Living on a Tight Budget in Singapore (2015)

A qualitative study of 25 Malay/Muslim
low-income households
By Caroline Brassard Ph.D.
Adjunct Assistant Professor
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy
National University of Singapore
In collaboration with Research and Policy Department
Yayasan MENDAKI
LIVING ON A TIGHT BUDGETMENDAKI Research Report

MENDAKI Research Report
Living on a Tight Budget in Singapore
Copyright © 2015 Yayasan MENDAKI
Published by
Research and Policy Department
Yayasan MENDAKI, Wisma MENDAKI
Views presented in this publication are those of the individual
authors. They do not purport to represent the views of the
Editorial Team, the Publisher, the Board and Management of
Yayasan MENDAKI or the institutions the authors are affiliated to.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be printed or
reproduced or stored in any retrieval system by any electronic,
mechanical or other means without permission in writing from
the publisher and Yayasan MENDAKI.
All enquiries seeking permission should be addressed to:
Research and Policy Department
51, Kee Sun Avenue, Off Tay Lian Teck Road, Singapore 457056
Main Telephone Line: 6245 5555
Research and Policy Department: 6245 5860
Email: rpdpublications@mendaki.org.sg
Website: www.mendaki.org.sg
Principal Researcher:
Professor Caroline Brassard
Research Associate:
Sabrena Abdullah
Muhammad Nadim Adam
Muhamad Yusri Bin Mohamed Supiyan
Research Assistant:
Nur Shahanaz Shuhaimi
Designed and Printed in Singapore by
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4 PREFACE
5 ABOUT MENDAKI
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
9 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
10 LIST OF TABLES
10 LIST OF FIGURES
11 LIST OF BOXES
11 LIST OF ANNEXES
12 1 / INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study and Rationale
Some Key Statistics on Malay Households
Research Aim and Objectives
Research Methodology
Scope and Limitation
Structure of the report
18 2 / METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Sampling Design and Selection of
Participants
Design and Pre-Testing of the Data
Collection Tools
Data Collection Process
Data Analysis
Code of Ethics
Data Quality and Reliability
Limitations
26 3 / SURVEY FINDINGS
Profile of Main Survey Respondents
Socio-Economic Characteristics
Housing
Marital Status of respondent
Age at Marriage
Reason for separation
Household Monthly Income
Income Outside Main Job
Household Expenditure
Type of courses taken for upgrade
Reading Materials
Language spoken at home
44 4 / THEMATIC DISCUSSION
Life Priorities
Happy Times and Celebrations
Children and Education
Crises and Challenges Faced
Coping Strategies and Resilience
Awareness of Assistance and
Support Received
Aspirations
Perceptions about the Future
Wishes for the Singapore Community
Daily Life, Attitudes and Beliefs
78 5 / CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Priorities, Aspirations and Needs
Children and Education
Awareness and Perceptions about
Social Assistance
Broader Implications
Areas for further research
87 REFERENCES
89 ANNEXES
Table of Contents

4
M
uch remains to be done in compiling well-
researched evidence on the difficulties
faced by low-income households in an
increasingly fast paced and competitive Singapore.
This meticulous study of 25 low-income Malay/
Muslim households in Singapore helps fill this gap in
a significant manner. By describing in detail some of
the harsh realities through judiciously selected quotes
and avoiding sensationalism, the report presents a
systematic and balanced analysis of the difficulties
faced by those under severe financial pressure.
This study is, essentially, an eye opener and a
call for action. It calls for a re-examination of our
assumptions on how we, as individuals and as a
community, care and support those in need. It is
striking to learn about the low level of awareness
(and misperceptions) of support available from the
various social services by the households in the
study sample. There seem to be multiple sources
to this problem, and consequently, many ways to
address this problem.
The conclusions of the report point towards a revived
advocacy role for Malay/Muslim organizations, and
greater ability to generate independent research as
well as feedback to social service agents and policy
makers.
The research findings raise many emerging issues
facing low-income households in Singapore
that demand to be analyzed further. It is hoped
sincerely hope that this study will entice others
from civil society and governmental organizations to
undertake further research and produce evidence
for policy-makers and service providers to refine and
extend the support mechanisms for all low-income
households in Singapore.
Preface

5
About Mendaki
Y
ayasan MENDAKI (Council for the
Development of Singapore Malay/Muslim
Community) is a pioneer Self-Help Group
formedin1982dedicatedtoempowerthecommunity
through excellence in education, in the context of a
multi-racial and multi-religious Singapore. In 2002,
MENDAKI streamlined its focus along four key areas
of Education, Youth, Family and Employability.
MENDAKI’s programmes largely target the bottom
30% of the Malay/Muslim population and are
therefore highly subsidized. They are mostly
preventive and developmental programmes to
provide early assistance to the beneficiaries. The
programmes are designed to supplement or
complement national initiatives.
MENDAKI works extensively with partners that share
and support its vision and mission. They consist of
government agencies, schools, mosques, Malay/
Muslim organizations, employers, community
centres and MAECs, family and student service
centres and many more. For more information,
please visit: http://www.MENDAKI.org.sg
Acknowledgements
T
his research could not have been possible
without the trust and generosity of the 25
households who shared about their daily lives
as part of this study, offering us a unique window
into their personal lives. We also thank the support
received from Yayasan MENDAKI, and in particular,
the chairman of the board, Dr. Yaacob Ibrahim,
Minister for Communications and Information and
Minister-In-Charge of Muslim Affair. We would also
like to extend our heartfelt appreciation to the CEOs
of Yayasan MENDAKI, Madam Tuminah Sapawi
(2014 till present) and Madam Moliah Hashim (2010
– 2013).
We are indebted to all MENDAKI staff from the
Research and Policy Department, especially
Muhamad Yusri Bin Mohamed Supiyan and Nur
Shahanaz Shuhaimi, both research assistants, for
the logistical support as well as fieldwork, including
conducting, translating and transcribing countless
pages of interviews. Finally, we thank Sabrena
Abdullah, Muhammad Nadim Adam and Aidaroyani
Adam, whose passion for the research theme drove
us throughout the production of this report. There
is no doubt in our mind that all of them went much
beyond their call of duty. Any remaining error is the
sole responsibility of the author.

