GROUP COMPOSITION ‎

GROUP COMPOSITION
MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION (5569)
HUMA MALIK
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
2. GROUP vs TEAM ................................................................................................................ 2
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP .................................................................................. 3
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS IN A GROUP .................................................. 3
5. FUNCTIONS OF GROPUPS ............................................................................................... 4
6. PURPOSE OF THE GROUP ................................................................................................ 5
7. THEORIES OF GROUP FORMATION .............................................................................. 6
7.1 Homan's Theory 6
7.2 Exchange theory 6
7.3 Propinquity-spatial/ geographical proximity 7
7.4 Balance theory 7
7.5 Economic security/ social needs 7
8. CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS ....................................................................................... 7
8.1 Formal Group 7
8.2 Informal Group 8
8.3 Other classifications 9
9. GROUP COMMUNICATION ............................................................................................. 10
9.1 The Individual Member within a Group 10
9.2 The Group as a Whole 10
10. STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION .................................................................................. 11
10.1 The Five-Stage Model 11
10.2 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model 12
11. GROUP STRUCTURE OF AN ORGANIZATION ............................................................. 14
11.1 Interpersonal relationships 14
11.2 Roles 14
11.3 Norms 16
11.4 Group Status 17
11.5 Group Size 17
11.6 Social Density 17
12. GROUP DECISION MAKING .......................................................................................... 18
12.1 Assets of Group Decision Making 18
12.2 Liabilities of Group Decision Making 18
12.3 Strengths of Group Decision-making 18
12.4 Weakness of group decision making 19
13. TECHNIQUES IN GROUP DECISION-MAKING ............................................................ 19
13.1 Brainstorming 19
13.2 Nominal Group Technique 20
13.3 Delphi Method 21
13.4 The Stepladder Technique 21
14. ORGANIZATION’S STUDY .............................................................................................. 22
15. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 24
REFERENCES ................................. ................................................................................................ 25

Group Composition
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1. INTRODUCTION
A group is an interdependent set of people doing a task or trying to reach a common goal. Group
members regularly interact with each other and depend on each other to do their tasks. Job and
organizational design can affect the degree of mutual dependence. A group is a complex, adaptive
system that can change its membership, goals, and structure over time.
Groups can powerfully affect people‟s behavior. Knowledge of how and why groups form, and an
understanding of their dynamics, can help one function better within a group or manage group
activities. Following is the classic statement about groups in organizations:
“Groups exist; they are inevitable and ubiquitous; they mobilize powerful forces
having profound effects upon individuals; these effects may be good or bad; and
through a knowledge of group dynamics there lies the possibility of maximizing their
good value.” (Champoux, 2011)
“Two or more people working together to achieve common goals. Typically, group size in the
workplace ranges from three to 20 people.” (C2 Management and Organisations, 2012)
Group composition is usually considered in terms of how individual member characteristics will
affect group cohesion or compatibility and subsequently how the group interacts. The effect of these
characteristics on the focus group dynamic depends on the types of individuals recruited for the group
sessions. The word group has a broader meaning – a group of passengers on a flight have a common
characteristic – to travel, but they are not necessarily working towards a common cause. Groups do
not even need to refer to people, for example, a group of products in a supermarket, in this case the
group is arbitrary and could be defined by any number of variables. (Fern, 2001). A group is a
collection of people with some common characteristics or purpose. A group can consist of any
number of people. People in groups interact, engage and identify with each other, often at regular or
pre-determined times and places. The group members share beliefs, principles, and standards about
areas of common interest and they come together to work on common tasks for agreed purposes and
outcomes. People in groups are defined by themselves and by others as group members, in other
words individuals are aware that they are part of a group. People who frequently and regularly engage
with each other, agreeing on a purpose and working together on shared tasks. People who recognize
themselves are recognized by others as part of a group. (SkillsYouNeed, 2019a)

Management and Organization (5569)
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2. GROUP vs TEAM
When two or more individuals are classed together either by the organization or out of social needs, it
is known as a group. On the other hand, a team is the collection of people, who are linked together to
achieve a common objective. Most of the work in a business entity is performed in groups. Although
the individual personality of an employee is important, their effectiveness depends on the teams in
which they are working collectively to achieve any objective. In a particular team, there can be
several groups in which the group members individually help their leader to accomplish the goals.
The difference between group and team in an organization is below:
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
GROUP TEAM
Meaning A collection of individuals who work
together in completing a task.
A group of persons having collective
identity joined together, to accomplish a
goal.
Leadership Only one leader More than one
Members Independent Interdependent
Process Discuss, Decide and Delegate. Discuss, Decide and Do.
Work Products Individual Collective
Focus on Accomplishing individual goals. Accomplishing team goals.
Accountability Individually Either individually or mutually
(Surbhi, 2015)
Groups become teams when they meet the following conditions:
• Team members share leadership.
• Both individuals and the team as whole share accountability for the work of the team.
• The team develops its own purpose or mission.
• The team works on problem solving continuously, rather than just at scheduled meeting times.
• The team‟s measure of effectiveness is the team‟s outcomes and goals, not individual
outcomes and goals.
Thus while not all groups are teams, all teams can be considered groups. (Langton, Robbins & Judge,
2013)

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP:
Regardless of the size or the purpose, every group has similar characteristics:
a) Two or more persons (if it is one person, it is not a group)
b) Formal social structure (the rules of the game are defined)
c) Common fate (they will swim together)
d) Common goals (the destiny is the same and emotionally connected)
e) Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other)
f) Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other)
g) Self-definition as group members (what one is who belongs to the group)
h) Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group). (Chand, S.)
Wagner III & Hollenbeck (2010) provides ten characteristics that group members share:
a) They define themselves as members.
b) They are defined by others as members.
c) They identify with one another.
d) They engage in frequent interaction.
e) They participate in a system of interlocking roles.
f) They share common norms.
g) They pursue shared, interdependent goals.
h) They feel that their membership in the group is rewarding.
i) They have a collective perception of unity.
j) They stick together in any confrontation with other groups.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS IN A GROUP
Important characteristics of an individual which has a great influence on group behaviour in an
organization are listed below:
a) Qualities: Individual qualities have a strong influence on interaction among group members.
The qualities and traits of an individual decide his way of behaviour. Democratic, defensive
and submissive attitudes have a positive impact on group behaviour. Similarly, authoritarian,
offensive and abrasive outlooks create distrust among the members of a group. Extroversion
and dominance have an unhealthy impact on group behaviour. Self-reliance, introspection,
sociability and helpful attributes of employees create a congenial atmosphere in the
organization.

