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MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE
STUDY OF PERSONALITY
Class – XII : Self & Personality : Part-III
Mrs. Navarathina Devakumar, M.Sc., M.Phil. (Psychology)
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Theories
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TYPE APPROACH OF PERSONALITY
Type approaches attempts to
comprehend human personality by
examining certain broad patterns in
the observed behavioural
characteristics of individuals
Each behavioural pattern refers to one
type in which individuals are placed in
terms of the similarity of their
behavioural characteristics with that
pattern
Efforts are taken to categorise people
into personality types based on the
body built or temperament
Hippocrates
Charak Samhita
Sheldon
Carl Jung
Friedman & Rosenman
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Theories
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1. HIPPOCRATES
Hippocrates is a Greek physician who proposed a typology of personality based on fluid
or humour
He classified people into four types
Sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric each characterised by specific
behavioural patterns
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2. CHARAK SAMHITA
Classified people into the categories of vata, pitta and kapha on the basis of three
humoural elements called tridosha
Personality based on trigunas
Sattva guna: It includes attributes of cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, discipline
and detachment
Rajas guna : It includes intensive activity, desire for sense gratification, dissatisfaction,
envy for others and materialistic mentality
Tamas guna: characterised by anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of
helplessness
All the three gunas are present in every individual but the dominance of any one of the
gunas leads to a particular type of behaviour
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Sheldon's typology was based on body build and
temperament
1. Endomorphic:
• Endomorphs are fat, soft and round
• By temperament they are relaxed and sociable
2. Mesomorphic:
• They have strong musculature are rectangular
with a strong body build
• They are energetic and courageous
3 .Ectomorphic:
• The ectomorphs are long, thin, fragile in body
build. They are brainy, artistic and introverted
3.SHELDON TYPE APPROACH
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4. JUNG TYPE APPROACH
1. Introverts
People who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw themselves in the face of
emotional conflicts and are shy
2. Extroverts
Sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly with people and
react to stress by trying to lose themselves among people and social activity
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5. FRIEDMAN AND ROSENMAN
TYPE A personality
• They possess high motivation, lack of patience, feel short of time, be in a great hurry and
feel like always burdened with work
• They are more prone to develop problems like hypertension and coronary heart disease
• TYPE B personality
• Relaxed, less stressed, flexible, patient and expressive
TYPE C personality
• They are cooperative ,unassertive, patient, they suppress their negative emotions
(anger) and show compliance to authority. They are more prone to cancer.
TYPE D personality: characterised by proneness to depression.
MORRIIS HAS SUGGESSTED
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Theories
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Personality
TRAIT APPROACH OF PERSONALITY
Focuses on the specific psychological attributes along which individuals tend to differ in
consistent and stable ways
Individuals are rated in terms of the degree of presence or absence of a trait or a
behavioural quality
Example “ shyness” and friendliness are traits. One my be friendly whereas another
may be less friendly
Trait approach attempts to identify primary characteristics of a person
Allport’s Trait Theory
Cattel: Personality Factors
H.J. Eysenck theory
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Theories
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What are traits?
A trait is considered as a relatively
enduring attribute or quality on
which one individual differs from
another
a) Traits are relatively stable over time
b) They are generally consistent across
situations
c) Their strengths and combinations
vary across individuals leading to
individual differences in personality
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Theories
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Personality
1. Allport’s Trait Theory
Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of trait approach.
He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits.
These traits determine behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches
different situations with similar plans.
He analysed the words of English language to look for traits which describe a person.
He categorised traits into :
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Theories
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Cardinal traits
Central traits Secondary traits
They are highly generalised
disposition
Less pervasive in effect but
still quite generalised
dispositions.
Less pervasive in effect but
still quite generalised
dispositions
They indicate the goal
around which a persons
entire life seems to revolve.
ex, Mahatma Gandhi -
nonviolence
These traits ( warm, sincere,
diligent) are often used in
writing a testimonial or job
recommendation for a
person
Traits such as likes mangoes
or prefers ethnic clothes are
examples of secondary traits
These traits are so dominant
that get associated with the
name of the person. These
traits are highly pervasive
They are relatively weak and
limited effects on the
behaviour
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Theories
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2. Cattell : Personality Factors
Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from
each other.
This structure was determined empirically using a statistical technique called factor
analysis.