6
Executive Summary
T
he purpose of this research paper is to shed light in the lives of low-income Malay Muslim
households in Singapore, in order to understand their vulnerability to shocks, their daily
challenges and needs, as well as their aspirations and perceptions about the future. The
research team interviewed 25 such households over the course of 15 months, in three rounds of in-
depth interviews including a detailed household survey. Using both open-ended and closed-ended
questions, we were able to triangulate qualitative and quantitative data to increase the reliability of
our findings and obtain deeper insights unattainable through large-scale survey questionnaires. The
richness of the narratives gathered as part of this research highlights the best and worst moments
in the lives of these households, and consequently, demonstrates the complexity in addressing
their diverse needs. From a policy perspective, the research aims to provide evidence on how to
improve support and services offered to low-income Malay Muslim households, and initiate new
ways to address their needs.
6

7
Eight major themes were addressed during the
interview process: 1) Life Priorities; 2) Happy Times
and Celebrations; 3) Children and Education;
4) Crises and Challenges Faced; 5) Awareness
of Assistance Available and Support Received;
6) Coping Strategies and Resilience; 7) Aspirations
and Perceptions about the Future; 8) Daily Life,
Attitudes and Beliefs.
In sum, this research findings fill knowledge gaps in
these key areas:
• Deeper understanding of the challenges
encountered by low-income Malay Muslim
households and their impacts;
• Understand their priorities, needs, aspirations
and perceptions about the future;
• Identifying the vicious (virtuous) cycles’;
• Comprehensive description of resilience, coping
mechanisms and social capital; and
• Daily Lives trends and patterns
The key findings are summarized below:
1 Most respondents felt ill equipped to help their
children in their homework. This was often due
to the rigor of the educational system and the
lack of familiarity with the curriculum, which
differed significantly from the curriculum from
the previous generation.
2 As part of coping mechanisms, many households
in our sample could not afford proper nutrition,
and stated that the cost of education put them
under financial strain.
3 The most important concern for Malay Muslim
low-income households is related to health,
which illustrates the high level of vulnerability
of low-income households to health crises,
leading to potential lack of income. Second,
lack of stable employment surfaces as another
important vicious cycle. Third, stress related to
raising children and the difficulties in supporting
children in their education.
More specifically, the objectives of the research were
three-fold:
• To attain in-depth understanding of the
households’ everyday lifestyle;
• Identify the extent to which low-income
households are aware of, and benefited from,
the presently available assistance schemes
within the social service sector;
• Understand the coping mechanisms and
resilience from low-income households, when
faced with multiple difficulties.
This is a descriptive and exploratory research using
multiple holistic case studies with the household as
the unit of analysis. The sampling design is purposive
and includes 25 households in the first and second
phase and 22 households in the survey, due to three
households dropping because of lack of time from
the participants. A detailed profile of the respondents
is included in the main report. Purposive sampling
was used in order to include households with one or
more of these characteristics:
• Single mother
• At least one member in prison
• High dependency ratio
• Unemployed head of household
• Receiving/not receiving support from MENDAKI
• Not receiving support from any organization
• Broken family with/without family support
• Headed by elderly taking care of grand-children
• Households including disabled children
The data collection method is mixed and sequential,
with two systematic interviews and one survey. The
data analysis uses three distinct methods for all open-
ended qualitative questions: narrative analysis and
systematic analysis using the NVivo software, and
quantitative analysis of the closed-ended questions
in the survey, using Excel. The statistics presented
in the report are descriptive statistics, as the sample
size does not allow for extensive inferential analysis
such as correlation analysis.

8
4 The level of awareness about available support
is low for households with weaker social ties,
thereby increasing their vulnerability, and there
is a relatively poor knowledge on the extent of
support available in Singapore.
5 The reasons provided for not seeking assistance
vary greatly, from a lack of awareness, a
sense of pride, to a strong sense of personal
responsibility.
6 In general, parents are optimistic about their
children’s future financial stability, and no one
perceived it as potentially worse.
7 Wishes for the Singapore Community include
fairness across ethnic groups and looking out
more for one another, alluding to an increasingly
individualistic society.
8 Many respondents regret not studying further
in their youth.
9 Identifying and removing the fundamental
bottlenecksthatpreventlow-incomehouseholds
from moving upwards socio-economically
is a long-term process, because it involves
fundamental institutional and social changes.
This requires an in-depth re-examination of
current strategies (and activities) and their
underlying assumptions, and demand open and
empathetic leadership at all levels.
10 Life priorities and aspirations must be
acknowledged and understood further, such
that support (to reach these aspirations) can
be aligned accordingly, and be demand driven.
Indeed, different aspirations lead to different
needs, and require an adaptive institutional
approach.
11 The results of this study call for a more
individualized approach to addressing needs,
according to age, and education background of
the parents and primary care takers (including
grandparents) and complementary assistance
required by the school going children.
12 In terms of facilitating access to support,
improving awareness and outreach would
require proactivity and advocacy. The research
findings suggest not just a need to refine
targeted support services but also to raise
awareness about social assistance.
13 For many, their daily pressures are compounded
by a significant degree of isolation, that
easily becomes a vicious cycle of poverty and
ultimately, neglect.
14 Finally, there is undoubtedly a lack of voice
for many low-income households, especially
those headed by elderly individuals and having
major responsibilities such as taking care of
grandchildren, sometimes referred to as the
‘skip generation’ households.
The conclusions and recommendations are
presented with three types of audiences in mind:
Yayasan MENDAKI, the larger civil society, and the
Government of Singapore.

9
4PM Malay Youth Literacy Association
AIN AIN Society (AIN means ‘eyes’ in Arabic)
ALCP Academic and Lifeskills Coaching Programme
AMP Association of Muslim Professionals
CDAC Chinese Development Association Council
CDC Community Development Council
CET Continuing Education and Training
CNB Central Narcotics Bureau
CPS Core Parental Skills
CTP Collaborative Tuition Scheme
eWAC Enhanced Wrap-Around-Care
ETF Education Trust Fund
FEC Family Excellence Circles
FSC Family Service Centre
GCE General Certificate of Education
HDB Housing Development Board
MCI Ministry of Communication and Information
MHA-WAC Ministry of Home Affairs – Wrap Around Care
MMVS Malay Muslim Volunteer Sector
MOE Ministry of Education
MSF Ministry of Social and Family Development
MTS MENDAKI Tuition Scheme
MUIS Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura
NTUC National Trades Union Congress
PPIS Persatuan Pemudi Islam Singapura
PSLE Primary School Leaving Examination
SSO Social Service Office
TAA Tabung Amal Aidilfitri Trust Fund
TIGA M Maju Minda Matematika
TIGA M2 Maju Minda Membaca
TTFS Tertiary Tuition Fee Subsidy
WAC Wrap Around Care
YIA Youth-In-Action
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

10
Table 1 Wage of Income Earners Across Various Occupations 15
Table 2 Education Profile of the Singapore Malay Workforce Since 1990 (%) 16
Table 3 Educational Attainment of Main Respondent (R3D2) 29
Table 4 Occupation of Main Respondent (R3D5) 29
Table 5 Distribution of Household Sizes (R3C1) 30
Table 6 Number Of Households With Specific Characteristics (R3) 31
Table 7 Age and Gender Distribution of Respondents - MENDAKI Age Group Focus (R3C3/4) 32
Table 8 Age and Gender Distribution of All Respondents (R3C3/4) 33
Table 9 Housing Distribution (R3B1) 34
Table 10 Marital Status of Main Respondent (R3C5) 34
Table 11 Total Household Monthly Income (R3E1) 36
Table 12 Average Income per Income Earner (Per Income Bracket) (R3E1) 37
Table 13 Type of Income Received Outside of Main Job (R3G2) 37
Table 14 Types of Reading Materials (R1Q8) 42
Table 15 Language Used at Home by Main Respondent (R3C8) 43
Table 16 Life Priorities and Sub-Themes (R1Q9) 49
Table 17 Challenges and Sub-Themes (R2Q3) 58
Table 18 Coping Strategies (R3F1) 60
Table 19 Main Respondents’ Aspirations (R1Q11) 72
Table 20 Perceptions About Children’s Future Financial Stability (R3F4) 73
Table 21 Most Important Life Skills (R3F2) 76
Table 22 One Aspect of My Life I Would Change - If I Could (R3F6) 76
Figure 1 Household Expenditure - Top 3 Items (R2Q11) 38
Figure 2 Top Three Priorities in Life (R1Q9) 46
Figure 3 Best Moments in My Life (R1Q10) 50
Figure 4 Involvement in Children’s Education (R3E7/8) 53
Figure 5 Challenges Faced (R2Q3) 56
Figure 6 Level of Awareness about Available Support (R1Q13) 62
Figure 7 Support from Family Service Centre (R3H1/2/3) 66
Figure 8 Support from Community Development Council (R3H6/7/8) 66
Figure 9 Minimum Educational Aspiration for Our Children (R3E5) 70
Figure 10 Perceptions About the Future (R2Q10) 73
Figure 11 Wishes for the Singapore Community (R3F7) 74
List of Tables
List of Figures

