
• A person who is severely impaired never knows his hidden
sources of strength until he is treated like a normal human
being and encouraged to shape his own life.
• —Helen Keller, American author, lecturer, and blind and deaf
activist (1880–1968)
32.
33. Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental
Learning
• The degree to which a response is voluntary is best
represented on a continuum:
Involuntary <—————————————–> Voluntary
34. Classical conditioning (CR) Vs.
Instrumental Learning
• A SECOND important difference between classical
conditioning and instrumental learning involves the
nature of the association formed in each:
• in classical conditioning, two stimuli are associated
— the CS is associated with the UCS after they have
been paired repeatedly.
35. Classical conditioning (CR) Vs.
Instrumental Learning
• in instrumental learning, a response is
associated with a stimulus that follows it —
the instrumental response is associated with
the reward after they have been paired
repeatedly.
36. Operant Conditioning - Skinner
• Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a
new term into the Law of Effect -
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced
tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened);
behavior which is not reinforced tends to die
out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).
37. Operant Conditioning – Skinner
• More productive to study observable behavior
rather than internal mental events.
• Believed that the best way to understand behavior
is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences He called this approach operant
conditioning.
• Based on the work of Thorndike’s theory - “The
Law of Effect” basically means…
38. Operant Conditioning – Skinner
If the consequences of a behavior are
pleasant, the behavior will likely increase.
40. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Skinner identified three types of responses or operant
that can follow behavior.
• • Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
• • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• • Punishers: Response from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
41. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Positive Reinforcement (+): the addition of something
pleasant to increase a behavior. If I want to to study more and
give you chocolate for studying, the chocolate is the positive
reinforcement because it is pleasant and meant to increase
your behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement (-): the removal of something
unpleasant to increase a behavior. If you have a headache
and I want you to study, I may give you a panadol. The
panadol is the negative reinforcement because it is removal
something unpleasant (headache) and increasing your
behavior (studying).
42. Skinner – 3 types of Operant
• Positive Punishment: the addition of something
unpleasant to make a behavior less likely. I want
you to stop talking in class, so I flick you with a
rubber band every time you open your mouth.
• Omission Training (or negative punishment): the
removal of something pleasant to decrease a
behavior. Your Mom does not let you watch
Gray's Anatomy because you swore at the dinner
table.
43. Reinforces and Punishers
• Watch pigeon video at
http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-
conditioning.html
44. Acquisition and Shaping
• Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning
something.
• In operant conditioning, acquisition is the formation of a
new response tendency.
• Procedures used to establish a habit or tendency to emit
a voluntary operant response are different from those
used to create a reflexive conditioned response.
Operant responses are typically established through a
gradual process called Shaping.*
• Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm
45. Acquisition and Shaping
Shaping Behaviors
• Shaping is the reinforcement of closer and closer
approximations of a desired response.
• It is necessary when an organism does not, on its
own, emit the desired response.
47. • 1) What is another name for Social Learning
Theory?
A. Social Cognitive Learning
B. Behavioral learning Theory
C. Sociocultural Theory
D. Operant Conditioning
48. • 4) Which of the following statements are true?
• A. Classical conditioning regulates reflexive,
involuntary responses exclusively.
• B. Operant conditioning regulates voluntary
responses exclusively.
• C. The distinction between the two types of
conditioning is not absolute , with both types
jointly and interactively governing some aspects
of behavior
• D. A and B.
49. • 5) Positive reinforcement ________ the rate
of responding; negative reinforcement
______the rate of responding.
• A. increases; decreases
• B. decreases; increases
• C. increases; increases
• D. decreases; decreases
50. • 6) Watson & Rayner (1920) conditioned “Little
Albert” to fear white rats by banging a hammer
on a steel bar as the child played with a white rat.
Later, it was discovered that Albert feared not
only white rats but white stuffed toys and Santa’s
beard as well. Albert’s fear of these other objects
can be attributed to:
• A. The law of effect
• B. Stimulus generalization
• C. stimulus discrimination
• D. an overactive imagination
51. References
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental
Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.
• Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.
• Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G.
Seiler.
• McLeod, S. A. (2007). B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning. Retrieved
from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
• http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditionin
g.htm
• Source:
http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/
social_learning_theory.htm
• Weiten, Wayne (2005). Psychology: Themes and Variations –
Sixth Edition.
1) Primarily Ed. Psychology is CONCERNED with how children learn and develop. Especially focusing on gifted or specially abled children or differently abled children in mainstream education.
3) Ed. Psychology is important to a number of specialties in education such as instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education, classroom management.
IT DRAWS FROM AND ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO COGNITIVE SCIENCE and the learning sciences.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY HAS RESTRUCTURED THE CURRICULUMS FOR HOW WE APPROACH CHILD education
Now, SCHOOL CURRICULUMS ARE NOW MORE CHILD CENTERED AND MORE PROGRESSIVE BECAUSE THEY UTILIZE PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT.
There is ATTENTION TO FACTORS SUCH AS
- THE NEED TO PROVIDE SUBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES IN THE CURRICULUM IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN,
THEIR DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS,
LEARNING PATTERNS
And SOCIETAL NEEDS
Well, what has research found?
Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long-term retention is strongly dependent on how well a student applied themselves in school.
The problem is that there is much less DATA on how much knowledge acquired in school is used by students in tasks or jobs outside the formal educational environment.
Psychologists debate as to whether there is enough evidence or data as to how much knowledge acquired in educational settings are utilized in students’ life after school.
As the main characteristics of learning are debatable why do you think it is important for psychologists to understand how students in an educational setting learn?
Why are learning style models important?
Well, WHILE THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATION MODELS TO HONE IN ON DIFFERENT STYLES OFLEARNING, IT IS EXTREMELY HELPFUL TO KNOW WHAT PEOPLE’S GENERAL PREFERENCES OR NATURAL LEARNING BIASES LIE.
There are several ideas and perspectives in the field of educational psychology which the theories of learning are formed and contested. These include….
For the purposes of our lecture we are going to concentrate on classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.
Would someone tell me what is the commonality between each of these theories?
Well, they are all behaviorist principles. Behaviorist principles focus on observable, stimulus and response interactions between the environment and the individual.
The belief was that learning by association from the environment.
They developed therefore the theories of classical and operant conditioning to explain how this interactive experience, between behavior and the environment, could change observable behavior without having to delve into the cognitive workings of the mind.
Thorndike’s research was based on (Thorndike 1911), the ability of cats learning to escape from puzzle boxes.
Cats were placed within a box and had to learn to do one or more of the following things in order to escape; they had to push a lever, pull on a wire loop, pull on a string, turn a “button”, lift a latch, push aside a door. In some experiments, the cat had to perform two or three of these actions sequentially before the door would open.
In classical conditioning, the development of an association between the CS and UCS is indicated by the development of a reflexive (involuntary) response, the CR.
Thus, conditioned responses generally are mostly or fully involuntary responses .
On the other hand in instrumental learning, subjects learn that, when placed within a particular situation, the performance of a voluntary (non-reflexive) response to the situation is followed by a rewarding (or punishing) consequence. Thus, instrumental responses often are mostly or fully voluntary, although there are cases in which one of the other types of responses better reflects the situation.
A recent study conducted by a Canadian doctoral student (Andree-Ann Cyr – University of Toronto) and in collaboration with senior author and scientist Dr. Nicole Anderson found that older people benefit more from learning via trial and error, than younger people.
In two different studies, researchers compared the benefits for memory of trial-and-error learning with errorless learning in memory exercises with groups of healthy young and older adults.
The young adults were in their 20s and the older adults' average age was 70.
There results showed that older people benefited two and a half times better than younger people and constitutes a . very interesting discovery to anyone who ever said you cannot teach an old dog new tricks.
Previously rehabilitation clinics thought that "errorless" learning was most beneficial for older adults and as a result prevented residencies and clinics not using trial and error learning with older people but instead “errorless” learning.
