Historical Information

1. K O R E A S I N C E 1 9 4 5 .
THEME 3

2. 3.1 THE KOREAN WAR
• The Cold War first erupted into
heated conflict on the Korean
peninsula and became the first
great global crisis of the War era.
• The Korean War was a direct
consequence of Allied dispositions
at the end of World War ll.

3. 3.1 THE KOREAN WAR
• The involvement of the USA and
Communist Russia had its
foundations in the ideological
differences.
• The USA and Communist Russia
directly contributed to the division
of Korea in to north and south
Korea.

4. THE KOREAN WAR
• Roosevelt and Stalin proposed a
four-power trusteeship at the Yalta
conference.
• Russian troops entered the
peninsula on 9 August 1945.
• The US a full month later on 8
September.

5. THE KOREAN WAR
• Fearing that the Soviet Union may
overrun the entire Korean
peninsular – the US hastily
arranged for partition.
• Republic of Korea (South Korea)
under Syngman Rhee, US territory.

6. THE KOREAN WAR
• Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea (North Korea) under Kim II
Sung, Soviet territory.
• Korean people saw this division as
at all natural or desirable, or
expected it to be permanent.
• Many were eager to unify.

7. THE KOREAN WAR
• Gunfire exchange and
provocation.
• The superpowers avoided to be
dragged into the war fearing
WWIII.

8. THE KOREAN WAR
• In 1950 Stalin gave Kim his
approval for attack without active
Russian participation.
• The South had a larger
population.
• The North heavy industry and
better equipped military forces.

9. THE KOREAN WAR
• On 25 June 1950 the North
attacked.
• Truman fully committed the US
army.
• The Soviet could have veto the
involvement of the UN but were
boycotting the UN.
• Reason for the above.

10. THE KOREAN WAR
• The UN moved quickly to
condemn the attack.
• The defence of the South became
a UN action.
• Some fifteen countries contributed
soldiers and the American general
McArthur assumed control.

11. THE KOREAN WAR
• Seoul fell to Northern forces in
three days.
• By the third week, over half of the
South had been captured.
• With a large advantage in heavy
weapons, the UN forces were able
to dig in.

12. THE KOREAN WAR
• MacArthur was authorised to
continue his advances into the
North as long as there was no sign
of intervention by Russia or China.
• The Chinese premier warned that
China will intervene if any
American troops cross the parallel.

13. THE KOREAN WAR
• In spite, American troops crossed
the parallel and on 19 October
the North capital fell.
• MacArthur assured Truman that
China was not going to intervene
and that even if she did – she was
going to be crushed.

14. THE KOREAN WAR
• The next day (16 October)
Chinese volunteers began
crossing the Yalu River undetected
by the UN.
• China gamble in entering the war
considering the disparity in military
firepower.

15. THE KOREAN WAR
• Mao was confident in his doctrine
of “people’s war” which rely in
manpower rather than
technology.
• Volunteers struck at South Korea’s
columns and withdrew.

16. THE KOREAN WAR
• MacArthur downplay the
intervention as token interference.
• In an effort to quickly finish the war
launched a “home by Christmas”
offensive on 27 Nov.
• MacArthur did not realise that
there were some 200 000 lay
hidden in the mountains.

17. THE KOREAN WAR
• The Chinese strike in full force.
• By January 4 1951 Seoul fell to the
enemy for the second time.
• MacArthur believed that the
solution was to take the war to the
Chinese homeland.

18. THE KOREAN WAR
• Truman and Joint Chiefs feared a
general WWIII.
• Odds against the UN – futility of
bombing, China’s vast population
and extensive land, and Chinese
Communities experience at
guerrilla warfare.

19. THE KOREAN WAR
• There was also a danger of World
War with the Soviet Union.
• MacArthur wanted to open a new
front in Taiwan and continued to
defy directives from Truman

20. THE KOREAN WAR
• He was relieved of his command.
• By June 1951, the war had
reached a stalemate.
• A truce was declared on 27 July
1953.

21. 3.2 CONSEQUENCES
- For the US – lost some 33 000 lives.
- China lost 800 000 including Mao’s
son.
- Korea, 3 million killed, wounded or
missing.
- In the North the war gave Kim an
opportunity to consolidate his
power.

22. CONSEQUENCES
- In the South, it helped pave the way
for three decades of military rule.
- In China, it greatly increased the
prestige of the new republic.
- Koreas continues to confront each
other across the DMZ.
- China now closer relation with South.

23. 3.3 NORTH KOREA AFTER THE WAR
• Recovered more quickly
economically.
• Was reluctant to fully
acknowledge Chinese
contribution or the importance of
Soviet role in establishing Kim (Kim
in Russia).

24. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• After the war North Korea started
to chart an independent course.
• After the rift between Russia and
China, the independence
became extreme.
• Kim developed his unique
philosophy of fuche (self-reliance).

25. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• Fuche replaced orthodox
Marxism.
• It was enforced to people through
loudspeakers and political study
sessions.
• The growing personality cult of
Sung became a kind of a secular
religion.

26. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• Though a Stalinist regime, it was
unique.
• By the end of the twentieth
century there were over 35 000
monuments.
• The personality cult was underpinned
by the patriarchal Korean Confucian
legacy and ancestor warship.

27. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
•
• Kim turned Korea North into a
socialist monarchy.
• Early economic achievements
gave way to stagnation and
decay.

28. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• Available resources were diverted
to military applications.
• Serious economic problems: soil
erosion; declining availability of
fertilisers; lack of electricity; and
bad weather.
• Military tension remained high.

29. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• The DMZ remained the most
heavily fortified areas in the world.
• 1983 seven top South officials
were killed and the president
escaped death.
• 1990 North Korea embarked on a
programme to develop an atomic
bomb.

30. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA).
• Sanctions.
• North warned that further
economic sanctions would be
considered an act of war.
• Jimmy Carter defused the conflict.

31. NORTH AFTER THE WAR
• In 2002 Korea expelled the
inspectors and withdrew from the
Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.
• In 2006 she tested a small nuclear
device.
• The Axis of Evil.
• China organised six-party talks.