11
Box 1 Education and Children 54
Box 2 Like Beggars Knocking on People’s Doors 64
Box 3 Where to Get Support? 68
Box 4 ‘Skip Generation’ Household 103
Box 5 Health Problems and Pay Cut 104
Box 6 Retrenchment 104
Box 7 Loneliness 105
Box 8 Divorce and Sacrifices 106
Box 9 Effects of the Economic Crisis 107
Box 10 Working Overtime Despite Medical Condition 108
List of Boxes
Annexe A Timeline of the Study 89
Annexe B Information sheet 90
Annexe C Consent Form 91
Annexe D Interview Questions for Round 1 92
Annexe E Interview Questions for Round 2 93
Annexe F Survey questionnaire for Round 3 94
Annexe G Narratives Illustrating Vicious Cycles 103
List of Annexes

Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1

14
Background of the Study and Rationale
In this research, the unit of analysis is the household,
as opposed to the ‘family’. We define the term
‘household’ as a group of people living under the
same roof and having regular meals together over
the last six months, a standard definition. The overall
aim of this study is to obtain a better understanding
of the daily lives, happy and challenging moments,
as well as the aspirations and life perceptions of low-
income Malay Muslim households. This qualitative
study examines how a selection of households cope
with day-to-day challenges, and what is their level of
awareness of the support available to them.
A brief overview of the literature on similar themes
showthatmanyoftheearlierstudiesonMalayfamilies
and households in Singapore took an ethnographic
or sociological approach. For example, Djamour
(1959) was among the earliest contemporary studies
on ‘Malay Kinship and Marriage in Singapore’. Then,
the ethnographic piece by Tania Li (1989), followed
by two other academic works by Myrna Blake (1992)
and Tham Seong Chee (1993). More recently, Suriani
Suratman (2001, 2004) looked at portrayals of Malays
in Singapore and Shantakumar (2011) provided
demographic projections on Singapore Malays.
The Lien Center for Social Innovations (2011)
identified six vulnerable communities in Singapore
and finally, the Ministry of Social and Family
Development (2013) conducted research on the
experience of lower income households in Singapore
based on narratives collected from 2000 individuals.
This study is part of an emerging literature using
qualitative data to inform policy makers and social
service providers.
The report seeks to complement previous works by
providing rich, detailed and up-to-date information
from the perspective of selected low-income
Malay Muslim households residing in Singapore.
The ultimate aim of this study, at the policy level,
is to provide inputs for policy-makers and social
practitioners on the basic challenges of these
households, to enable them to fill the gaps and
improve the current support system. It provides
qualitative evidence on some of the key challenges
faced by low-income households, preventing them
from moving up the economic scale. In doing so,
this study allows us to ‘hear’ the voice to these low-
income households, via their detailed narratives.
1 / Introduction

15
Introduction
Occupation
Median Wage (S$)
In 2008
Managers 6,400
Professionals 4,405
Associate Professionals
and Technicians
3,000
Production Craftsmen
and Related Workers
2,137
Plant and Machine
Operators
2,009
Clerical Workers 1,960
Sales and Service
Workers
1,849
Cleaners, Laborers and
Related Workers
975
Table 1: Education Profile of the Singapore Malay
Workforce Since 1980
Source: Report on Wages in Singapore 2008, Ministry of Manpower (2008)
Some Key Statistics on Malay
Households
National level statistics offer only a glimpse of
the challenges faced by low-income households
in Singapore. There is clearly a dearth of recent
and publicly available in-depth qualitative studies
based on narratives, necessary to complement
larger scale surveys (which have different purposes)
and to go beyond statistics. This research aims to
fill this gap and update our understanding of the
dynamics within, and current challenges of low-
income households in the Malay/Muslim community
in Singapore.
According to the Singapore Population Census of
2010, Malay households constitute 10.6% of the
total number of resident households in the country.
Key economic statistics for Malay households in
Singapore show that many are disproportionately
lagging behind economically. Based on the 2010
Census, the national median income for all
households was estimated at $5000, compared
with only $3844 for Malay households specifically.1
Average monthly household income from work for
Malay households in 2010 was estimated as $4575
(with a median of $3844) compared to a national
average of $7214 (with a national median of $5000). 2
National statistics showed that two-thirds of Malay
household in Singapore were earning incomes below
the national median figure.3
One of the significant
contributing factors is that the largest percentage of
the Malay Muslim work force occupies the unskilled
and semi-skilled labor. In terms of the wage earned
by the respective occupational groups, the Report
on Wages in Singapore 2008, illustrated the median
wage of the various occupational group as to June
2008, as described in Table 1. This gives light as to
why individual Malay Muslims in Singapore generally
earn below the national median income.
1
Singapore Census of Population 2010, Release 2
2
Ibid
3
See MENDAKI Policy Digest 2008.
4
Berita Harian (Singapore), 24 September 2009.
5
Ministry of Education Statistics Digest (2014: 51)
6
Adding to this fact, findings in 2009 highlighted that
53.6% of married women among the Malay Muslim
community in Singapore were unemployed. This
is compared to 48.5% Indian married women and
37.3% Chinese married women who are also full-
time housewives.4
Thus, the low median household
income of the Malay Muslim community in Singapore
is also due to the fact that more than half of the
Malay households depend on a sole main income
earner, and hence, have a higher dependency ratio.
This translates into smaller disposable income for
Malay households, and lack the purchasing power.
Finally, from an education perspective, as of 2012,
the number of Malay pupils with at least 5 ‘O’ Level
passes was 62% compared with a national average
of 81%.5
In addition, only 6.8% of the Malay residents
have University degrees, compared to a national
average of 28.3%, as seen in Table 2.6
15
Introduction
Occupation
Median Wage (S$)
In 2008
Managers 6,400
Professionals 4,405
and Technicians
3,000
and Related Workers
2,137
Plant and Machine
Operators
2,009
Sales and Service
Workers
1,849
Related Workers
975
Households
in Singapore.
1
2
Ibid
3
4
5
6
time housewives.4
of 81%.5