Contrary to prior belief, older people are also happy to learn by trial and error.
Any social psychological reasons as to why you think this may be the case?
1. Effect of Motivation
It is the most important factor in all learning. Motivate the child.
2. Exercise Patience
Learning by Trial and Error theory is always gradual. The teacher must exercise patience with the child if the child does not show any progress immediately in any learning situation.
3. Place of Exercise.
Exercise has its own place in education and learning. Repeat; give a sufficient drill in some tests.
4. Make Learning Meaningful
Effect of belonging to a thing should be exploited.
5. We must learn basis things needed for it in any learning.
6. This theory has drawn our attention to the principle of learning by doing. You will learn only when you do a thing.
If Thorndike’s research was based on the law of effect and consequences then Skinner’s was based on Reinforcement.
1) Readiness:
Also referred to ac the law of action tendency or the tendency for action. Which says that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude.
i.e. the subject must be prepared to learn for otherwise learning cannot be instilled into the subject.
2) Exercise:
basically, the more you practice a behavior the stronger you are at it. The less you practice the weaker your behavior.
EXAMPLES: Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.
IMPLICATIONS:
1) According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.
2) A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.
3) Effect:
basically means the way a subject is left feeling after practice and trial. If you feel satisfied and are internally assigning your practice with a stamp of approval, then you are more likely to repeat the behavior due to the effect. i.e., the greater the satisfaction, the stronger will be the motive to learn.
The topic at hand therefore must be attractive and interesting to the student. It is the teacher’s job to make it attractive to the student
Implication:
3) In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated.
4) Multiple response – basically states that a subject tries a number of different approaches before hitting upon the successful response. Without this sort of multiple response, the correct response may never be elicited. EXAMPLE: Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.
Law of set or attitude - Refers to the set and or attitude of the subject which will determine not only what subject will do but also what will satisfy or annoy him.
i.e. learning is more effective if the subject is set to learn. – an informal reference to subject’s mindset.
Implications:
4) Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
5) Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened
6) Pre-Potency lf Elements - here the learner reacts selectively to the important or selective information in the session and neglects other information which may be irrelevant. This is particularly helpful if subject matter needs to be learned quickly.
This also allows for analytical and insightful learning in dealing with only the essential elements of subject matter.
Law of response by analogy - the individual makes use of old information or acquisitions while learning a new situation. Tendency is to compare and utilize common elements which existed in a past situation. EXAMPLES: The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a balance and controlling the handle helps in steering the car.
IMPLICATIONS:
6) The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher.
7) The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.
Associative Shifting - we may get a response, which the learner is capable of, associated with any other situation he is sensitive to. EXAMPE: Thorndike basically illustrated this by getting a cat to stand up on its hind legs to the basic command of “Stand up”. He did this by dangling a fish before the cat and commanding the cat to stand up. He did this several times and after a number of trials commanded the cat to stand up without displaying the fish. This command was sufficient to get the cat to stand up.
IMPLICATION:
8) With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc.
9) The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required.
10) The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.
Wolfgang Kohler (1887 - 1967)
Insight Learning
Biography
Kohler was born in Estonia, and earned his Ph.D from the University of Berlin in 1909 on psycho-acoustics. From 1910 to 1913 he collaborated with Wertheimer and Koffka, working on the foundations of what would become known as "Gestalt" theory. From 1913 to 1920, which encompassed the years of World War I, he was director of a research station in Canary Islands where he conducted behavioral research with animals.. Later he served as director of the Psychology Institute, Berlin. In 1925-26 Köhler was a visiting professor at Clark University in the United States. In 1934-35 he was William James Lecturer at Harvard and in 1935 a visiting professor at the University of Chicago. He came to the United States in 1934, where he became professor of psychology at Swarthmore College. Köhler is best known for the influence of his writings in the founding of the school of Gestalt psychology.