He discovered 16 primary or source traits from a huge array of descriptive adjectives
found in language
Source Traits
• Source traits are stable and considered as the building
blocks of personality
• Source traits are described in terms of opposing tendency.
Ex. Dominant vs Passive
Surface Traits
• Surface Traits are caused by interaction of source traits
• These traits are observable and cluster of behaviour
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Theories
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3. Eysenck’s Theory
H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad dimensions. These
are biologically and genetically based. Each dimension subsumes a number of specific traits.
Dimensions
of Eysenck
personality
theory
Neuroticism
vs
Emotional stability
Extraversion
vs
Introversion
Psychoticism
vs
Sociability
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Eysenck's Theory
Neuroticism vs
Emotional stability
It refers to the degree to which people have control over his
feelings
At one extreme of dimension people who are neurotic are
anxious, moody, restless and quickly lose control
At the other extreme people who are calm, even tempered,
reliable and remain under control
Extraversion vs
Introversion
It refers to the degree to which people are socially outgoing or
socially withdrawn
At one extreme people who are active, gregarious, impulsive and
thrill-seeking
At the other extreme are people who are passive, quiet, cautious
and reserved
Psychoticism vs
Sociability
A person who scores high on this dimension are hostile, egocentric
and antisocial
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Theories
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POST- FREUDIAN APPROACHES
CARL JUNG
Jung saw human beings guided as much by aims
and aspirations as by sex and aggression.
He developed his own theory called Analytical
psychology.
Basic assumption: personality consists of
competing forces and structures within the
individual that must be balanced rather than
between the individual demands of the society or
between the individual and the reality.
Analytical psychology
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Theories
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Jung claimed that there was a collective
unconscious consisting of archetypes or
primordial images
Archetypes are not individually acquired but are
inherited. The god or mother earth is a good
example of archetypes. They are found in myths,
dreams and arts of all mankind. Jung held that
self strives for unity and oneness. It is an
archetype that is expressed in many ways
According to him, for achieving unity and
wholeness a person must become increasingly
aware of the wisdom available in ones personal
and collective unconscious and must learn to
live in harmony with it.
POST- FREUDIAN APPROACHES
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Theories
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KARENHORNEY : OPTIMISM
She adopted a more optimistic view of human life with emphasis on
human growth and self actualisation
She opposed Freuds treatment of women as superior and
countered the women were are likely to be affected by social and
cultural factors then biological factor.
She argued that psychological disorder where caused by disturbed
interpersonal relationship during childhood ex., when parents
behaviour towards the child is indifferent, discouraging and erratic,
the child feels insecure and feeling called basic anxiety results.
Deep resentment towards parents or basic hostility occurs due to
this anxiety.
By showing excessive dominance or indifference are by providing
two much or two little approval parents can generate among
children feeling of isolation, helplessness which interfere with the
healthy development.
Disturbed
interpersonal
relationship during
childhood
Basic anxiety
Basic hostility
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Theories
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Personality
ALFRED ADLER : LIFE STYLE AND SOCIAL INTEREST
Adler’s theory is known as individual psychology.
Basic assumptions : Human behaviour is purposeful and goal directed
Each one of us has the capacity to choose and create.
Personal goal are the sources for motivation.
These goals provide us with security and help us in overcoming the
feelings of inadequacy are important for our personality development.
According to Adler’s view, every individual suffers from the feelings of
inadequacy and guilt-Inferiority complex.
Inferiority Complex: It is a complex developed by adults, who have not
been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority, they developed as
children, when they were small and limited in their knowledge about
the world.
Overcoming this complex is essential for optimal personality
development.
Inferiority
complex –
feelings of
inadequacy &
guilt
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Theories
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ERIC FROMM: THE HUMAN CONCERNS
Eric Fromm developed his theory from a social orientation.
He viewed human beings as social beings who could be
understood in terms of relationship with others.
He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and
realisation of potentials resulted from desire for freedom ,
striving for justice and truth.
Fromm holds that personality develops from experience with
other individuals.
His work recognises the value of positive qualities such as
tenderness and love in personality development.
Culture is shaped by the mode of existence of a society,
peoples dominating character traits in a given society work as
forces in shaping the social processes and the culture.
Personality
develops from
experience with
other individuals
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Theories
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Erik Erikson : Search for Identity
What are
the values
of my life?
Am I
making the
right
choices in
life?
Who am I?
Do I fulfil the
expectations
of my parents
or mine
What are my
abilities or
potentials?