16
Research Aim and Objectives
The aim of the research is to provide evidence on the
vulnerabilities faced by low-income Malay Muslim
households, the types of deprivation that some
of them are confronted with, and their aspirations
towards greater wellbeing, such that targeted action
can be taken to support their aspirations.
The objectives of the study are three-fold:
First, to attain in-depth understanding of the
households everyday lifestyle, such as: everyday
challenges, aspirations, choice of career, attitude
towards education, connectivity with grassroots,
self-help groups and other national/social agencies;
consumer and expenditure behaviors; activities
conducted during leisure time; identification of
liabilities (debt and loans); and perceptions about
the future.
Second, to extent to which the households under
study are aware of and benefit from the available
assistance schemes within the social service sector.
For example, what are the stumbling blocks for these
households to get the necessary assistance –issue
of self-pride, physical inaccessibility, lack of self-
confidence, failure to reach a common agreement
betweenfamilymemberssothattoreceiveassistance
in any form, skeptical and not confident of present
assistance schemes, issues and bad experiences in
relation to assisting bodies/organizations etc.
Third, to understand the coping mechanisms and
resilience from low-income households, when faced
with multiple difficulties, and identify vicious cycles
as well as virtuous cycles. On the one hand, many
vicious cycles are apparent from the narratives,
which bring these vulnerable households further into
destitution, in particular due to health shocks. On the
other hand, virtuous cycles can help understand how
low-income households can move into more stable
lives, away from deprivation, and enjoy higher levels
of wellbeing.
Research Methodology
This research is descriptive and exploratory. It
involves two rounds of in-depth interviews and one
survey, within a 15-month period (from June 2013 to
September 2014) with a sample of low-income Malay/
Muslim households. The sampling design is based
on 25 low-income purposely selected households in
the first and second rounds of in-depth interviews,
and 22 households in the survey. Three households
opted to drop out of the study due lack of time in
participating in the survey.
The households were identified through purposive
sampling, to ensure a wide range of characteristics,
described further in the methodology section. Data
was collected in order to perform qualitative data
analysis mainly, which enables greater depth of
analysis for eight themes: 1) Life Priorities; 2) Happy
Table 2: Education Profile of the Singapore Malay Workforce Since 1990 (%)
Learning Institution 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 % All races 2010
University 0.8 1.4 3.0 5.1 6.8 28.3
Polytechnic 1.2 3.5 4.3 7.6 15.6 18.4
Upp. Sec. 6.5 10.6 17.7 21.5 24.5 12.7
Sec. 37.9 41.3 37.9 35.4 29.0 19.5
Below Sec. 53.7 43.3 37.1 30.4 24.1 21.2
Source: Singapore Department of Statistic (2011)

15
Introduction
Occupation
Median Wage (S$)
In 2008
Managers 6,400
Professionals 4,405
and Technicians
3,000
and Related Workers
2,137
Plant and Machine
Operators
2,009
Sales and Service
Workers
1,849
Related Workers
975
Households
in Singapore.
1
2
Ibid
3
4
5
6
time housewives.4
of 81%.5
17
Introduction
7
See Yin (2012) on applications of the case study method, and Vershuren (2003) for a discussion on the ambiguities and opportunities of the case study method.
Times and Celebrations; 3) Children and Education;
4) Crises and Challenges Faced; 5) Awareness
of Assistance Available and Support Received;
6) Coping Strategies and Resilience; 7) Aspirations
and Perceptions about the Future; 8) Daily Life,
Attitudes and Beliefs.
Scope and Limitation
This is a qualitative research, and as such, it does not
allow for quantification of the ‘extent’ or ‘severity’ of
the challenges and issues raised in the narratives. It
is beyond the scope of this research to generalize
for all low-income households, given the case study
approach.7
However, it allows for the discovery of
common themes and sub-themes emerging across
the various cases.
The scope of the research is limited to the eight
themes mentioned above. Consequently, it does not
contain detailed information on issues such as intra-
household dynamics, health, hobbies, and religion,
for example. It does not constitute a longitudinal
study, but could potentially be expanded to become
longitudinal. The choice of sample size was based
on the timeframe, available resources, and a focus
on depth, rather than breadth for the narratives
collected. The topics covered in this study are highly
personal and brought many emotions on the part of
the participants, necessitating much sensitivity on
the part of the research team.
One of the main analytical limitations inherent to
this study relates to the need for the primary data,
which were collected in Malay, to be translated into
English. Translation of the narratives could lead to
varying interpretations of the narratives, influencing
the analysis significantly. In order to address this
issue, during the data collection and transcription
phase, the research team met frequently to clarify
the data and to minimize possible misinterpretation.
Structure of the report
The report is structured as follows. The next section
presents key statistics on Malay households in
Singapore, in relation to all resident households.
Section two details the research methodology and
the scope and limitations of the research. Section
three summarizes the household profiles and their
socio-economic characteristics. Section four analyses
key findings from the eight themes discussed during
the three rounds of data collection. The final section
provides recommendations for MENDAKI, the
larger civil society organizations, and the Singapore
Government on future steps required to improve
our understanding of the challenges faced by low-
income households in Singapore, to help address
their needs and support their aspirations.

Methodology
Chapter 2
Methodology
Chapter 2

20
T
his methodological section summarizes the elaborate research phases and the
rationale for the research design, sampling design, pre-testing and finalization of the
data collection tools, data collection process and data analysis. It delves into ethical
issues the intricate steps taken to ensure data quality and reliability, and concludes on the
limitations of the study. The research timeline, from funding approval to publication, is
outlined in Annexe A.
Research Design
In order to understand, in some depth, the needs,
feelings and perceptions of households under
financial pressure in Singapore, a qualitative
research design, based on narrative enquiry is
highly appropriate. The objectives of the research
require the participants to share their life
experiences in detail, such that emerging themes
can be highlighted across the narratives collected.
A case study approach was preferred in order to
achieve the desired level of detail. This contrasts
with large-scale sample, for example in a recent
study on lower-income households in Singapore
by MSF (2013), based on 2000 narratives.
The research design is exploratory descriptive
holistic multiple case study design using a mixed
method of data collection. It is based on a sequential
implementation of two rounds of systematic
interviews with open-ended questions, followed
by a survey including primarily closed ended
questions, with some open-ended questions.
This design allowed for adjustments in interview
questions between the rounds of interview, as well
as triangulation of data to confirm, validate and
complement the information collected.
Participants
The sample size of 25 was decided on the basis of
a number of important factors:
• Representation: to allow for data collection from
different types of households (for example, with
or without children, single head of households,
elderly head of household, etc)
• Depth and focus: to collect rich and detailed
narratives on selected number of themes,
giving time to respondents to express
themselves freely
• Timeframe: in order to undertake three rounds
of interviews within 18 months
• Staffing: to take into consideration the skills
required to collect the narratives
• Budget considerations
All participating households are Singapore citizens
and were identified through purposive sampling,
to ensure a wide range of characteristics such as:
• Single-headed households
• Households receiving some form of assistance
and support
• Households without any form of assistance
from any organization
• Households headed by elderly and taking care
of grand-children
2 / Methology
20
T
Research Design
Participants
themselves freely
and support
of grand-children
2 / Methology
20
T
Research Design
Participants
themselves freely
and support
of grand-children
2 / Methology