Theory
Kohler was one of the original Gestalt theorists, along with Wertheimer and Koffka. All of these "fathers of Gestalt" were Germans, but ended their careers in the US. Gestalt theory emerged as a reaction to the behaviorist theories of Pavlov and Watson which focused on mechanical stimulus-response behavior. The term "Gestalt" refers to any pattern or organized whole. The key concept in Gestalt theory is that the nature of the parts is determined by the whole - parts are secondary to the whole. When we process sensory stimuli, we are aware directly of a configuration or overall pattern which is grasped as a whole. For example, when listening to music, we perceive a melody rather than individual notes, or when looking at a painting, we see the overall image rather than individual brush strokes. Köhler emphasized that one must examine the whole to discover what its natural parts are, and not proceed from smaller elements into wholes.
WHAT IS THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND OPERANT CONDITIONING?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, IS BEST EXPLAINED BY REFLEXIVE STIMULI THAT PRECEDE or COMES BEFORE THE RESPONSE LIKE THE SALIVATING DOG.
IN OPERANT CONDITIONING, THE STIMULI THAT GOVERN OPERANT CONDITIONING DO NOT PRECEDE IT. RATHER OUR BEHAVIOR OR HABITS ARE INFLUENCED BY STIMULUS EVENTS THAT FOLLOW THE BEHAVIOR/OR RESPONSE, SPECIFICALLY ITS CONSEQUENCES.
THUS OPERANT CONDITIONING IS A FORM OF LEARNING IN WHICH VOLUNTARY RESPONSES COME TO BE CONTROLLED BY THEIR CONSEQUENCE. FOR EXAMPLE WHAT IS THE CONSEQUENCE OF ME NOT STUDYING FOR AN EXAM?
WHAT IS THE VOLUNTARY RESPONSE? WHAT IS THE CONSEQUENCE?
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
A Skinner box is used to train animals and usually has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck in order to get the food.
NOTES!!!
REINFORCEMENT OCCURS WHEN AN EVENT FOLLOWING A RESPONSE INCREASES AN ORGANISM’S TENDENCY TO MAKE THAT RESPONSE
The food is called a reinforcer, and the process of giving the food is called reinforcement. A reinforcer is anything likely to increase a behavior. There are two types of reinforcement; positive and negative.
Positive Reinforcement (+): the addition of something pleasant to increase a behavior. If I want u to study more and give you chocolate for studying, the chocolate is the positive reinforcement because it is pleasant and meant to increase your behavior.
Negative Reinforcement (-) : the removal of something unpleasant to increase a behavior. If you have a headache and I want you to study, I may give you a panadol or Dispirin. The Panadol is the negative reinforcement because it is the removal of something unpleasant (headache) and increasing your behavior (studying).
We can also change behaviors by using unpleasant consequences called punishments. It is important to realize that punishment work better to stop behaviors rather than increase them. There are two types of punishment.
Positive Punishment: the addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely. I want you to stop talking in class, so I flick you with a rubber band every time you open your mouth.
Omission Training (or negative punishment): the removal of something pleasant to decrease a behavior. Your Mom does not let you watch Gray's Anatomy because you swore at the dinner table.
We can also change behaviors by using unpleasant consequences called punishments. It is important to realize that punishment works better to stop behaviors rather than increase them. There are two types of punishment
Can you give some examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As young adults and teenagers you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learnt from their consequences???!!
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.
If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.
Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm
Example:
BF Skinner used both positive and negative reinforcements to change the behavior of both pigeons and rats .
* When Skinner tried to create a behavior in an animal it did not happen at one time.
He did it in small successive steps that he called shaping. For example, let’s say you want to teach your dog to go fetch your slippers from the closet and you wanted to use positive reinforcement to do so. You would first give your dog a treat when he goes to your closet (that may take a couple of days). Then you would reinforce him again when he picks up your slippers. Then you give him a treat once again when he brings them to your feet. The idea is that reinforcing all of these small actions is more effective than doing the whole process at once; thus you are shaping the dog’s behavior. Each successive action is called shaping the dog’s behavior, but linking each action to each other, in a particular order is called chaining.
Source: Weiten, Wayne (2005). Psychology: Themes and Variations – Sixth Edition.