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b) Abilities: Expressed capacity is ability. A talented employee demonstrates high performing
abilities. Trained, experienced and highly motivated employees can perform better because
they develop high abilities for task performance. Abilities indicate what the individual is able
to do and how well he can interact with group members. The relationship between abilities
and performance is positive. Employees having more abilities perform the task in a better
manner. They behave well within the group and contribute significantly to the development of
the organization. If the abilities of these employees are accepted, they tend to contribute more
happily to the organization. Task-related and personality-related abilities have shown positive
contributions to group behaviour.
c) Personal characteristics: Personal characteristics such as age, sex, physical features,
personality, appearance and mental aptitude have an impact on group behaviour and
performance. An aged person is found more competent in group interaction than a younger
person. A more pleasing atmosphere is created with pleasing faces. Mentality and spirituality
have a certain impact on group behaviour. The combined impact of personal characteristics
may be positive, although the impact of a single characteristic is not accurately measurable.
Positive attitudes have a positive impact on group performances.
d) Expectations: Employees‟ expectations have always been controlling factors of behaviour.
High hopes lead to poor performances, as high hopes are not fulfilled by management.
Similarly, if the employee‟s expectations are fulfilled, they get more satisfaction.
Expectations of employees influence interpersonal relationships, rewards and performances.
Unsatisfied expectations or ambiguous expectations cause frustration, disappointment and
low turnover. Proper guidance, autonomy and feedback lead to proper behaviour. Employees‟
expectations should not only be linked with performance, but with the following of standard
rules, procedures and policies. It is expected that employees will follow the organizational
policies and practices. (Agrawal, a)
5. FUNCTIONS OF GROPUPS
There are a number of benefits of group‟s formation:
 Security: People who are part of a group generally feel more secure about their behaviour.
They have fewer doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a group.
 Status: Inclusion in a group is viewed as important by others and it provides recognition and
status for its members.
 Self-esteem: People often feel more confident and have increased self-worth as a result of
participation in a group.

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 Affiliation: Groups can fulfil social needs. People enjoy the interaction that comes with group
membership, and often it is their primary source of satisfaction for their affiliation needs.
 Power: The „power in numbers‟ philosophy supports this finding, that groups can often
achieve more.
 Goal achievement: Often, in order to achieve specific goals various talents must be pooled
together. It not only facilitates completion of a job but increases the quality of the output.
(C2 Management and Organisations, 2012)
Criteria of effectiveness:
A group is effective when it satisfies three important criteria:
a) Production output. The product of the group‟s work must meet or exceed standards of
quantity and quality defined by the organization. Group productivity is a measure of this
product, and the speed with which fast-forming groups can accomplish their objectives is
becoming ever more critical.
b) Member satisfaction. Membership in the group must provide people with short-term
satisfaction and facilitate their long-term growth and development. If it does not, members
will leave and the group will cease to exist. Furthermore, because how people feel about the
group tends to be contagious, dissatisfaction with the group can spread quickly if it is not
managed appropriately.
c) Capacity for continued cooperation and adaptation. The interpersonal processes that the
group uses to complete a task should maintain or enhance members‟ capacity to work
together and adapt over time. Groups that are not able to learn from their experiences and
adapt and cooperate flexibly over time cannot remain viable.
(Wagner III & Hollenbeck, 2010)
6. PURPOSE OF THE GROUP
Group formation has certain objectives. The purpose behind group formation may be task
achievement, problem-solving, proximity or other socio-psychological requirements. Group formation
is based on activities, interactions and sentiments.
a) Task accomplishment: The basic purpose of group formation is the achievement of certain
objectives through task performance. Individuals come closer in order to understand the tasks
and decide on the procedures of performance. In any organization, task accomplishment is the
reason for which different groups such as an engineering group; marketing group, foreman‟s
group and personnel group are formed for achievement of the organizations‟ goals. When an
organization faces some procedural difficulties, concerned groups discuss them and evolve
new techniques of production, marketing and other functions.

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b) Problem Solving: When people foresee or face certain problems, they unite to solve the
problems. Unity has strength. A group provides strength to members who are willing to
challenge any problem. Group behavior gives more strength to come down heavily on
problems.
c) Proximity: People form groups because of proximity and attraction towards each other. The
group formation theory is based on propinquity, which means that individuals affiliate
because of spatial or geographical proximity. They interact frequently with each other on
many topics, because this interactive communication is rewarding.
d) Socio-psychological Factors: Sentiments and action-uniformities bring people closer. They
also form groups for safety, security and social achievements. People cooperate with
members of the group on social as well as economic grounds to reach satisfactory levels.
People form groups basically for activities, interaction and due to sentiments. People living in
proximity frequently discuss their problems. They try to reduce their tensions and achieve
satisfaction. Individuals interest each other only when they have common attitudes and
sentiments. People with diverse attitudes form groups under certain compulsions to meet
unexpected problems. (Agrawal, b)
7. THEORIES OF GROUP FORMATION
Though a number of theories have been propounded by various experts to explain the dynamics of
group formation, the most important ones are mentioned here:
7.1 Homan's Theory: Homan's theory of group formation is based on three elements,
namely, activities, interaction and sentiments. According to Homan, these three elements are
directly related to each other. The required activities are the assigned tasks to people to work.
The required interaction takes place when any person's activity takes place or is influenced by
the activity of any other person. As regards sentiments, these are the feelings or attitudes of a
person towards others, i.e., his likes or dislikes, approval or disapproval.
7.2 Exchange theory: Exchange theory is based on the reward-cost outcomes of interaction.
According to this theory, the outcome of interaction should result in attraction and affiliation,
also called rewards, among the persons of a group. In case, the interaction incurs anxiety or
frustration or embarrassment or fatigue to the members of a group, it is, then, called cost for
the members rather than a reward. In exchange theory, affiliation, interaction and common
attitude play an important role.