21
Methology
Within the households, the selection of the main
respondents of the interviews was not overly
restrictive. It usually involved an adult head of
household or their partner, or both, depending on
their availability. This facilitated the collection of
detailed narratives.
Design and Pre-Testing of the
Data Collection Tools
During the pre-fieldwork phase, as part of the
brainstorming of the research design, multiple
informal interviews were conducted by MENDAKI
research staff with key stakeholders, such as social
workers, religious and community leaders, school
teachers, counselors, social welfare volunteers and
low-income Malay Muslim households. There were
three purposes for these informal interviews: First,
to help refine the research questions; Second, to
ensure a consultative process which would increase
both operational and internal validity (as discussed
below); and Third, to identify potential households to
interview, and understand the ethical considerations.
The insights gathered during these discussions,
together with a review of the literature and available
statistics, formed the basis of the interview questions
across the three rounds of interviews.8
Theinterviewquestionsandthesurveyweredesigned
with MENDAKI, based on the desired objectives
described above. Following the initial design of the
interview questions, the research team conducted
several rounds of pre-testing, to refine the questions
further. Each of the three rounds of data collection
was pre-tested with at least three households, prior
to finalization. The pre-test households displayed
the characteristics that the participants of the study,
namely low-income, Malay Muslim households, and
were subsequently excluded from the final sample.
Among the main lessons learned from pre-testing
the interview questions were:
• Include probing techniques when the
respondents were not clear about
certain questions
• Ensure more adequate Malay translation
of conceptual words such as ‘significant’,
‘optimistic’, ‘pessimistic’, …
• Allow for some time for reflection for
respondents to think about key moments in
their lives, especially when the timeframe of the
question is ‘in the last 5 years’.
Based on the pre-tests, further refinements were
done in the following areas:
• Logical ordering of questions: to create a sense
of trust at the beginning by asking questions
that do not require probing deeply into personal
lives
• Translation of key terms: to avoid confusion in
the meaning of key terms in the question, or to
avoid participants feeling uncomfortable with
some choices of words (such as on the topic
of adultery)
• Simplification of conceptual/abstract questions:
to ensure similar interpretation of the questions
(for example, ‘if you could change one thing in
your life, what would it be?’
• Repetition of recall-type questions across more
than one round of interview: to avoid biases
due to the requirement to think back in the
past about previous actions or earlier parts of
the respondents’ lives (for example, ‘compared
to your youth days when you were living with
your parents’)
• Repetition of perception-based questions
across more than one round of interview: to
eliminate possible biases due to the timing of
the interviews (for example on expenditure
patterns)
8
A separate paper covering a thorough literature review was prepared as part of the conceptualization of this research by Muhamad Nadim Adam (2012).
21
Methology
certain questions
lives
of adultery)
your parents’)
patterns)
8

22
The 25 purposely selected households were asked
for their consent to participate in series of three
meetings for the purpose of data collection within
15 months.
The list of interview questions for the first round is
included in Annexe D. The general purpose of the first
round was to obtain a profile of the household in the
form of a narrative, and let the households describe
their expenditure pattern, working hours, leisure, life
priorities, best moments, aspirations and awareness
about social agencies such as MENDAKI, MUIS, FSC,
CDC and others. The first round of interviews was
mainly descriptive, in order to develop trust from
the participants.
A few months later, during the second round of
interviews, as indicated in Annexe E, the questions
touched upon a more in-depth understanding of the
difficult times in their lives (some narratives focused
on financial problems, others on relationships
problems, health or employment issues) as well
as their coping mechanisms. This round brought
much emotion for the participants, understandably.
The questions ended on a lighter note by asking
about aspirations, perceptions and wishes for the
Singapore community.
The final round consisted in a survey implemented
about a year after the first round of interviews. The
survey is included in Annexe F. The questionnaire
was modeled along standard households surveys,
and included similar categories than is typically
used by the Department of Singapore Statistics, in
order to ensure comparability during data analysis.
However, it focused on a narrower range of topics,
and also included some open-ended questions. It
also incorporated similar questions than the first
and second round (such as expenditures) in order
to ensure reliable data. The survey included a
large section on social services and asked for their
experiences in obtaining support as well as their
expectations and needs.
Data Collection Process
As mentioned above, narrative inquiry is
predominantly used as a basis for this research.
Personal narratives serve to investigate events and
happenings as related by one or two members
of a household. Each of the three rounds of data
collection generally took place within an hour to 90
minutes. Data collection was conducted face-to-face
and generally took place in the participants’ home,
in Malay, with two interviewers, one male and one
female. Data was recorded upon consent of all
participants, and were meticulously transcribed
and translated.
During the course of the first two rounds of
interviews, the interviewers took additional side
A strict code of ethics was applied
before, during and after data
collection to ensure anonymity and
confidentiality of the respondents.”

21
Methology
certain questions
lives
of adultery)
your parents’)
patterns)
8
23
Methology
notes based on observations. This was possible
given that the interviews were being recorded.
These observations allowed us to contextualize the
interviews and to note some of the emotions that
may have been displayed during the interviews,
which cannot be conveyed through the transcript
alone. For example, some observations were made
on the following aspects:
• To observe how household members
communicate with each other
• To note the body language of respondents
throughout the interview.
• To give a sense of the level of articulation of
respondents (fluency, stammering, …).
• To give a sense of general lifestyle of household
members based on observations throughout
the interview sessions.
Although these observations were not analyzed
systematically, they were taken into consideration
when making sense of the narratives, and provided
a more contextualized perspective.
Data Analysis
Analyzing narratives requires much attention on
ethical, moral and cultural aspects (Ojermark, 2007).
Thebackgroundoftheresearchteammemberscould
lead to different interpretation of the significance of
some parts of the narratives. Hence, we periodically
held internal group discussions to refine our
understanding of the meanings of certain parts of
the narratives. There were two objectives for these
sessions: Firstly, to ensure that the translation from
Malay into English would not distort or change the
essence of the narratives; and secondly, to minimize
subjectivity in the interpretation of culturally
sensitive issues.9
Data analysis was undertaken using two distinct
methods for interview and survey questions:
narrative analysis using the NVivo software, and
descriptive quantitative analysis of the survey. Data
was collected in order to perform qualitative data
analysis mainly, which enables greater depth of
analysis for a selected number of themes. Narrative
analysis looks at emerging patterns, identifies
common answers, diversity of answers and outliers.
All statistics presented in the report are descriptive
statistics. Given the small sample size, inferential
statistics and correlation analysis would not
produce significant results. As mentioned earlier,
the findings of this study aim to complement, rather
than supplement, the quantitative profile of low-
income households available from various national
statistical surveys.
Quantitative analysis of qualitative data was
done in order to codify the data and generate
frequencies. This was at times transposed into
graphic visualization, or infographics. In addition
to systematic analysis of the narratives using the
NVivo software, we paid attention to the examples
and illustrations used by respondents, the emphasis
of their narratives, and the emotions conveyed.10
The presentation of illustrative quotes and longer
citations in the report are used to complement the
systematic analysis. Given the amount of detailed
data collected, this report does not include every
single finding, but focuses on those that are most
relevant to the research objectives described in
section 1.
Code of Ethics
All respondents signed a consent form, received an
information sheet informing them of their rights.
A strict code of ethics was applied before during
and after data collection to ensure anonymity and
confidentiality of the respondents. As a result, the
citations do not include the household codes, but
only identify the interview round and the question
number (e.g. R1Q1).
9
See Temple and Young (2004) on translation dilemmas in qualitative research.
10
See Bernard and Ryan (2009) and Bazeley (2007) for more details on qualitative analysis techniques.

24
11
See Christians (2005) in Denzin (2005) on ethics in qualitative research, and Rubin and Rubin (2005) on the ‘Art of Interviewing’.
12
See Babbie (2013) for a thorough discussion on validity issues in social sciences.
13
See also Bergman and Coxon (2005) on ensuring reliability in qualitative research.
As part of the code of ethics, detailed notes and
guidance were provided to the interviewers prior
to undertaking the interviews.11
Throughout the
research process, regular meetings were conducted
in parallel to collection of narratives, to identify and
address any sensitivities, challenges or concerns by
the interview team or by the respondents. After each
round of interview, the households received NTUC
vouchers as a token of appreciation. However, the
amount of these vouchers was not communicated to
them in advance.
The demanding nature of the data collection both
in terms of time and personal commitment led
some households to drop out of the study after the
first (one household) and the second round (two
households), leading to an overall drop out rate of
12%, which is relatively low. Finally, to ensure the
protection of respondents, and as part of the ethical
management of the data, it was agreed that all
identifiers would be destroyed within a period of 3
years after the publication of the report.
Data Quality and Reliability
Ensuring strong operational, internal, and external
validity determines the quality and reliability of the
data, and the overall findings.12
Operational validity
relates to the ability to measure what is actually
intended. For example, it focuses on ensuring that
the questions are interpreted similarly between
the interviewee and the interviewer. Internal
validity means avoiding any external factors to
influence the reliability of the data. For example, the
presence of an external family member outside the
household may influence the answers provided by
the interviewee. Finally, external validity relates to
the generalizability of the data. As this research is
based on 25 case studies, the level of generalizability
is constrained those with the main characteristics of
the participating households. For example, it is not
possible to generalize for other ethnic groups, or for
households headed by teenaged mothers.
To ensure data quality and reliability, stocktaking
and checks were included in each of the research
phases.13
First, the sample was constructed with
meticulous attention to the desired household
characteristics mentioned above, to ensure
external validity. Second, all data collection tools
(questionnaires and survey) were pre-tested multiple
times prior to their finalization, to ensure operational
validity. In addition, translation of the narratives was
done by two in-house translators, to double-check
the quality of the translation, and overall sensitivity
to the intended meaning of the narrators. Third,
regular meetings with the research team aimed at
clarifying the data collected after each round, to
ensure internal validity.

21
Methology
certain questions
lives
of adultery)
your parents’)
patterns)
8
25
Methology
14
For example, we could not delve into specific government programs or services, or specific institutions within the services provided in Family Service
Centers and Community Development Councils.
As part of the research design, to increase data
reliability and to validate findings, efforts were put
to triangulate data across the three stages of data
collection. For example, this was done through a
repetitionofsomeofthequestionsacrosstworounds
of data collection, such as household expenditure.
This triangulation also helped to refine the depth of
investigation in other key and complex areas, such
as daily challenges due financial pressures.
Limitations
One of the main analytical limitations inherent to this
study relates to the need for the primary data, which
were collected in Malay, to be translated into English.
Translation of the narratives could lead to varying
interpretations of the narratives, influencing the
analysis significantly. In order to address this issue,
during the data collection and transcription phase,
the research team met frequently to clarify the data
and to minimize possible misinterpretation. Another
limitation in this study is due to the relatively small
number of themes that could be covered during the
narratives.14
However, this was expected within the
study design in order to achieve more depth in the
narratives and give time for the household to share
their experiences. The topics covered in this study
are highly personal and brought many emotions
on the part of the participants, necessitating much
sensitivity on the part of the research team.
There are some analytical limitations given that
a number of themes could not be covered as part
of the interviews due to the limited scope of the
research. For example, the following themes were
not covered as part of the interviews: nutrition,
savings and debt, time use, safety, inter-generational
relationships, extended family members, formal
and informal networks, life trajectories, inter-racial
issues, knowledge and awareness about rights. In
the third round of interviews, in order not to tax
the households overly, the survey design had to be
implemented within 90 minutes, and could not delve
into specific government programs or services, or
specific institutions other than FSC and CDC. Building
on this research, further inquiry into these topics
would be extremely valuable.
The characteristics of the interviewers, being in
their twenties, may have affected the choice of
answers given and may have influenced the depth
of the confidential information revealed during
the interviews. Finally, for the third round of data
collection, some of the responses were collected
around the time of Singapore’s National Day and
may have influenced the answers to the questions
on their ‘wishes for Singapore’.

Survey
Findings
Chapter 3
Survey
Findings
Chapter 3

28
15
See Moran-Ellis et al (2006) for a discussion on the importance of triangulation in qualitative research.
T
his section focuses on the descriptive statistical results of the survey, which
comprised mainly closed ended questions answered by 22 households, due to
3 households dropping out of the research, as discussed in the methodological
section. The survey questionnaire is included in Annexe F. From an analytical perspective,
it complements the two rounds of in-depth interviews for three main reasons. Firstly, it
includes information at the household as well as the individual level. Secondly, it allows for
triangulation of data, through similar questions from earlier rounds of questions, such as
challenges faced. Thirdly, it builds on the previous rounds of interviews by asking follow-up
type of questions.15
The findings reported in this section begin with a profile of the main survey respondents,
who are usually the self-identified head of the household. We then summarize key
descriptive statistics (general characteristics) at the household level. Note however that it is
not possible to use this survey data to report inferential statistics (such as correlations) due
to the low number of observations. The results of the open-ended questions in the survey
are reported in the next section, as part of the thematic discussions.
3 / Survey Findings
28
15
See Moran-Ellis et al (2006) for a discussion on the importance of triangulation in qualitative research.
T
his section focuses on the descriptive statistical results of the survey, which
comprised mainly closed ended questions answered by 22 households, due to
3 households dropping out of the research, as discussed in the methodological
section. The survey questionnaire is included in Annexe F. From an analytical perspective,
it complements the two rounds of in-depth interviews for three main reasons. Firstly, it
includes information at the household as well as the individual level. Secondly, it allows for
triangulation of data, through similar questions from earlier rounds of questions, such as
challenges faced. Thirdly, it builds on the previous rounds of interviews by asking follow-up
type of questions.15
The findings reported in this section begin with a profile of the main survey respondents,
who are usually the self-identified head of the household. We then summarize key
descriptive statistics (general characteristics) at the household level. Note however that it is
not possible to use this survey data to report inferential statistics (such as correlations) due
to the low number of observations. The results of the open-ended questions in the survey
are reported in the next section, as part of the thematic discussions.
3 / Survey Findings