32. 3.4 SOUTH KOREA – THE 1ST REPUBLIC
• Founded as a constitutional
democracy in 1948.
• Since then the country has gone
through a succession of six
different republics.
• Syngman Rhee, the first president
soon began to display
authoritarian tendencies.

33. THE 1ST REPUBLIC
• Spent most of his adult life in the
US doing his PhD in political
science and had an Austria wife.
• The above made him a stranger in
his own land.
• After the war it remained one the
poorest countries in the world.

34. THE 1ST REPUBLIC
• Until the mid-seventies it received
more aid from the US after Israel
and South Vietnam.
• Allegation of fraud during the 1960
presidential elections
- student protests
- 186 killed

35. THE 1ST REPUBLIC
- US support for Rhee
withdrawn.
• After nine months of leftist
anarchy, Major General Park
Chung Hee staged a military
coup.
• From 1961 to 1993, South Korea
was led by a military government.

36. THE 1ST REPUBLIC
• It was Park who initiated
economic dev.
• Parks attended a Japanese
military academy during the
period of Japanese colonial rule.
• Was the second lieutenant in the
Japanese army in Manchuria
during WWII.

37. 3.5 INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• He encountered Japanese
development.
• The economic model more closely
parallel that of Japan.
• During his first month in office, Park
established an Economic Planning
Board.

38. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Announced a five year plan for
economic development.
• Nationalisation of banks.
• In promoting industrialisation, tax
incentives and low interest bank
loans were introduced.

39. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Such loans were important in
developing big conglomerates
(chaebol).
• The most important of these are
Samsung, Hyundai and LG.

40. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• The heavy reliance on bank
financing encouraged them to be
heavily indebted.
• However, the government
assumed much of the investment
risk.

41. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Commentators – in the long run
the features of the Korean
economy would become
problematic.
• In the short term, it was working
well.
• From 1965 to 1990, S Korea had
the second fastest growing
economy after Taiwan.

42. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Ever-looming threat of invasion
from the North.
• Wanted to avoid being
dependent on the us.
• During the 1970’s the US transfer its
recognition from Taiwan to China.

43. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Also announced plan to reduce its
troop presence in S Korea.
• Park determined to Korea self-
sufficient.
• Hyundai opened in 1967 and
produced an automobile of its
own design.

44. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Hyundai started exports in 1986.
• By the mid-1990’s she was the fifth
largest automaker in the world.
• Park won the general election in
1963, 67 and 71.
• During the 1971 election, an
opposition won 45%.

45. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Park felt threatened and declared
martial law, dissolved the National
Assembly and introduced a new
constitution.
• The new reforms made the
country more authoritarian.
• Direct popular election of the
president ended.

46. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Korean culture - Korea was
influence by the Japanese model.
• Korean leaders had mostly been
educated under Japanese rule,
• Korea and Japan established
formal diplomatic relations in 1965
and quickly became big trading
partners.

47. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• But had bitter feeling against
Japan.
• Wanted to assert own
independent identity.
• Japanese cultural products
banned.

48. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• American was welcome.
• American presence in the form of
an army.
• American food and pop culture
became popular.
• Christianity flourished more than
anywhere in East Asia.

49. INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA
• Christmas has remained a
national holiday since 1945.
• More than a quarter of South
Koreans are Christians.

50. 3.6 DEMOCRATIZATION AND
GLOBALIZATION
• On October 26, 1979 Park was shot to
death by the head of the KCIA -
apparently because of a
disagreement over how to control
recent student and labor unrest.
• Following the assassination a gun
battle between opposing
detachments of South Korean
soldiers.

51. DEMOCRATIZATION
• The gun battle ended with an
attack on the Ministry of Defense
and the arrest of the defense
minister and the martial law
commander, apparently in
connection with President Park's
murder.

52. DEMOCRATIZATION
• Major General Chun Doo Hwan
staged a coup, in May 1980 -
• Declared martial law, closed all
universities, and suspended the
National Assembly.

53. DEMOCRATIZATION
• This sparked protests - University
students were joined in the streets
by citizens, and for a few days, the
demonstrators controlled the city.
• Army Special Forces crushed the
protesters.

54. DEMOCRATIZATION
• Chun's government assumed
control over all Korean television
networks and began large-scale
purges of the bureaucracy.
• World opinion in the 1980s was
very different from when Park
seized power.

55. DEMOCRATIZATION
• In the Philippines, long-standing
dictator Ferdinand Marcos was
toppled by a "people power"
movement in 1986.
• In Taiwan, martial law would be
lifted, and a successful transition
from single-party rule to multiparty
democracy began in 1987.

56. DEMOCRATIZATION
• By the 1980s, South Korea was also
no longer an impoverished, war-
ravaged developing country but
a successfully industrialized
economic powerhouse.
• Korean people expected that
democratization should also be
part of this modernization process.

57. DEMOCRATIZATION
• Students, in particular, clamored
for democracy.
• Korean workers, whose low wages
had helped make Korean industry
globally competitive, were
increasingly organized and active
in demanding pay raises.

58. DEMOCRATIZATION
• Clashes between rock-throwing
students and teargas-firing police
ended with Chun Doo Hwan's
hand-picked successor, Roh Tae
Woo, making significant
concessions to the demonstrators.

59. DEMOCRATIZATION
• In June 1987, Roh publicly
promised, among other things, a
direct popular presidential
election and the release of
political prisoners.
• In December, the promised
presidential election duly
occurred.

60. DEMOCRATIZATION
• Roh Tae Woo (an army general)
won the elections to become the
first democratically elected
president.
• Another milestone was passed in
1992 with the election of Korea's
first civilian president in three
decades Kim Young Sam.

61. DEMOCRATIZATION AND
GLOBALIZATION
• The new administration was
committed to economic
liberalization, deregulation, and
globalization.
• The new president was also
anxious to promote democratizing
reforms after he took office in
1993.