Identity refers to the distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what
our roles are, and what we are capable of.
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Erikson : Search for identity
Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational conscious ego processes in personality
development.
In this theory, development is viewed as lifelong process , and identity is granted a
central place in process.
Identity crisis
Identity crisis occurs during the adolescent age which is period of uncertainty and
confusion in which a persons sense of identity becomes insecure , typically due to a
change in their expected aims or roles in the society.
Erikson argues that young people must generate for themselves central perspective
and a direction that give them a meaningful sense of unity and purpose.
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Theories
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The behaviourists believe in data which are definable, observable and
measurable
They focus on learning of stimulus response connections and their
reinforcement.
According to the behaviourists the structural unit of personality is the
response. They see the development as a change in response
characteristics. Individuals learn new behaviours in response to new
environments and stimuli.
Each response is a behaviour which is emitted to satisfy a specific need
The core tendency that organises behaviour is the reduction of
biological or social needs that energise behaviour .This is accomplished
through response that are reinforced.
The principle of learning theories like Classical conditioning by Pavlov,
Instrumental conditioning by Skinner and observational learning by
Bandura are widely used in developing personality theories.
Behavioural Approach of Personality
Response
Reinforcement
Stimulus
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Cultural Approach of Personality
This approach attempts to understand personality in relation to the features of
ecological and cultural environment.
It proposes a group maintenance system which plays a vital role in the origin of
cultural and behavioural variations
The climatic conditions nature of terrain, availability of food, settlement patterns,
division of labour, social structure and child rearing practises constitute a child's
overall learning environment.
Peoples skills, abilities, behavioural styles and value priorities are viewed as strongly
linked to these features.
Rituals, ceremonies, religious practises, arts, recreational activities, games and play
are the means through which peoples personality gets projected in a culture.
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Theories
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The Birhor a tribal group of Jharkhand live a nomadic life and move in forests in
search of food. Their child socialisation practises are aimed at making children
independent, autonomous ( take several decisions for themselves) and achievement
oriented ( accept risks and challenges such as involved in hunting) from an early age
of life.
In agricultural societies, children are socialised to be obedient to elders, nurturant to
youngsters and responsible to their duties.
Because of different economic pursuits and cultural demands, children in hunting
gathering and agricultural societies develop and display different personality patterns.
Comparison of Personality Development in
Birhor Tribal group and Agricultural society
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Theories
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Personality
Humanistic Theory of Personality
The humanistic theories were proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Rogers contribution to humanistic approach:
The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of a fully functioning person.
Person try to express their capabilities , potentials and talents to the fullest extent
possible. There is an inborn tendency among persons that directs them to actualise
their inherited nature.
Basic assumptions of Rogers:
Behaviour is goal directed and worthwhile.
People are innately good and always choose adaptive self actualising behaviour.
Rogers basic principle – people have basic tendency to maximize self concept
through self actualisation. In this process the self grows, expands and become more
social.
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Rogers self theory:
His theory is structured around the concept of self. The theory assumes that people are
constantly engaged in the process of actualising true self.
Roger suggests that each person has a concept of ideal self. An ideal self is a self that a person
would like to be.
When there is a correspondence between the real self and ideal self a person is generally
happy. Discrepancy between the real and ideal self often results in unhappiness and
dissatisfaction
Rogers Self Theory
REAL SELF
How we really see our
self
Correspondence
between real and ideal
self results in happiness
and self actualisation
IDEAL SELF
The self that a person
would like to be
Discrepancy between
real and ideal self results
in unhappiness and
dissatisfaction
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Theories
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Rogers view of personality development:
It is a continuous process. It involves learning to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of
self actualisation. Social influences play a role in development of self concept.
This situation requires an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard must be created to ensure
the enhancement of peoples self concept.
Social
conditions
Positive
High self
esteem &
self concept
Self
actualisation
Negative
Low self
esteem &
self concept
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Theories
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Maslow's contribution to humanistic approach
Maslow had an optimistic and positive view of
man who has potentialities for love, joy and to do
creative work.
Human beings are considered free to shape their
lives and to self actualise.
According to Maslow's theory the biological,
security and security and belongingness needs
called as survival needs are commonly found
among animals and human beings.
Satisfaction of only these needs reduces him/her
to the level of animals. The real journey of human
life begins with the pursuit of self esteem and self
actualisation needs.