29
SurveyFindings
Educational Attainment Frequency
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
Diploma/Polytechnic/
Professional Qualification
2
University 0
Table 3: Educational Attainment of Main Respondent
(R3D2)
Of the 22 survey respondents, 16 were females and
6 males. This gender distribution is partly due to
the timing of the implantation of the survey, which
typically occurred during office hours, unless the
households requested otherwise. The average age
of main respondent was 49, with a minimum of 27
years old and a maximum of 83 years old.
The educational attainment of the main respondent
is indicated in Table 3. These categories follow those
of the National statistics. None of the participants
in our study had University degrees, only two had
College degrees or Professional qualifications and
one reported no schooling.
Respondents were asked to indicate their main
occupation, which was recoded according to the
definitions used by Singapore Standard Occupational
Classifications of 2010.16
As a result, the main
occupation of the main respondent, following the
national statistics categories, is indicated in Table
4. Most of the primary respondents who were not
currently working are mainly stay-at-home mothers.
Main Occupation Frequency
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Production and Related
Workers
3
Others 1
Professional and Technical 0
Administrative and Mana-
gerial
0
Table 4: Occupation of Main Respondent (R3D5)
16
See http://www.singstat.gov.sg/methodologies_and_standards/standards_and_classifications/occupational_classification/ssoc2010.pdf
17
This information can provide a basis for further comparisons by sub-groups in future research using this database.
18
See http://www.singstat.gov.sg/statistics/latest_data.html#15 (accessed December 4, 2014)
29
SurveyFindings
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
2
University 0
(R3D2)
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Workers
3
Others 1
gerial
0
16
17
18

30
Table 5: Distribution of Household Sizes (R3C1)
Number of
Persons in
Household (A)
Number of
households (B)
Cumulative
number of
households
Cumulative
number
of persons
[Sum(A*B)]
Proportion of
total number of
persons (%)
2 1 1 2 1.6
3 3 4 11 8.8
4 3 7 23 18.5
5 4 11 43 34.7
6 5 16 73 58.9
7 3 19 94 75.8
8 1 20 102 82.2
9 0 20 102 82.2
10 1 21 112 90.3
11 1 22 124 100
Table 5 was compiled based on an analysis of the
overall characteristics of the households, and gives
an overview of the composition of the households.
It indicates the wide range of household types
included in our purposive sample, as described in the
methodological section.17
In contrast, as mentioned
earlier, the latest available data on household size
for all resident households in 2013 was 3.47.18

29
SurveyFindings
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
2
University 0
(R3D2)
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Workers
3
Others 1
gerial
0
16
17
18
31
SurveyFindings
Table 6 shows that further analysis can be done
on a disaggregated basis for sub-categories of
households. For example, contrasting households
receiving services from MENDAKI, versus those
who don’t, or contrasting households with younger
heads of households versus those headed by elderly
individuals. Other suggestions for further research
using this database are included in the final section
of this report.
Table 6: Number Of Households With Specific Characteristics (R3)
Item # Characteristic Number of Households
1 Single Mother/grandmother with children 6
2 At least one member in prison 4
3 No income earner in the household 2
4 Reconstituted Family 2
5 Including grand-parents (i.e.3 generations) 12
6 Including disabled children 4
7 Household without children (all 19 and above) 2
8 Income level below 1000 per month 7
9 Living in one bedroom HDB 4
10 Multiple marriages 6
11 Small sized household (3 and below) 4
12 Divorced/separated (not currently remarried) 7
13 Primary schooling or no schooling main respondent 7
14 Receiving support from MENDAKI 10
15 Receiving support from CDC 7
16 Receiving support from FSC 6
17 Not receiving from any formal organization 12
18 Not receiving ANY external support (including family) 4

32
Socio-Economic Characteristics
In our sample, household size varies between 2
and 11 members, with an average of 5.6 persons
per household. This is compared with an average
household size of 4.1 for all Malay households which
is also higher than the national average of 3.47 in
2013.19
In total, the 22 households comprise 124
individuals, of which 52 males and 72 females.
Given the focus of MENDAKI programs on school
going children, the next table provides descriptive
data on the distribution of respondents within the
22 households, for these specific age categories.
Further qualitative research may be done on these
selected households using this database.
Table 7: Age and Gender Distribution of Respondents - MENDAKI Age Group Focus (R3C3/4)
Age
Group
Number
of Males
Number
of Females
Total
Number of
Persons
Number of
Households
Cumulative
Number of
Persons
Cumulative
number of
persons (%)
0-<3 0 3 3 2 3 2.4
3-<6 0 4 4 4 7 5.6
6-<13 13 7 20 10 27 21.8
13-<19 12 17 29 14 56 45.2
19
Data available from Singapore Statistics at http://www.singstat.gov.sg/statistics/latest_data.html#18 (accessed October 21, 2014)

29
SurveyFindings
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
2
University 0
(R3D2)
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Workers
3
Others 1
gerial
0
16
17
18
33
SurveyFindings
Table 8: Age and Gender Distribution of All Respondents (R3C3/4)
Age
Group
Number
of Males
Number
of Females
Total
Number of
Persons
Number of
Households
Cumulative
Number of
Persons
Cumulative
number of
persons (%)
0-<5 0 6 6 5 6 4.8
5-<10 9 4 13 8 19 15.3
10-<15 9 12 21 15 40 32.2
15-<20 12 11 23 13 63 50.8
20-<25 6 4 10 8 73 58.9
25-<30 1 9 10 6 83 66.9
30-<35 1 2 3 3 86 69.3
35-<40 0 5 5 5 91 73.4
40-<45 0 5 5 5 96 77.4
45-<50 5 3 8 7 104 83.9
50-<55 5 3 8 7 112 90.3
55-<60 0 1 1 1 113 91.1
60-<65 2 5 7 7 120 96.8
65-<70 1 1 2 2 122 98.4
70-<75 0 1 1 1 123 99.2
75-<80 0 0 0 0 123 99.2
80-<85 1 0 1 1 124 100
TOTAL 52 72 124 -- 124 100
Table 8 shows the complete distribution of
respondents from the 22 households, based on a
similar categorization done by Singapore Statistics. It
shows that about 50 % of individuals covered by this
study are 20 years and below, and about 25% are
above 40 years old.

34
Housing
All respondents live in HDB housing, and among
the 22 households, the minimum number of person
per room was 1 and the maximum was 7, with an
average of 2.5 persons per room. A total of 14 of the
22 households were owner-occupier, 7 were tenants
and 1 household was lodging at a friend’s place. All of
the households who are tenants earn a total income
of less than S$2000. The distribution of households
according to the size of HDB housing is presented in
Table 9.
Table 9: Housing Distribution (R3B1)
HDB Number of
bedrooms
Frequency
1 Bedroom 4
2 Bedrooms 6
3 Bedrooms 5
4 Bedrooms 5
5 Bedrooms 2
Table 10: Marital Status of Main Respondent
(R3C5)
Marital Status Frequency
Single 1
Married 12
Widower 2
Divorced / Separated 10
5 Bedrooms 2
Marital Status of respondent
Only about half of the main respondents were
married. The distribution of marital status of the
main respondent is described in Table 10:
Out of the 10 divorced or separated couples, 6
mentioned ‘unreasonable behavior’ as the main reason
for separation, while two mentioned financial reasons,
one desertion and one due to character mismatch.
Age at Marriage
For individuals aged 50 to 74, the average age for
the first marriage for males was 25 compared with
20 years old for females. The minimum age was 13
and the maximum was 27 years old. It is noteworthy
that half of the females were in their teens at
their first marriage. As a caveat, the data does not
include information for males when the females
are widowed or separated. For individuals aged 26
to 49, the average age first marriage for male was
26.5, compared with 21 years old for females. This
contrasts with 29.2 as the median age of grooms and
27.2 for brides in Malay households in 2013.20
In addition, a total of 8 households had a second
marriage, two had a third marriage and one had a
fourth marriage. However, there is insufficient data
to compute the average age at these subsequent
marriages in a meaningful way.
20
See Table A1.6 and A1.7 in http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications_and_papers/marriages_and_divorces/smd2013.pdf (Accessed December 3, 2014)