62. DEMOCRATIZATION AND
GLOBALIZATION
• His vision of democracy was still
strikingly Confucian, however,
emphasizing the collective good
of the community over selfish
individual interests, harmony,
national discipline, and the
characteristically Confucian ideal
of leadership by virtuous example.

63. GLOBALIZATION
• In the early 1990s, the new South
Korean administration also made a
formal policy commitment to
globalization and the dismantling of
the Korean developmental state.
• The United States and other trading
partners were beginning to apply
serious pressure on South Korea to
open its own domestic markets.

64. GLOBALIZATION
• Government five-year economic
plans came to an end.
• In 1994, the Economic Planning
Board was merged into a new
super ministry (called the Ministry
of Finance and Economy).

65. GLOBALIZATION
• Also opened up diplomatically,
becoming a member of the UN in
1991 and normalizing relations with
the Soviet Union in 1990 and with
the PRC in 1992.
• Unbanning on the importation of
Japanese cultural products,
starting with movies and cartoons.

66. GLOBALIZATION
• During Park, imports of foreign
consumer goods were often
restricted, and buying foreign was
discouraged as being unpatriotic.
• To protect the domestic
automobile industry, the import of
finished automobiles was
prohibited until 1987.

67. GLOBALIZATION
• But by the 1980s, things had
begun to seriously change.
• South Korea had moved
dramatically to a modern,
industrialized, and increasingly
affluent urban middle-class
society.

68. GLOBALIZATION
• Something like 42 percent of the
South Korean people now lived in
the single metropolis of Seoul.
• These new Korean people were
not merely urban but also modern
and sophisticated.

69. GLOBALIZATION
• Seoul boasted strikingly high
concentrations of PhDs.
• Beginning in 1989, for the first time,
passports became easily available
to South Koreans, and foreign
travel has since become much
more common.

70. GLOBALIZATION
• Koreans increasingly are inclined
to make purchases based on
judgments of price and quality
rather than for patriotic national
considerations.
• Large Western discount made
their appearance, and American
music, movies, and cola became
the rage among young Koreans.

71. GLOBALIZATION
• In 1996, it was estimated that 58
percent of South Koreans ate at
Western-style restaurants, and 40
percent said they preferred
sleeping on Western-style beds
instead of on the floor, Korean
style.

72. GLOBALIZATION
• Koreans fear foreign cultural
imperialism and the possible loss of
Korean national identity.
• The first McDonald's opened in
Seoul in 1988, for example, but
McDonald's has grown more
slowly in South Korea than
elsewhere in East Asia.

73. GLOBALIZATION
• As late as 1993, South Korea -
"alone in Asia" - still refused to
allow Michael Jackson to perform
there.
• By the end of the 1990’s its global
competitiveness rankings had
actually declined.

74. GLOBALIZATION
• In 1997, it was even obliged to
accept the largest bailout (fifty-
eight billion dollars) thus far in the
history of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF).

75. GLOBALIZATION
• While the chaebol had continued
to grow, liberalization of the
economy and deregulation made
it harder for the government to
impose any discipline on them.

76. GLOBALIZATION
• Deregulation of Korea's financial
systems in the name of glob-
alization also brought in a flood of
mostly short-term foreign debt.
• But under the pressure of this crisis
and IMF supervision, South Korea
moved forward quickly with
economic liberalization.

77. GLOBALIZATION
• Foreign direct investment was made
easier, and even outright foreign
acquisition of Korean firms was
permitted.
• The recovery was rapid and
successful enough that Korea was
able to pay back what it owed the
IMF in three and a half years rather
than the anticipated four.

78. GLOBALIZATION
• In June 2000, President Kim Dae Jung
flew to Pyongyang, where he was
received surprisingly graciously by
North Korean leader Kim Jong II.
• In the twenty-first century movies,
music, and other pop cultural items,
as well as for the material products of
Korean industry, such as cell phones
and automobiles, has swept across
much of Asia.

79. GLOBALIZATION
• In 1997, opposition party
candidate Kim Dae Jung won the
presidential election.
• In 2009, there was a renewed
nuclear scare involving North
Korea.

80. THEME 4
China since 1945

81. 4.1 THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR
• Conditions in war-ravaged China did not
noticeably improve after Japan's defeat.
• Civil war between the Chinese Nationalists and
Communists entered its final phase.
• The U.S. ambassador did succeed in bringing
Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek together for
face-to-face negotiations.
• In late 1945, President Truman appointed General
George C. Marshall as a special envoy to China.

82. CIVIL WAR
• Marshall also expressed concern that efforts at
reaching a peace settlement were being frustrated
by extremists on both sides.
• Taiwan, recently returned to Chinese rule following
Japan's surrender from World War II experienced
economic problems.
• High unemployment, shortages of goods, and out-
of-control inflation.
• Taiwan erupted into a major, island wide rebellion
on February 28, 1947.

83. CIVIL WAR
• The rebellion was crushed by Nationalist
government troops, resulting in the deaths of
thousands of Taiwanese.
• Meanwhile, although the Soviet Union did not enter
the war against Japan until just six days before
Japan's surrender, that was still sufficient time for the
Soviets to overrun Manchuria at the end of World
War II.
• The Soviets then occupied Manchuria for about a
year, and extracted hundreds of millions of dollars'
worth of war reparations from the region.

84. CIVIL WAR
• Soviet military presence gave a boost to the
Chinese Communists.
• The Russians turned over to the Chinese Communists
some three-quarters of a million captured rifles,
eighteen thousand machine guns, and four
thousand pieces of artillery.
• Manchuria then became the launching pad for the
Chinese Communist military reunification of China.
• The United States was providing very substantial aid
to Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists.

85. CIVIL WAR
• The Nationalist armies were initially larger and better
equipped than the Communist Red Army.
• But the Nationalists fought a static defensive war
and were outmaneuvered and defeated unit by
unit.
• In the process, huge amounts of men and material
were captured by the Communists.
• Senior American advisor to Chiang Kai-shek's
military even complained that "the Communists had
more of our equipment than the Nationalists did."
• Beijing fell to the Communists in January 1949.