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7.3 Propinquity-spatial/geographical proximity: Groups may be formed due to the
geographical nearness of individuals. For example, students living in the same hostel
room may form a group or people having desks close to each other in the office may get
together as an informal group.
7.4 Balance theory: Balance theory suggests that groups form due the sharing
of similar ideas and attitudes by people. When people have similar ides and think alike, they
tend to gel together. For example, religion, lifestyles, work, etc. all can be sources or
similarity and therefore group formation.
7.5 Economic security/social needs: By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of
standing alone. People feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats
when they are part of a group. (Sinha)
8. CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS:
Groups may be formal, brought together for a particular purpose, or they may be informal such as
family groups, groups of friends or colleagues.
8.1 Formal Group: Formal groups are either functional groups within an organization or task
groups. Functional groups are clusters of people formed by the organization‟s design, such as
divisions, departments, sections, and work units. They are a product of the organization‟s
division of labor, the way the organization has divided its total work to reach its goals. Such
groups are often permanent, but can change if the organization redesigns its structure.
(Champoux, 2011). Formal groups may be command groups or task groups.
 Command Group: A command group consists of a manager and the employees who report
to him or her. Thus, it is defined in terms of the organization's hierarchy. Membership in the
group arises from each employee's position on the organizational chart.
 Task Group: A task group is made up of employees who work together to complete a
particular task or project. A task group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate
hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. An employee's membership in the
group arises from the responsibilities delegated to the employee -that is, the employee's
responsibility to carry out particular activities. Task group may be temporary with an
established life span, or they may be open ended.

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 Committee: A group of people officially delegated to perform a function, such as
investigating, considering, reporting, or acting on a matter. Committee, one or more persons
appointed or selected to consider report on, or take action on a particular matter. It
investigates analyses and debates the problem and makes recommendation. Committee
usually has their own committee member comprising of advisory authority, secretary and
others. Recommendation is sent to the authority that is responsible for implementing them.
Characteristics of Formal groups
 Created to carry out some specific task or to meet a required goal
 Explicitly stated defined structure, procedural rules and membership
 Relatively permanent of temporary (e.g. steering group or problem solving group)
 Defined roles and designated work assignments
 Well Defined norms
 Specified goals and deadlines (Management Heaven, 2015)
8.2 Informal Group: Interaction patterns within organizations can affect the formation of
informal groups within and across formal groups. Informal groups can form along interest
lines, such as the task specialization of individuals, hobbies, or other concerns. They might be
friendship groups whose members associate with each other both at work and away from
work. Outsiders and newcomers cannot readily see informal groups, which are part of an
organization‟s background. These informal groups form a “shadow organization” that applies
good and bad powerful forces to the organization. (Champoux, 2011)
These groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the
need for social contact. Many factors explain why people are attracted to one another. One
explanation is simply proximity; when people work near one another every day, they are
likely to form friendships. That likelihood is even greater when people also share similar
attitudes, personalities, or economic status.
 Friendship Groups: Groups often develop because the individual members have one or more
common characteristics. We call these formations 'friendship groups'. Social alliances, which
frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age, same political view,
attended the same college, etc.
 Interest Groups: People who may or may not be aligned into common command or task
groups may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an
interest group.
 Reference Groups: Sometimes, people use a group as a basis for comparison in making
decisions or forming opinions. When a group is used in this way, it is a reference group.

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Employees have reference groups inside or outside the organization where they work. For
most people, the family is the most important reference groups. Other important reference
groups typically include co-workers, friends, and members of the person's religious
organization. The employee need not admire a group for it to serve as a reference group.
Some reference groups serve as a negative reference; the employee tries to be unlike members
of these groups.
 Membership Groups: When a person does belong to a group (formal and informal groups to
which employees actually belong) the group is called a membership group (or affiliation
group) for that person. Members of a group have some collection of benefits and
responsibilities that go beyond the group serving as a reference point. In a membership group,
each member would be expected to contribute to the group's well being and would enjoy the
benefits arising from the group members' friendship.
 Cliques: A relatively permanent informal groups that involves friendship. Most of the
relationships came down to two cliques, each with a hanger-on, and some isolates. The groups
included several different professions. They developed ideas about each other. Clique
membership acted as a form of social control, forcing people to conform to group desires. The
groups established norms regarding output, treatment of supervisor, reciprocity and other
interpersonal relations. The cliques served as a system for sense making about organizational
events. They developed their own set of beliefs, explaining things to each other.
(Management Heaven, 2015)
8.3 Other classification includes:
 Task-Based and Experience-Based Groups: Groups established to carry out specific tasks
are known as task-based groups, such as pressure groups. Groups which are based on the
experiences of their members are known as experience-based groups, such as a self-help
group. The distinction between task-based groups and experience-based groups is important
because it affects how the group is formed, organized, led and what roles the individual group
members play.
 Task-Based or Content Groups: These types of group focus on the achievement of
specific goals and the individual members of the group work towards completing
these goals. These types of group are common in organizations and include groups set
up to work on specific projects – perhaps the design of a new product.
 Experience-Based or Process Groups: These types of group focus on the individual
group members and how they interact, support and grow together, an example would
be a group established to support people suffering from stress.

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 Work Groups: Either formal, such as teams, committees or training groups, or informal
maybe setup to tackle an ad-hoc problem.
 Neighbourhood Groups: An example of a neighbourhood group would be one established
to develop local amenities.
 Social Groups or Special Interest groups: These are groups established to meet the needs of
a particular sector (e.g. age group, gender) or interests (e.g. music or sports). Examples
include Women‟s Institute and Scouts.
 Self-Help Groups: Such groups are often established to work through particular emotions or
to provide support for people with a certain illness, e.g. helping to overcome an addiction
such as Alcoholics Anonymous.
 Inter-Agency Groups: These are developed between agencies/organizations that work in
related fields to improve product and/or client services. In addition, they aid communication
and establish joint ventures to prevent duplication and confusion.
 Pressure Groups: The function of pressure groups is to challenge the status quo, often by
using high profile tactics to gain media attention to achieve their aims. (SkillsYouNeed, 2019)
9. GROUP COMMUNICATION
When people are part of a group they interact and communicate in different ways to how they would
on a one-to-one basis. These differences include:
9.1 The Individual Member within a Group
Through networking within a group people come to a greater understanding about other group
members and the wider environment – seeing things from other people‟s point of view. Also,
within a group situation, people often learn about what they are, their strengths and weaknesses
through comparison with other group members. Groups are important to personal development as
they can provide support and encouragement to help individuals to make changes in behaviour and
attitude. Some groups also provide a setting to explore and discuss personal issues. A group
setting can allow people to become more confident and learn new interpersonal, social and
practical skills through observation as well as practice. These skills can be developed within a
group setting and then effectively used in individual situations. As group membership can improve
self-esteem and confidence so it can also improve self-motivation and the desire to learn and
develop.
9.2 The Group as a Whole
Groups are often made up of individuals with very different personalities, attitudes and ideas. For
a group to function well a bond needs to be developed so that individual differences can be used

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for the wider interests of the group. „Cohesiveness’ is the term used to describe this mutual
bonding between members, with each having a strong sense of belonging to the group.
Cohesiveness is the measure of the success of the group. A group with more cohesiveness is more
likely to keep its members than that of a group with little cohesiveness. Members of a high-
cohesive group are likely to talk in group terms, using 'we' instead of 'I' when talking about group
activities. The more cohesive a group the greater the sense of team spirit and the more individual
members will cooperate with each other. A low-cohesive group may find that members frequently
miss meetings; sub-groups or cliques may form within the original group and there is likely to be
an underlying sense of frustration as the goals of the group are less likely to be attained.
(SkillsYouNeed, 2019)
10. STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION
10.1 The Five-Stage Model
Before a group becomes productive, it usually goes through the stages of group formation and also
through some cycles of high/ low performance. Five-stage group-development model characterizes
groups as proceeding through the distinct stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and
adjourning. (Figure 1)
1. Stage I: The first stage, forming stage, is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about
the group‟s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members “test the waters” to determine what
types of behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think
of themselves as part of a group.
2. Stage II: The storming stage is one of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of
the group but resist the constraints it imposes on individuality. There is conflict over who will
control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of
leadership within the group. In the third stage, close relationships develop and the group
demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.
3. Stage III: The third stage is Norming stage: Many groups resolve the interpersonal conflict
and reach the third stage, in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates
cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. The group
develops norms, acceptable standards of behaviour that are shared by the group‟s members.
All groups have established norms that tell members what they ought and ought not to do
under certain circum stances. When agreed to and accepted by the group, norms act as a
means of influencing the behaviour of group members with a minimum of external controls.

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This norming stage is complete when the group structure solidifies, and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations about what defines correct member behaviour.
4. Stage IV: The fourth stage is performing. This fourth stage, when significant task progress is
being made, is called performing. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted.
Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to performing the
task at hand.
5. Stage V: Adjourning: For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in
development. However, for temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that
have a limited task to perform, the adjourning stage is for wrapping up activities and
preparing to disband. Some group members are upbeat, basking in the group‟s
accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships
gained during the work group‟s life. (Langton & Robbins, 2013)
The five-stage model ignores organizational context. Within the workplace, some group behaviour
takes place within a strong organizational context, and the five-stage development model might have
limited applicability for those groups. However, there are a variety of situations in the workplace in
which groups are assigned to tasks, and the individuals do not know each other. They must therefore
work out interpersonal differences at the same time that they work through the assigned tasks.
10.2 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
Temporary groups with deadlines don‟t seem to follow the previous model. Studies
indicate that temporary groups with deadlines have their own unique sequence of action
(or inaction): (Figure 2)
Figure 1 - Stages of Group Development and Accompanying Issues

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 The first meeting sets the group‟s direction.
 The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.
 A transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which occurs exactly when the group has
used up half its allotted time.
 The transition initiates major changes.
 A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
 The group‟s last meeting is characterized by high levels of productive activity.
Punctuated equilibrium suggests that organizations enjoy long periods of stability, or equilibrium.
These periods of equilibrium are interrupted by compact, relatively short periods of qualitative
metamorphic change, or revolution. This model describes the processes through which such
frameworks are formed and revised. It predicts the timing of progress as well as when and how in
their development groups are likely, or unlikely, to be influenced by their environments. The specific
issues and activities that dominate groups work are left unspecified in the model, since groups
historical paths are expected to vary. The model works in the following way:
Phase One: The first meeting of the team sets the direction of the team. According to the
model, a framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which a team approaches
its project in its first meeting, the team stays within that framework through out the first half
of the life of the team. Teams show a little progress during this phase. The reason behind this
is that the members are unable to perceive a use for the information they are generating until
they revise the initial framework. The first phase of group activity is one of the inertia-that is,
the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action. Even if it gains
new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions, the group does not act on these
new insights in Phase 1. Thus, the group is performing at a relatively low level. This does not
necessarily mean that it is doing nothing at all, however.
Figure 2 - The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

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Transition Point: A transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which occurs exactly
when the team has used up half its allotted time. The transition initiates major changes. After
this time, the teams often experience a shift in their work approach. This approach enables the
team members to learn what they have done and make changes to their current work
approach. This point is a powerful opportunity to alter the course of the life of the team. This
transition should be used wisely, because once this point is over it is impossible to make
changes to the team again.
Phase Two: This phase is the second phase of inertia in the team. In this phase, the team
makes the changes as planned in the transition stage. The team makes the final effort to
achieve its goals and experiences the positive and negative consequences of past choices. This
model only works for those teams who work on long term goals such as professional teams
(teams in the organizations).
The punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes deadline-oriented groups and teams as exhibiting
long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by members‟
awareness of time and deadlines. To use the terminology of the five-stage model, the group begins by
combining the forming and norming stages, then goes through a period of low performing, followed
by storming, then a period of high performing, and, finally, adjourning. (Langton & Robbins, 2013)
11. GROUP STRUCTURE OF AN ORGANIZATION
Group structure is the framework of a group which has greater influence on the behavior and
interaction of members of a group. Group structure, as its outer framework, and inner relationship are
guiding and controlling factors of behavior. Group structure has different variables such as
interpersonal relationships, roles played, norms, group status, group size and social density.
11.1 Interpersonal relationships: Every group has a leader whose task is to guide and control group
activities. The nature of the group leader and the formal relationship between the leader and the
subordinates determines group behavior. The formal relationships between subordinates and their
superior are strengthened. This relationship plays a crucial role in organizational performance and
behavior. The interpersonal relationship influences interaction, expectation and the performance of the
group. Group structure develops a particular pattern of behavior and interaction of group members.
Status, norms and roles are designed as per the forms of group structure.
11.2 Roles: All the employees and group members play their respective roles as per their positions.
Individuals in the group are assigned certain jobs, positions and titles. They are expected to perform

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certain roles. The perceived role is the role expected in practice by the individual himself. A perceived
role may be inaccurate. An enacted role is the way he actually behaves. Employees may be required
sometimes to perform more diverse roles than expected. Many organizations have multiple role
performing jobs. Role behavior relates to note role identity, role perception, role expectation, role
enactment, role ambiguity and role conflict.
 Role identity: The behavior and attitude attached to the role together form what is known as
role identity. People‟s behavior is predicted as per their roles. A situation that demands a
particular type of behavior is related to the role identity. Each position has its own type of role
behavior. For example, an employee if promoted to managerial cadre will have a pro-
organization attitude.
 Role perception: Role perception is a set of activities or behavior that an individual is
supposed to perform. It is a supposed role to be performed in a given situation. The
perception of an employee toward his job is influenced by different factors such as
atmosphere, environment, socio-cultural situations and other stimuli. Since people have
different stimuli, perceptions differ from person to person. What the management expects
from itself and what employees expect from themselves are role perceptions.
 Role expectations: Role expectation is the behavior expected by others from the employee.
How others believe an employee should perform the job in a given situation is role
expectation. There are differences between role perception and role expectation, because of
the different attitudes of employees and the attitudes of other people towards employee
behavior. What the management expects from employees and what employees expect from
management are role expectations.
 Role enacted: The role enacted is the actual behavior of individuals and group members. The
enacted role depends on the perceived and expected role. If there is no difference between the
expected role, perceived role and enacted” role, the organization will be free from role
ambiguity and role conflict. There are rare possibilities of equating these roles. An
organization desires to have equality of these roles for a better performance.
 Role ambiguity: The differences between the expected role and the perceived role create role
ambiguity. Employees do not perceive what others expect from them. Role ambiguity occurs
due to a lack of clarity regarding job duties, job descriptions and job designs. An individual
has to perform his duties as expected, discharge his expected responsibilities and use his
authority as required by the organization.
 Role conflict: The differences between the perceived role and the enacted role create role
conflict. When an individual‟s perception is influenced by multiple demands and directions
from one or more supervisor, employees face uncertainty. Unity of command and direction

16
avoids role conflicts, but this is a rare phenomenon, as in practice employees receive multiple
directions. Role conflicts may be intra-role conflicts and/or inter-role conflicts.
11.3 Norms: Group structure incorporates certain norms to be followed by group members. Norms
are acceptable standards of behavior in a group. Members of a group are allowed to act, interact and
perform their functions as per established rules and standards of behavior. Group members learn
necessary behavior for the effective performance of group activities.
 Form of the norms: The norms are traditionally accepted rules of behavior which are
developed through explicit statements, critical events, primary and carry over behavior.
Explicit statements made by group members become norms of behavior if these norms are
accepted by them.
 Classes of norms: Norms are of different types and differ as per different groups,
communities and societies. Norms being commonly accepted principles influence every
member of the group. Formalized norms are written and accepted by the organization, as
manuals or code of conduct. The employees have to follow a code of conduct. The rules and
regulations are strictly followed by the members. Sometimes these rules are relaxed and
people take them casually. Employees devote maximum efforts to utilize their sprits and
capabilities as per the work norms. Many organizations have developed motivation norms for
mobilizing the employees of an organization. Appearance norms refer to the presentation of
employees in an appropriate dress, loyalty, and attitude and communication style. Allocation
norms deal with the rules and principles of allocating resources to employees for performing
their jobs efficiently.
 Uses of norms: Groups are benefitted through norms, as employee behavior is molded and
modified greatly with the use of norms. It is observed that norms protect employees from
indulging in unsatisfactory behavior. The norms of an organization aim at improving morality
and satisfaction among employees. Norms encourage the values and integrity of an
organization. Group performance is maintained by using norms.
 Conformity: The conformity decides the degree of use of norms. Group success depends on
the conformity of norms which is the acceptable degree of norms by the employees. The
reasons for a lower degree of conformity are diagnosed to develop the acceptability of a high
degree of norms. There are four variables influencing conformity. Intelligence and
authoritarian attitudes are negatively correlated to conformity. Situational factors influence
conformity. The group size, group structure and group interaction have positive impacts on
the conformity of norms.

Group Composition
17
11.4 Group Status: Status is a defined position or rank. Status may be given to an individual, group
or institution. It is a socially accepted position given to a person by others. Members of a group are
recognized by their status, Group members are proud of the status of their group and organization. A
member can understand his role and rights through the status of his group. Status is a significant
motivator. Within the organization, employees enjoy their respective status which is based on
position, title, wage level, seniority, skill and education. An employee is given status because of his
personality, work experience, skill, age, education and expertise. People are known by their position
or status.
Formal status is given by a particular group. The manager is given an award by the company and he
enjoys this awarded status throughout his career. Status is attached to an impressive title, high pay,
and preferred work style and so on. Status hierarchy, organizational views and employees‟ respect are
attached to formal status. Education, experience and skill are linked with status.
11.5 Group Size: The size of the group has a positive impact on behavior because of diverse decision
and an adequate number of people in the group. A large group is more effective in achieving
organizational objectives. It has given birth to synergy as a result in social loafing. People feel free
when they work collectively, because they get a chance to relax while this is not possible during
individual working. A large group encourages social loafing, i.e. a tendency to extend less effort when
working collectively. A small size group is more easily managed and can produce more qualitative
goods. Small groups result in faster completion of work than proportionately higher groups. A smaller
group is better at performing quality work. Members of smaller groups have more satisfaction than
those of bigger groups.
The impact of size on behavior depends on the nature of the task. The size should be decided after
considering the degree of interaction and satisfaction required in the group. In a decision-making
group, odd numbers are preferred to decide on the majority opinion. In a very small group for
example, three or five members alone may not arrive at an expert opinion. A group of seven or nine
members is considered to be more effective and useful.
11.6 Social Density: Group behavior depends on social density, which is the number of people at a
particular place, location and system. The degree of interaction depends on the density and quality of
group members. In an office, at least sixteen square feet is required for an effective performance.
There is no definite rule for social density, but it should be decided based on the task, tool and
techniques. The basic purpose is to avoid crowding or confusion. Stress and tension caused by social
density should be avoided. Similarly, too much distance between one employee and another employee
causes unnecessary delay in performances. Proximity must be decided upon as per the needs of the
organization. (Agrawal, c)

18
12. GROUP DECISION MAKING
12.1 Assets of Group Decision Making
Groups of people can bring more knowledge, information, skills, and abilities to a problem than
individuals working alone. The heterogeneity of a decision-making group can stimulate discussion
and debate about how to solve the problem. Each person contributes a piece of information or
knowledge to the decision process. Some research shows that groups with goals of cooperation
manage their discussions more effectively than groups with goals of competition. When groups
make decisions, everyone in the group understands more about the decision. Participants in the
process know which alternatives were reviewed and why one was selected and others rejected.
Participation in a decision-making group can lead to increased acceptance of the decision. If they
perceive their participation as legitimate, participants can develop a sense of ownership of
decisions, reducing resistance while carrying out the decision.
Group decision making also helps the personal development of participants, letting them work on
more complex problems in the future. Group decision making can improve collaborative problem-
solving skills, develop trust among those who participate, enhance interpersonal skills, and
increase job satisfaction. (Champoux, 2011)
12.2 Liabilities of Group Decision Making
Group decision making also has liabilities. Individuals who participate in group decision making
might feel strong social pressures to conform to an emerging norm. Pressure is placed on those
who disagree to get them to accept the favored alternatives. Often one person dominates a group,
especially if the group had no appointed leader from the start. Such people become dominant by
participating more, being particularly persuasive or persisting in their position. As the group
uncovers alternatives, individuals can develop strong preferences for a particular alternative.
Although that alternative might not be the best solution to the problem, attention may shift to
converting those who do not agree with the favored alternative. Group decision making takes time
and is ill suited for problems that require quick decisions. The time liability of group decision
making includes not only the time of the principal decision maker, but also the time of everyone
involved in the process. (Champoux, 2011)
12.3 Strengths of Group Decision-making:
The following aspects identified the main advantages that groups offer over individuals in
the making of decisions.
i) More information and knowledge: By aggregating the resources of several individuals, the
group brings more input into the decision process.

Group Composition
19
ii) Increased diversity of views: Group brings heterogeneity to the decision making process and
this opens up the opportunity for more approaches and alternatives to be considered.
iii) Increased acceptance of a solution: The group acceptance facilitates higher satisfaction
among those employees required to implement it.
iv) Increased legitimacy: The group decision making process is consistent with demographic
ideals and therefore may be perceived as being more legitimate than decisions made by an
individual. (Langton, Robbins & Judge, 2013)
12.4 Weakness of group decision making:
Some of the main disadvantages are:
i) Time-consuming: It takes time to assemble a group.
ii) Pressures to conform: The desire by group members to be accepted and considered as an
asset to the group can result in squashing any overt disagreement, thus encouraging
conformity among viewpoints.
iii) Domination by the few: Few people will try to dominate the group discussion. If such people
are happened to be mediocre, the group overall effectiveness will suffer.
iv) Ambiguous responsibility: In group decision, the responsibility of any single member is
reduced. (Langton, Robbins & Judge, 2013)
13. TECHNIQUES IN GROUP DECISION-MAKING
Decision-making in groups is not easy; for example, the group may polarize and refuse to reach
consensus or it may form a group think and stick to a familiar mutually acceptable decision without
considering better alternatives. Knowledge of group decision-making techniques can help managers
effectively steer group decision-making processes.
13.1 Brainstorming Technique
Brainstorming is a popular group decision-making technique that is used for generating ideas. In
brainstorming, the leader of the session presents a problem or question, clarifies the rules of the
session and then the group offers ideas in a round-robin format. Ideas are written down so that
every member can see them. Brainstorming does not solve the problem but helps generate creative
ideas. As a result, quantity of ideas counts and members do not criticize ideas. Instead, it produces
a list of alternatives that will later be considered, discussed, and evaluated when it is time to reach
a final decision. The ground rules include the following:
 Suspend judgment: Evaluation and criticism of ideas during brainstorming should be
avoided.

20
 Permit freewheeling: Group members should offer any ideas they have, no matter how
impractical. Wild ideas, even those considered too risky or impractical to implement, are
expected.
 Emphasize quantity, not quality: Quantity should be stressed, not quality. All ideas
should be expressed. None should be screened out. This is intended to encourage people
to move beyond their favorite ideas, thereby producing a more complete range of
alternatives.
 Encourage pooled creativity and synergy: Members should build on others‟ ideas when
possible. People should feel free to make combinations from others‟ suggestions.
 Ignore seniority: During brainstorming, group members should behave as if everyone
were the same rank. Political motivations should be set aside. Brainstorming should be
characterized by a relaxed, cooperative, uninhibited, congenial, egalitarian atmosphere.
 Ensure all voices are heard: It is important to ensure that all members participate in the
brain
storming session, no matter how reluctant they are to contribute.
 Record all ideas: Every idea produced during the brainstorming session should be
recorded for later discussion. (Rogelberg, Ed., 2007)
To be successful, the leader of a brainstorming session must understand the problem and be
able to create a relaxed and creative air.
13.2 Nominal Group Technique
The nominal group technique facilitates both the generation and evaluation of ideas. Unlike
brainstorming, this strategy results in a final group decision. The nominal group technique
typically involves the following steps:
 Write ideas in private: After the problem at hand is understood, members silently
generate their ideas in writing. No discussion among members is permitted at this point.
 Take turns reporting ideas: Members take turns reporting their ideas to the group, one at
a time, while a facilitator records them on a flip chart or blackboard. Again, no group
discussion occurs during this step. This round-robin listing continues until each member
has no more ideas to share.
 Discuss ideas: Next, group members discuss the ideas that have been recorded. The main
purpose of this discussion is to clarify, criticize, or defend the stated ideas.
 Vote on ideas: Each member privately and anonymously prioritizes the ideas. This
nominal voting step may involve a rank-ordering system, a weighted voting procedure, or
some similar mechanism for reporting preferences.

Group Composition
21
 Calculate the group decision: The group decision is calculated mathematically, based on
the vote described earlier. The final decision is the pooled outcome of the individual votes.
 Repeat if necessary: Some variations of the nominal group technique allow the
generation–discussion– vote cycle described previously to be repeated until an appropriate
decision is reached. (Rogelberg, Ed., 2007)
13.3 Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is a method for collecting, organizing, reviewing, and revising the opinions
of a group of individuals who never actually meet. This procedure, which is directed by a
nonparticipating coordinator, generates a group decision without physically assembling members.
Ideas are solicited and provided via questionnaires. The Delphi technique
typically involves the following steps:
 Solicit input: The coordinator sends initial questions to members via a mail, fax, or e-
mail survey.
 Independently generate ideas: Members brainstorm and then include their opinions and
ideas on the survey, which is returned to the coordinator on completion.
 Summarize input: The coordinator summarizes the input received from members in a
way that maintains member anonymity.
 Distribute summary: The coordinator sends the summary of everyone‟s opinions to all
group members.
 Revise, refine, and prioritize earlier input: After reading the summary of opinions,
members are given the opportunity to revise their earlier input, refine ideas, comment on
idea strengths and weaknesses, prioritize the opinions being considered, and identify new
ideas. When finished, they send their input to the coordinator.
 Repeat as necessary: The third through the fifth steps described earlier are repeated until
members have no further input to add.
 Form final decision: If a clear consensus emerges after the final round of surveys, the
exercise is finished. Alternatively, the members may be asked to rank or rate the final
decision options. In this case, the group decision is the alternative with the most favorable
rating or ranking. (Rogelberg, Ed., 2007)
13.4 The Stepladder Technique
The stepladder technique is a group decision-making strategy that staggers the entry of members
into a group. Like the nominal group and Delphi approaches, the stepladder technique facilitates
both the generation and evaluation of ideas. Unlike its predecessors, the stepladder approach
allows groups to form a final decision collaboratively and collectively rather than having an
outside party derive the group decision by combining independent inputs.

22
The stepladder technique commences by forming a two-person core group. These two members
begin discussion of the problem at hand by presenting their individual ideas to each other. When
they feel they understand each other‟s ideas, a third member is brought into the core group. This
member presents ideas and a preliminary discussion ensues. Next, a fourth member is brought into
the core group to present ideas and then participate in the preliminary discussion. This process
continues until each member of the team has joined. Once all members are present, the group
works together to form a final decision. The stepladder technique has four ground rules:
 Allot sufficient individual problem-solving time: Each member must have adequate
time to think about the problem at hand before joining the core group.
 Require entering members to speak first: On entry, a group member must present all
ideas before hearing the core group‟s preliminary solutions.
 Allot sufficient group discussion time: An adequate amount of discussion time must be
allotted to discuss the issues immediately after an entering member presents ideas.
 Delay final decisions until all are present: The group must be fully formed with all
members present before a final solution is determined.
By requiring each member to present ideas independently and without knowledge of others‟ ideas,
the stepladder technique may promote accountability, decrease social loafing, decrease
conformity, and equalize participation. Moreover, the stepladder technique can minimize the
biasing effect of domineering teammates by giving each member an uninterrupted presentation
opportunity on entering the group. Finally, by instructing groups to wait until all are present before
forming a final decision, the stepladder approach can prevent groups from arriving at solutions
prematurely, before all members have exhausted their supply of ideas. (Rogelberg, Ed., 2007)
14. ORGANIZATION’S STUDY
Preston University, Pakistan was established as School of Business and Commerce in 1984 to foster
academic excellence. Preston University is seriously committed to improving the quality of higher
education in Pakistan. The university is managed by a group of dedicated professionals and
academicians who have committed their lives to the cause of higher education in Pakistan. Since its
inception in 1984, Preston Network has imparted knowledge and skills to thousands of individuals
through many teaching programs.
Preston University, Kohat NWFP has been chartered by the Government of NWFP through Ordinance
No. LII of 2002, and is recognized by the Higher Education Commission, Government of Pakistan.
HEC has placed the University in the highest category „W‟.

Group Composition
23
The experience at this University has played an important role in the professional and personal
development of our students. Preston University will continue to fulfil its responsibilities to the
society by creating and providing facilities for personal and professional growth of individuals who
wish to make a career in the fields of business administration, information technology, engineering
and technology, natural and applied science, social sciences and education.
14.2 Objectives
 To provide a specialized, high quality education as preparation for professional positions in
business, industry and government.
 To use traditional and modern instructional techniques and technology to the best advantage
in the delivery system so as to enhance and enrich students‟ achievements of their educational
and career goals.
 To provide educational opportunities to persons already employed or engaged in business,
allowing them to pursue undergraduate and graduate degree programs without any
compromise on the quality of education.
 To pursue innovations and develop new methods and technologies for delivery of education
and development of instructional materials.
 To use modern information technology to maximum extent possible in all phases of the
academic as well as administrative aspects of the University programs.
 To offer high quality programs to business organizations for staff training and management
development to enhance corporate productivity and efficiency.
 To improve the quality, talent and skills of individuals to help them lead their lives as
successful professionals and responsible citizens.
 To explore the frontiers of knowledge through independent research, as well as in
collaboration with other entities in business or education having similar goals.
 To aggressively pursue improvements in the quality of higher education through dedication
and commitment to teaching, training and research.
 To undertake such programs and activities as are essential to or supportive of the achievement
of the above listed objectives.
14.3 GROUP COMPOSITION IN PRESTON UNIVERSITY
Formal Group: formed by the organization‟s design, such as divisions, departments, sections, and
work units. It is including command groups and task groups. Command groups is defined in the
organization's hierarchy, accounts department, transport department, academics hierarchy (deans,
HODs, teachers, allied staff). Task group is made when an event is organized, such as sports,
seminars, etc. Committees are made to perform a function, such as investigating, considering,

24
reporting, or acting on a matter. For example, an investigation of misconduct of invigilation duty
during examination.
Informal Group are formed along interest lines, such as the task specialization of individuals,
hobbies, or other concerns. For example during spring splash and fall fest programs, groups are
formed having same interest such as groups working to perform competition on skits, singing,
speeches, essay writing,… etc.
15. CONCLUSION
A group is a collection of two or more people who interact with one another in a way such that each
person influences and is influenced by the others. The members of a group draw important
psychological distinctions between themselves and people who are not group members.
Groups are an excellent vehicle for performing many steps in the decision-making process and offer
both breadth and depth of input for information gathering. If group members have diverse
backgrounds, the alternatives generated should be more extensive and the analysis more critical.
When the final solution is agreed on, there are more people in a group decision to support and
implement it. These pluses, however, can be more than offset by the time consumed by group
decisions, the internal conflicts they create, and the pressures they generate toward conformity.

Group Composition
25
REFERENCES
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Behaviour in an Organisation. Retrieved from http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/4-
important-characteristics-of-an-individual-which-has-a-great-influence-on-group-behavior-in-
an-organisation/93232
Agrawal, R. (b). Important Purposes Behind Group Formation in an Organisation. Retrieved from
http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/4-important-purposes-behind-group-formation-
in-an-organisation/93205
Agrawal, R. (c). 6 Important Variables Included in the Group Structure of an Organisation. Retrieved
from http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/6-important-variables-included-in-the-
group-structure-of-an-organisation/93239
C2 Management and Organisations (2012). Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning.
Champoux, J. E. (2011). Organizational behavior: Integrating individuals, groups, and
organizations. 4th
ed. New York: Routledge.
Chand, S. (n.d.). Group Dynamics: it‟s characteristics, stages, types and other Details. Retrieved from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/group-dynamics-its-characteristics-stages-
types-and-other-details-management/5363
Fern, F. E. (2001). Advanced focus group research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications,
Inc.
Langton, N., Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2013). Fundamentals of organizational behaviour. 3rd
Canadaian ed. Toronto: Pearson Education.
Management Heaven. (2015, July 15). Classification of Groups. Retrieved from
http://managementocean.blogspot.com/2012/07/classification-of-groups-group-behavior.html
Rogelberg, S. G. (Ed.). (2007). Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Thousand
Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Sinha, K. (n.d.). 4 Important Theories of Group Formation. Retrieved from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization/group-dynamics/4-important-theories-of-
group-formation-with-diagram/63900
SkillsYouNeed. (2019). An Introduction to Teams and Groups. Retrieved from
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/groups.html
Surbhi, S. (2015, March 24). Difference Between Group and Team. Key Differences. Retrieved from
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-group-and-team.html
Wagner III, J. A. & Hollenbeck, J. R. (2010). Organizational behavior: securing competitive
advantage. New York: Routledge.

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