35
SurveyFindings
“
There’s no happiness for me. Since young till I’m old. Since young, I was sent here
and there. Then when I was in school, I was not good. I had to leave school at
Primary 4 because I was not clever. Besides I was match made. And when I was
married, I was controlled. I couldn’t be friends with anyone and I couldn’t go anywhere. So
when I can’t stand it anymore, I asked for divorce. When I got married the second time, I
faced the same issue. I was controlled and couldn’t make friends with anyone. When I was
working, my income was controlled. And when I asked for money, he said I’m greedy. So all
in all, I got married twice and I got enough of it.” [R1Q10]
Reasons for separation
In our sample, the reasons for separation or divorce
for the first marriage were as follows (note that more
than one reason could be selected in the survey): 4
due to the death of their partner, 3 due to desertion, 3
due to adultery, 5 caused by unreasonable behavior,
4 because of financial difficulties and 1 due to
imprisonment. For the second marriage, the reasons
noted were death (1), prison (2), unreasonable
behavior (3) and financial (1). One of the respondents
described her experiences in the following words:
35
SurveyFindings
“
There’s no happiness for me. Since young till I’m old. Since young, I was sent here
and there. Then when I was in school, I was not good. I had to leave school at
Primary 4 because I was not clever. Besides I was match made. And when I was
married, I was controlled. I couldn’t be friends with anyone and I couldn’t go anywhere. So
when I can’t stand it anymore, I asked for divorce. When I got married the second time, I
faced the same issue. I was controlled and couldn’t make friends with anyone. When I was
working, my income was controlled. And when I asked for money, he said I’m greedy. So all
in all, I got married twice and I got enough of it.” [R1Q10]
Reasons for separation
In our sample, the reasons for separation or divorce
for the first marriage were as follows (note that more
than one reason could be selected in the survey): 4
due to the death of their partner, 3 due to desertion, 3
due to adultery, 5 caused by unreasonable behavior,
4 because of financial difficulties and 1 due to
imprisonment. For the second marriage, the reasons
noted were death (1), prison (2), unreasonable
behavior (3) and financial (1). One of the respondents
described her experiences in the following words:

36
21
Shantakumar (2011: 193) table 1.
“
I am paid by the hour, at 6 dollars
per hour. I will only work for 6
hours. So my pay is not a fixed
amount. The other day I only just received
my pay. I only brought home 500 dollars
after CPF deduction.” [R2Q11]
Household Monthly Income
The distribution of the total household income
reported by the main respondents is presented
in Table 11. Note that the household size in the
category of 4000-4999 includes 10 persons, and that
of the category 5000-5999 includes 5 persons.
One limitation is that we followed the Singapore Stats
categorization, which is by categories of thousands,
but our target group often fell in the second
category, and it would be more appropriate for
future studies to use more disaggregated categories,
for example by $500. Further research would also
need to compute the number of households who
support others outside the household, because
per capita income may be underestimated. Note
that the total dependency ratio in Singapore (2010)
is 35.7, compared to 39.9 for all Malay households
in Singapore.21
Seven households support people outside their
households, such as their parents or parents-in-law,
though none of the respondents support children
living outside their household. Additionally, not all
income earners are working full time, and some
are working part-time to earn pocket money only.
Hence, the dependency ratio is not an accurate
measure of financial pressure. Furthermore, some
of the salaries received are variable and irregular, as
illustrated in this quote:Range of income Frequency
No Working Person 2
Below 1000 5
1000-1999 7
2000-2999 4
3000-3999 2
4000-4999 1
5000-5999 1
Table 11: Total Household Monthly Income (R3E1)
The number of income earner per household varies
between 0 and 5. When taking the mid-point of each
income bracket and dividing by the number of income
earners, the average income per income earner is
as seen in Table 12. It shows for example that, for
households earning about S$ 500 per month, the
average income per income earner is S$ 357, and for
households earning about S$ 1500 per month, the
average income per income earner is S$ 577.

29
SurveyFindings
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
2
University 0
(R3D2)
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Workers
3
Others 1
gerial
0
16
17
18
37
SurveyFindings
Income
Bracket
Number of
households
Average number
of income
earners
Average
household size
Average income
per income
earner per
household*
No Working
person
2 0 6.5 0
Below 1000 5 1.4 5 357
1000-1999 7 2.6 6 577
2000-2999 4 1.5 4.5 1667
3000-3999 2 2.5 5.5 1400
4000-4999 1 4 10 1125
5000-5999 1 3 5 1833
Table 12: Average Income per Income Earner (Per Income Bracket) (R3E1)
*Computed using mid-point of income bracket divided by the average number of income earner. For example, the mid-point for income bracket 1000-1999 is 1500.
Income Outside Main Job
Aside from income from employment, only 9 out of
22 said they received additional income from other
sources (excluding assistance from civil society
organizations) as indicated in Table 13:
None of the respondents in our sample earned
income from rental/dividends/annuity/trusts or
from interests. However, most working respondents
also mentioned that they worked overtime, which
leaves less time for family matters and attending to
children, as discussed more in detail below.
From our sample of 22 households, the survey
findings revealed other financial facts, such that:
• 7 households financially support someone
living outside their home. For most of them,
they support their immediate father/mother.
• None of households support children living
outside their home
• 16 households foresee that their children will
have better financial stability than they had
themselves, one household mentioned that
they expected it to be the same, whereas 5 of
the households could not tell.
• 6 households reported having loans (3 from the
Bank, 4 from the government)
• 9 households reported having health insurance
and 3 reported having life insurance
Type of Income
Received
Frequency
Secondary/part time
job
2
Allowances given by
spouse
1
Allowances given by
children
4
Other 2
Total 9
Table 13: Type of Income Received Outside of
Main Job (R3G2)

38
Figure 1: Household Expenditure - Top 3 Items (R2Q11)Household Expenditure
Each household was asked in both the first and
second round of interviews, about the main
expenditure items. As seen in Figure 1, the
majority of households in our sample spend
more on food (and households items such as
cleaning materials) than any other items, which
is a common trait across the world for low-
income households.
38

29
SurveyFindings
No Schooling 1
Primary 6
Lower Secondary 3
Secondary 7
Post Secondary 3
2
University 0
(R3D2)
Sales and Service 8
Not Working 6
Clerical 4
Workers
3
Others 1
gerial
0
16
17
18
39
SurveyFindings
39
SurveyFindings

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