86. CIVIL WAR
• Chiang Kai-shek retreated with some two million
followers to the island of Taiwan.
• On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong stood on
Tiananmen - the old Gate of Heavenly Peace and
proclaimed the establishment of a new country,
called the People's Republic of China (PRC).
• Westerners in China were not all immediately
expelled after the Communist takeover.
• The American president even briefly contemplated
recognizing the new People's Republic.

87. 4.2 CHAIRMAN MAO’S NEW CHINA
• But following the outbreak of war in Korea in 1950,
the United States firmly recommitted itself to support
for Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Republic of China
on Taiwan.
• The new PRC started to cultivate relatively cordial
relations with the Soviet Union.
• In December 1949, he went to Moscow on his first
ever trip abroad.

88. MAO’S NEW CHINA
• He obtain a three hundred million dollar loan, and a
(short) period of Soviet assistance to China began
that "has been characterized as the largest
technology transfer in history.“
• The most urgent immediate priority for the new
China was simply to restore order.
• Had no intention of merely restoring the status quo.
• The Communist leaders were also sincerely
committed Marxists and were determined to carry
through a Marxist social revolution.

89. MAO’S NEW CHINA
• Marxist theory taught that historical progress is
driven by class struggle through a regular series of
stages, defined in terms of modes of production.
• The most relevant of these stages were supposed to
be the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and
then from capitalism to communism.
• By 1952 Mao was ready to initiate the "transition to
socialism."
• Collectivized farming, began to be promoted.

90. MAO’S NEW CHINA
• Although Mao had led what was undeniably a rural
"peasant revolution," modern socialist
industrialization remained a cherished Communist
goal.
• A Soviet Russian model for the development of
heavy industry in China was adopted, based on
centralized planning and a series of Stalinist-style
five-year plans.
• The first was implemented in 1953.

91. MAO’S NEW CHINA
• During another visit to Moscow in 1957,Mao was
encouraged by the pioneering launch of the Soviet
space satellite Sputnik.
• Mao was inspired enough by the Soviets'
announced goal of overtaking the U.S. economy in
fifteen years to call for China overtaking Great
Britain in that same length of time.

92. 4.3 THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Mao's visit to Moscow may have also struck a spark
of Chinese nationalistic competitive rivalry with the
Russians.
• Mao began to contemplate significant departures
from the Soviet Russian model.
• He believed that industrialization, and economic
takeoff, could be achieved through people power
rather than through new technologies, capital
investment, or elitist centralized planning.

93. THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE
CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• People power underlay what came to be known as
the Great Leap Forward, beginning in 1958.
• The Great Leap Forward was announced in early
1958, the first experimental commune was
established in April.
• But the Great Leap Forward quickly turned into a
great disaster.

94. THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE
CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• The most notorious examples of this were the so-
called backyard steel furnaces that were intended
to double China's steel and iron production in a
single year.
• Even more serious was the disaster in agriculture.
• Because private ownership was now forbidden,
many farmers apparently simply killed their livestock
rather than turn it over to the collective.

95. THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE
CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• By fall 1958, serious shortages were already
becoming apparent.
• It is now estimated that at least fifteen million
people -and possibly many more - died of
malnutrition during the famine caused by the Great
Leap Forward in the years 1958-1962.

96. THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE
CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Because Mao sometimes encouraged criticism, but
also sometimes lashed out unpredictably at anyone
who disagreed with him, the people around him
were reluctant to tell him anything he did not want
to hear.
• At a party meeting in 1959, the defense minister, a
hero of the Korean War, offered a critique, in a
private letter to Mao, of the Great Leap Forward as
a violation of the basic laws of economics.

97. THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE
CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Mao's prestige was still unchallengeable - and the
defense minister was purged as a "bourgeois
element."
• Mao stepped down as the head of the Chinese
government (while retaining his more powerful
position as chairman of the Communist Party)
• Over the next few years, Mao was seen so seldom
in public that some observers in the West began to
speculate that he might even be dead.

98. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• But Mao was not dead, and he was apparently
growing suspicious of "revisionists" and "capitalist
readers.“
• This suspicion set the stage for Mao's next, and last,
great campaign, which is known as the Great
Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
• By spring 1966, Mao, his wife, and a circle of radical
followers were encouraging young students to take
to the streets to promote a Maoist vision of
revolution.

99. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Mao famously told the students, "It is right to rebel."
• Many of the students organized themselves into
groups called Red Guards, the first of which
appeared at a Beijing middle school in May 1966.
• By June, classes in China's schools had been
suspended, and millions of students were released
to join the action.

100. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Students were given free rail transportation, and
many went to Beijing in the hope of catching a
glimpse of the "big red sun,” Chairman Mao.
• The Cultural Revolution represented a rejection of
the old feudal (i.e., traditional) and bourgeois (i.e.,
Western) influences in art, literature, and culture
generally, and an attempt to replace these with a
new socialist culture.

101. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• On July 17, 1966, the seventy-three-year-old Mao
Zedong electrified the youth of China by swimming
several miles down the Yangzi River.
• He then returned to Beijing to attack the party
leadership in a Central Committee meeting on July
21.
• Persons in leadership positions throughout China
who were not perceived as being sufficiently Maoist
were denounced and publicly struggled against.

102. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Most prominent among the victims were the
president of the PRC (the head of China's
government) and another senior leader named
Deng Xiaoping.
• By 1968, the president of the People's Republic had
been formally expelled from the Communist Party.
• He died of pneumonia, lying naked on his cement
prison floor, an "enemy of the people," the following
year, in 1969.

103. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• The other top-ranking target of the Cultural
Revolution, Deng Xiaoping, was comparatively
fortunate.
• Deng, too, was purged, and Deng endured three
years of struggle sessions and solitary confinement
and then three more years of internal exile under
house arrest, working in a tractor repair factory in
southeast China.
• But Deng survived, was eventually rehabilitated,
and made an historic comeback.

104. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• By 1969, almost half of the original Politburo
members, and more than half of the original
Central Committee members, had been purged.
• More radical Red Guard factions were also
dragging China ever deeper into chaos where
there was even some actual combat between
armed factions.
• Finally, beginning in September 1967, Mao called
on the People's Liberation Army to step in and
restore order.

105. CULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Beginning in 1968, and continuing until Mao's death
in 1976, more than twelve million students were "sent
down" to remote rural villages.
• This was intended both to break up the student
concentrations and to acquaint elitist student
intellectuals with a taste of hard peasant life.
• By now, the active phase of the Cultural Revolution
was over.

106. 4.4 NIXON AND MAO
• Relations between the United States under Nixon
and China started to soften.
• On the other hand, relationship with the Soviet
Union had also always been distant and rocky.
• After Stalin died in 1953, relations deteriorated
rapidly.

107. NIXON AND MAO
• Beijing denounced the Soviets for revisionism and
betrayal of the revolution, while Moscow criticized
ultra-radical Chinese Maoists for their extremism.
• In 1968, Moscow sent troops into Czechoslovakia
and openly asserted Moscow's right to intervene in,
and the limited independent sovereignty of other
countries within the Socialist bloc.

108. NIXON AND MAO
• By this time, the Russian also seemed to be the
dominant external supporters of the Communist
cause in Vietnam, to China's south.
• The Chinese therefore increasingly felt surrounded
with, and threatened by, Russians.
• To the north, China and the Soviet Union shared the
longest land border in the world.

109. NIXON AND MAO
• Along this frontier there was a massive Soviet military
buildup.
• The number of Soviet divisions deployed along the
border increased from twenty-five in 1969 to forty-
five in 1973.
• During these years, there were a large number of
border incidents, the most serious of which
occurred in March 1969 at Damansky Island .

110. NIXON AND MAO
• By 1969, many of China's leaders had come to view
the Soviet Union as a greater military threat to
China than the United States.
• On the American side, the United States had
continued to recognize Taiwan.
• There were no direct communications between the
United States and the PRC.

111. NIXON AND MAO
• Americans were flatly not permitted to travel to
mainland China.
• In 1969, moreover, the United States had a new
president, Richard M. Nixon.
• China was a magnificently effective strategy in
Washington's global cold war rivalry with Moscow.

112. NIXON AND MAO
• In addition, the United States was then mired in a
deeply unpopular war in Vietnam.
• By 1969, there were 541,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam -
yet there was still no end to the war in sight.

113. NIXON AND MAO
• China appeared to be the only country that might
be able to provide some leverage to help the
United States free itself from Vietnam.
• Both Mao and Nixon were therefore ready to relax
the Sino-American confrontation.
• An opportunity presented itself in 1971 in the form of
so-called ping-pong diplomacy.

114. NIXON AND MAO
• During the Cultural Revolution, China had simply not
participated in any international athletic events.
• With Mao's approval a Chinese team attended the
1971 World Table Tennis Championship being held
in Japan.
• Friendly relations between the U.S. and Chinese
ping-pong teams prompted an invitation (with top-
level approval) to the American team to visit China.

115. NIXON AND MAO
• A year later, the Chinese team reciprocated with a
visit to the United States.
• Secret negotiations between the Nixon
administration and Beijing began in February 1972.
• President Nixon went to China.
• The biggest and most thorny diplomatic issue was
the problem of Taiwan.

116. NIXON AND MAO
• The United States delicately sidestepped the issue in
the resulting formal document known as the
Shanghai Communique.
• This document acknowledged that Chinese people
on both Taiwan and the mainland were in
agreement that there is only one China, and that
Taiwan is a part of it, and expressed the desire that
this issue be settled peacefully by the Chinese
themselves.

117. NIXON AND MAO
• The Shanghai Communique also affirmed the
American intention of progressively withdrawing U.S.
military forces from Taiwan.
• However, the United States did not officially switch
recognition from Taiwan to the PRC until 1979.
• The U.S. Congress passed a new Taiwan Relations
Act, committing the United States to a high level of
continued support for Taiwan.

118. 4.5 DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• On September 9, 1976, Chairman Mao Zedong
died.
• Mao's wife and three of her ultra-radical colleagues
- the Gang of Four attempted to seize power.
• Instead, senior military figures staged a preemptive
countercoup.
• Power therefore passed to Mao's own handpicked
successor (Hua Guofeng, 1921-2008).

119. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• Over time, some three million people who had
been purged during the Cultural Revolution were
restored to public life.
• Deng Xiaoping was not only still alive but also
already promoting a relatively appealing program
of economic and technological reform.
• By 1978, Deng Xiaoping, representing the economic
reform faction, had risen to supreme power.

120. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• Deng did not take any top offices or titles for
himself, but remained China's acknowledged
paramount leader until his death.
• Deng never enjoyed the kind of concentrated
prestige and power that Mao had once wielded.
• The goal of the economic reformers was to
improve China's standard of living.
• In the agricultural sector, they proceeded through
improvisation.

121. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The economic reforms began with unauthorized
local initiatives.
• In 1979, one commune responded to a drought
situation by drawing up individual contracts and
basing pay on productivity.
• The practice quickly spread and turned into a
general nationwide abandonment of the
communes and a return to the family farm, or
individual household, as the basic agricultural unit.

122. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The industrial sector presented a much more
complicated problem.
• China's leaders were reluctant to throw large
numbers of workers out of their jobs by closing down
even the most unproductive state-run factories.
• It was easier simply to authorize new enterprises
outside the existing state-run sector - but the surging
growth of this new entrepreneurship then quickly
threatened to overwhelm the state-run share.

123. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• By about 1992, China had become a predomi-
nantly market economy.
• A third of private business owners in China are now
actually Communist Party members, and even
though it has become common to joke that the
acronym CCP really should now stand for "Chinese
Capitalist Party”.

124. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The market-based reforms in China since 1978 have
been spectacularly successful.
• Although most Chinese people remain poor by the
standards of the world's most developed countries,
some four hundred million Chinese people have
been lifted out of the direst poverty, and China's
major cities have been utterly transformed.

125. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• By the end of the twentieth century, China had
more television sets than any other country in the
world.
• By the start of the twenty-first century, in 2001, China
had the most cell phones in the world.
• There is now more Internet use in China than in any
other single country

126. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• In December 2008, China actually passed the
United States to become the world's largest market
for automobile sales (although this was, initially at
least, mainly because of a slump in U.S. car sales
owing to a recession).
• By 2006, China had also become the world's third
largest market for luxury goods.

127. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The reasons for China's rapid economic takeoff
were chiefly:
- The relaxation of central controls;
- A widespread and obsessive focus on
economic growth and money making;
- A huge, relatively well educated and
eager labor supply; and
- Generous foreign investment.

128. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• Opening up to foreign trade and investment was
critical.
• Under Deng Xiaoping, China opened up again.
• China, as opposed to Japan and South Korea have
a greater openness to foreign investment.
• As of 2003, the foreign direct investment to GDP
ratio in China was 35 percent, compared to only 2
percent in Japan.

129. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The reappearance of Special Economic Zones
(SEZs).
• Four of these SEZs were initially approved in 1979
(Shenzhen, Shantou, Zhuhai, and Xiamen, all in the
southeast).
• China's new openness brought in not only foreign
investment but also foreign ideas.

130. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• China's economic growth has been largely fueled
by new investment rather than dramatic
improvements in productivity.
• China's efficiency in the use of resources such as oil
and water remains low compared to advanced
industrialized nations, and China's prohibition of
independent labour unions has also helped keep
wages low.

131. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• China's economic growth has been largely fueled
by new investment rather than dramatic
improvements in productivity.
• China's efficiency in the use of resources such as oil
and water remains low compared to advanced
industrialized nations, and China's prohibition of
independent labour unions has also helped keep
wages low.

132. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• China's economic success has been accompanied
by some highly unattractive features such as
sweatshops, official corruption, and horrific
environmental pollution.
• In 2007, China passed the United States to become
the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases.
• Corruption and abuses of authority have become
endemic.

133. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• The economic reforms undeniably opened up new
entrepreneurial opportunities for some people, they
also took away most of the old guarantees for
others.
• Rapid urbanization also created a huge underclass
of migrant workers, who often face discrimination
and harsh working and living conditions.

134. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• Gender discrimination has actually gotten worse
under the market-based reforms, as old patriarchal
prejudices revive.
• Relations between China and the United States
come under various new strains.
• This includes the growing trade imbalance, U.S.
concern that China was helping Pakistan develop
nuclear weapons, and a newly emerging concern
for human rights issues.

135. DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-
LENINISM
• Tiananmen massacre ended any illusions some
Americans may have entertained that China was
happily on its way to becoming a capitalist
democracy.

136. 4.6TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• Deng Xiaoping engineered the installation of a
younger generation of reformers in China's top
offices.
• One of these men, Hu Yaobang (1915-1989), was
Deng's designated successor and, as secretary
general of the Communist Party, the highest ranking
person in China.

137. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• But in the winter of 1986-1987, Hu Yaobang was
accused by hard-liners of being too sympathetic to
student demonstrators.
• Hu was compelled to step down.
• On the morning of April 15, 1989, former secretary
General Hu Yaobang died in the hospital following
a heart attack.

138. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• Later that same afternoon, mourners began
appearing in Tiananmen Square.
• By the time of Hu Yaobang's funeral, two hundred
thousand student demonstrators had gathered in
Tiananmen Square.
• Their demonstrations continued on after the funeral
and increasingly included calls for political reforms
to complement the existing market-based
economic reforms.

139. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• On May 13, a smaller group of students began a
permanent occupation of the square and a hunger
strike.
• The demonstrations coincided with the first Sino-
Soviet summit meeting in three decades.
• On May 16, the leader of the Soviet Union arrived in
Beijing from Moscow, trailed by over a thousand
foreign journalists.

140. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• As a result of all the resulting world media attention,
the student demonstrations in Tiananmen Square
became the best-covered political event in the
history of the PRC (at least until the 2008 Beijing
Olympics).
• By May 17, there were a million demonstrators in the
hundred-acre Tiananmen Square, and their
demonstrations completely upstaged the
supposedly historic Sino-Soviet summit.

141. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• After the Sino-Soviet summit meeting and the
departure of the Russian leader, live satellite
television broadcasts were ordered terminated and
on May 20, martial law was formally declared.
• An ultimatum was issued to the demonstrators:
disperse immediately or be dispersed by force.

142. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• The first attempt to use the army to clear the square
failed.
• Many people in the Communist Party itself were
apparently sympathetic to the students.
• Sympathizers included even the highest-ranking
person in China, the secretary general of the
Communist Party Zhao Ziyang.
• Zhao Ziyang was placed under house arrest, where
he remained until his death in 2005.

143. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• Student grievances in 1989 included criticism of
widespread official corruption, bureaucratic
arbitrariness of life in the PRC, the stifling lack of
personal freedoms, and frustration with a reform
process that had apparently stalled.
• Another motivation was the acute realization that
college-educated professionals in China - who
were assigned jobs by the state at fixed rate had
been largely left out of the new opportunities.

144. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• The Goddess of Democracy statue that was
erected in Tiananmen Square.
• There were nearly simultaneous democracy
movements in several other parts of the world.
• "People power" successfully brought down the
Filipino dictator Ferdinand Marcos in 1986, student
demonstration in South Korea led to a democratic
presidential election in 1987.

145. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• The same year, Taiwan repealed its martial law and
legalized the formation of opposition parties,
becoming a genuine multiparty democracy.
• In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, beginning the unraveling
of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe and the
collapse of the Soviet Union.
• But the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations in
China ended very differently.

146. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• Senior Communist leaders, including Deng
Xiaoping, were determined to maintain control.
• In the darkness of early Sunday morning, June 4,
thousands of fully armed combat troops assaulted
Tiananmen Square.
• Around 1:00 A.M., an armored personnel carrier
toppled the Goddess of Democracy statue
• At 4:30 A.M., the remaining students, after taking a
voice vote, withdrew from the square.

147. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• Hundreds - perhaps thousands - of people had
been For a time.
• China appeared poised on the brink of civil war.
• Since 1989, ' in China itself, however, the Communist
Party has managed to stay in power^ suppress
unwelcome memories, restart the market-based
economic reforms, and deliver surging prosperity.

148. TIANANMEN SQUARE
DEMONSTRATIONS
• By 2008, China's rate of popular national satisfaction
was the highest in the world, with 86 percent of the
Chinese people expressing satisfaction.

149. 4.7 GREATER CHINA
• Economic development has been largely fueled by
foreign investment – but as much as 80 percent -
has come from Chinese people.
• There are some thirty to thirty-five million overseas
Chinese (Huaqiao) who live scattered around the
world, in neither the PRC nor Taiwan, and who have
been important sources of investment in China.

150. GREATER CHINA
• There are three predominantly Chinese territories
outside the mainland PRC that together comprise a
kind of Greater China: Taiwan, Hong Kong, and
Singapore.
• Hong Kong, especially, proved critical to the early
stages of China's market-based reforms, serving as
China's single largest source of foreign direct
investment.

151. GREATER CHINA
• After Hong Kong reverted to Chinese rule in 1997,
Taiwan then replaced it as the major source of
foreign investment.
• Greater China and the overseas Chinese enjoy
certain natural advantages in doing business there.

152. GREATER CHINA
SINGAPORE
• Singapore is the most remote from the PRC of these
three Chinese territories.
• About three-quarters of the people in Singapore
are ethnic Chinese.
• Geographical importance - has been a principal
gateway for shipping coming from the west into the
Pacific Ocean for many centuries.
• Singapore is today the world's busiest container
port.

153. GREATER CHINA
SINGAPORE
• Was still almost entirely uninhabited, however, when
the British East India Company first established a
base there in 1819.
• Large numbers of Chinese people, together with
somewhat smaller numbers of Indians, moved into
the region to participate in its economic
development.
• Tension after independence.

154. GREATER CHINA
SINGAPORE
• Singapore to split from Malaysia in 1965, becoming
an independent city-state.
• Singapore became rich because it was already
relatively rich, and because it had good policies.
• Its prosperity was rooted in a lengthy colonial
prehistory of active participation in world trade,
which was modified after the end of British rule to
include a particularly active new role for
government.

155. GREATER CHINA
SINGAPORE
• An antiseptic, relatively crime-free environment was
achieved through unusually strict measures such as
a stiff U.S. $50 fine for spitting in public, fine for not
flushing public toilets after use, a long-standing
(now slightly modified) prohibition on chewing gum,
a ban on nudity, and a particularly high ratio of
capital punishment.
• People's Action Party (PAP) the only party.

156. GREATER CHINA
SINGAPORE
• The world's number one freest economy.
• It enjoys a longer average f life expectancy than
the United States.
• Territories with the world's highest per capita
incomes.
• A special administrative region (SAR) of the PRC.
• Began life as a British colony.

157. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• Soon after the British acquisition, Chinese people
began migrating there in large numbers, in search
of economic opportunity.
• Chinese people make up some 95 percent of Hong
Kong's total population.
• Hong Kong is very much an in-migrant society with
only about half the people in Hong Kong had
actually been born there.

158. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• With the onset of Deng Xiaoping's market-based
reforms in the late 1970s, Hong Kong found itself
uniquely well positioned.
• Hong Kong entered now into its greatest boom era.
• Even while still a British colony, per capita income in
Hong Kong surpassed that of Great Britain in the
1990s.

159. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• Hong Kong was not a democracy as there was no
representative self- government.
• It was, instead, a direct Crown colony.
• The first direct popular democratic election was not
held until 1991.
• Christopher Patten came into office in 1992.

160. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• The majority of Hong Kong's land area, the New
Territories, had merely been leased.
• That ninety-nine-year lease was due to expire in
1997, and in anticipation of that date, British prime
minister Margaret Thatcher (1925-) visited Beijing in
1982 in the hope of negotiating an extension.

161. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• Deng Xiaoping and the Beijing authorities flatly
refused to consider any continuation of British
administration, however, and the final outcome was
a 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, under the terms
of which all of Hong Kong would revert to Chinese
rule at the expiration of the lease.

162. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• But Beijing also made a significant concession:
Hong Kong would become a special administrative
region of the People's Republic, and would be
allowed to keep its own distinctive capitalist society
for at least fifty years, under the formula "one
country, two systems."

163. GREATER CHINA
HONG KONG
• At midnight on June 30, 1997, 156 years of British
colonial rule in Hong Kong finally came to an end.
• Hong Kong nonetheless does retain a high degree
of autonomy.
• Hong Kong retains its own separate money system,
known as the Hong Kong dollar.
• Hong Kong is the only place in China today where
the Tiananmen massacre can be openly
commemorated.

164. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• Taiwan's government still calls itself the Republic of
China.
• It still flies the old national flag of the Chinese
Republic.
• Taiwan still actively uses the old Chinese Nationalist
calendar that counts all dates from the founding of
the Chinese Republic on the mainland in 1912
(making, for example, the year 2000 of our so-called
"common era" the year 89 on Taiwan).

165. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• Taiwan has maintained more continuity with certain
aspects of Chinese traditional culture (such as
religion, respect for Confucian I values, and the full
form of the Chinese writing system) than the
mainland PRC has.
• There are aborigines on the island, though today
they only make up about 2 percent of the
population.

166. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• HISTORY - In the seventeenth century, the Dutch
established an outpost on the southwest coast of
Taiwan (1624-1662).
• The Dutch were soon driven off by Chinese pirates.
• In 1683, pirates were conquered by the Qing
Dynasty, and for the first time, Taiwan officially
became part of an empire based in China.

167. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• The Qing Dynasty was defeated by Japan in war in
1895 and the island was ceded to Japan and
became modern Japan's first overseas imperial
colony.
• In 1945, Japan lost World War II, and Taiwan was
returned to Chinese rule under Chiang.
• Chiang Kai-shek remained president until his death
in 1975.

168. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• The government in Taipei long continued to claim
that it was the only legitimate government of all
China.
• When forced to choose, most of the world
eventually opted to recognize the Beijing-based
PRC.
• Great Britain recognized, the PRC in 1950, soon after
its formation, France recognized it in 1964, Canada
established diplomatic relations in 1970, and by
1979, even the United States had formally switched
its recognition from Taipei to Beijing.

169. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• Today, the only European state that still officially
recognizes the Republic of China on Taiwan is the
Vatican.
• The split between mainland China and Taiwan is still
an unresolved issue.
• Friction between mainlanders and Taiwanese.
• Taiwan Independence Movement.

170. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• The "mainlanders" are those who fled to the island
with Chiang Kai-shek make up roughly 14 percent
the island's population.
• Some Taiwanese felt oppressed by this continuing
mainlander rule on the island.
• Despite these problems, however, Taiwan also
quickly became a spectacular example of an East
Asian "economic miracle," and the first genuine
multipart democracy in Chinese history.

171. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• In the following year, 1987, President Chiang Ching-
kuo's administration formally repealed martial law,
legalized the formation of opposition parties lifted
some of the existing restrictions on the press, and
permitted indirect travel (through another country)
to mainland China.
• Became primarily a two-party system, with the : DPP
and the Nationalist Party as the two major
alternatives.

172. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• In 2000, the DPP candidate, Chen Shuibian won the
presidential election.
• In 2004, Chen Shuibian won reelection for a second
four-year term.
• While President Chen Shuibian and the DPP weri
trying to promote a Taiwan independence agenda
and tensions between Taipei and Beijing were most
elevated, Taiwan's economic and cultural
reintegration will mainland China was also
simultaneously rapidly accelerating.

173. GREATER CHINA
TAIWAN
• Prior to the democratization of Taiwan in 1987, it
had been flatly illegal for people from Taiwan to go
to mainland China.
• Thereafter, however, they began doing so in ever
growing numbers. The PRC has now become
Taiwan's largest market.
• Culturally - the Mandarin language that is spoken in
Taiwan is nearly identical to the Mandarin spoken in
the PRC.

174. 4.8 CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Deng Xiaoping toured the SEZs in the early 1990s -
pronounced that China should not fear a little
capitalism.
• By the early 1990s, China had successfully
completed its transition to a predominantly market
economy and her economy continued to surge.

175. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• In 2008, China invested about one trillion U.S. dollars
in American government bonds and other U.S.
debt.
• China passed Japan in late 2008 to become the
largest single holder of U.S. government debt.

176. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Economic growth and international integration
have not yet triggered democratization.
• China's current president, Hu Jintao did affirm a
commitment to democracy and rule by law shortly
after coming to power in 2002.
• Voting by ordinary citizens remains limited to the
lowest administrative level.

177. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• The Internet is also monitored.
• One of the biggest grievances leading up to the
Tiananmen Square demonstrations in 1989 had
been that college-educated professionals felt
excluded from the profit-making opportunities
provided by market-based reforms.

178. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Since 1989, however, some observers believe that
college-educated professionals in China have been
specifically targeted for economic rewards and
have accordingly become increasingly content
and satisfied with the status quo.
• Half of all college students in China are now
applying to join the Communist Party, and party
membership has grown, reaching some seventy-
three million by 2003.

179. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• China today does face a considerable number of
daunting problems.
• Major problems include the exhaustion of China's
natural resources, growing economic inequality,
and endemic corruption.
• The single most frightening problem is China's
rapidly dwindling water supply, particularly in north
China, where the water table is plummeting
alarmingly.

180. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Industrialization has had a predictably horrific effect
on the environment.
• China's leaders are aware of these problems.
• China, for example, has implemented higher fuel-
efficiency standards for automobiles than the
United States.
• Its solar energy industry is the fastest growing in the
world.
• Its wind-turbine energy production is also
developing spectacularly.

181. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• China today shares land borders with fourteen
different countries and has territorial disputes with
several.
• Yet China today has nonetheless deliberately
charted a course of development that it advertises
as a "peaceful rise”.
• In 1984, China had no golf courses, but by 2007,
China had the fifth greatest number of golf courses
in the world.

182. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Christianity, amazingly enough, has also been
booming in the PRC.
• Both China's current president and premier have
children who have studied in the United States.
• One of Deng Xiaoping's grandsons is a U.S. citizen.
• English is the preferred language of international
communication.

183. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• At the end of the twentieth century, the world's
largest and busiest McDonald's restaurant was in
Tiananmen Square.
• The most popular brand of automobile in China is
the American General Motors (GM).
• The first major political manifestation of the new
Internet technology came in the form of a newly
invented "traditional" Chinese religion - Falun Gong.

184. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Its followers used computer Web sites and cell
phones to mobilize this impressive mass
demonstration in 1999, which they evidently hoped
would win greater toleration of Falun Gong from the
authorities in Beijing.
• The attempt backfired, however, because party
leaders panicked instead and ordered a harsh and
continuing crackdown on Falun Gong as a
supposedly dangerous cult.

185. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• Globalization in China has therefore not been a
simple one-directional process of Americanization
or Westernization but a much more complicated
multidirectional process of action and reaction,
shaped by both the preexisting situation and the
swirling patterns of international trends.

186. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• In the new the age of globalization, as the tide of
Marxist revolution against "feudal" tradition has
receded, there has even been a certain amount of
conscious revival of, and renewed pride in, pre-
modern Chinese traditions.
• China is already coming to be seen as representing
an attractive possible alternative model for some
parts of the developing world, where - especially in
Asia, Africa, and Latin America - China has
suddenly become a major force for export growth.

187. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION
• In 2009, for example, China passed the United
States to become Brazil's largest trading partner
and is becoming globally more important.

188. CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION