LANGUAGE ACROSS CURRICULUM

1. Chapter - 1
KNOWING LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
Language refers to a system of communication unique to human beings
that makes use of written and vocal symbols. A language, on the other hand is
a subcategory of this type of communication peculiar to a particular people,
region, geographical region or socio-political background. In other words
Language refers to the system of human communication and is a more general
term than a language which is a given variety spoken by a given speech
community (read country). The distinction is usually made by capitalizing the
'L' of the more general term.
Today, about 6 900 languages are spoken throughout the world – more
than 2 000 languages in Africa, 1 000 in the Americas, more than 2 250 in
Asia, about 220 in Europe, and more than 1 300 in Australia and the Pacific.
These languages can be grouped into more than 90 language families. A
language family is a group of languages with a common origin.
The common origin is postulated to have been a single language,
referred to as a proto-language, that was spoken at a certain time in the past.
Through the ages that proto-language broke up into dialects. As time went by,
these dialects become increasingly more different from each other, ending up
as different languages, primarily due to geographical distance. These
languages developed dialectal differences, and the whole cycle was repeated,
many times. The major language families in the world are Afro-Asiatic (353
languages spoken i Africa and Asia), Austronesian (1246 languages spoken in
Asia and Oceania), Indo-European (430 languages spoken in Asia and
Europe, and in European settlements in other parts of the world), Niger-
Congo (1495 languages spoken in Africa), Sino-Tibetan (399 languages spoken

2. in Asia), and Trans-New Guinea (561 languages spoken in New Guinea and
adjacent islands). Linguists have developed quite reliable methods to
reconstruct proto- languages – for example, Proto-Indo-European – spoken
before writing was introduced. The reason why we can call the methods
reliable is that in several cases reconstructions have been supported by
written texts discovered after the reconstructions were made.
We cannot exclude the possibility – in fact, it is highly plausible – that
the proto-languages of the ninety-odd language families in the world were
themselves languages in even older language families, but the methods of
historical language reconstruction have their limits. After a certain period of
time, languages change so much that a possible common origin simply cannot
be detected. While archaeologists can date the age of artefacts on the basis of
the constant decay of radioactive atoms, languages do not change at a constant
rate at all times and at all places, but most linguists do not think that it is
possible to reconstruct proto-languages that were spoken more than
approximately 10 000 BP. This does not, mean, however, that language origins
should not be traced much further into the past.
LANGUAGE AS A TOOL FOR COMMUNICATION
The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-
European "tongue, speech, language" through Latin lingua, "language;
tongue", and Old French language. The word is sometimes used to refer to
codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially constructed communication
systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer
programming. Unlike conventional human languages, a formal language in
this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information.
Language is an important aspect in our day to day life because it
enables us to communicate. Language is a means of communication. Through

3. language the people is able to communicate each other. Language is used to
express ideas, thoughts, and information . “We use language in order to
communicate one with another, to express our personal reactions to situation,
to stimulate a response in someone else, and for the sake of thinking
something out. Language may be as a means of conveying something that the
user of the language wants to convey. In the wider sense the word language is
used as to cover any means used to convey emotion and thoughts”. Language
is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions, and desire by means of a system of voluntary produced symbols
language purely human and non-instinctive method because language is the
most frequently used and the most highly developed form of human
communication. Language is a distinctly human instrument, although
animals produce sounds and noises, the human language alone is articulated
into words and alone is capable of expressing an infinitives thoughts.
Language is the ability to express information. Apart from various
secondary means of expression like mime and gesture-language, natural
spoken language is the most important and most extensive vehicle for
communicating information. An unlimited range of subject matter can be
expressed by means of human language, achieved by a brilliantly conceived
structural system, for all languages comprise a hierarchical system of lingual
units. The smallest units are the sounds, and it is noteworthy that only about
600 sounds which could in principle be produced by the human speech organs,
are used in the known 5,100 languages. When a child learns a language, those
sounds heard most frequently are repeated, and other sounds are thus not
learned. The child diminishes the range of sounds until, eventually, the
frequency distribution typical of his mother tongue is obtained.

4. Languages also provide a bank of memories and symbols inherited from
one's fellow speakers and created in one's own lifetime. They are also the
medium through which most knowledge is constructed, and hence they are
closely tied to the thoughts and identity of the individual. In fact, they are so
closely bound with identity that to deny or wipe out a child's mother tongue(s)
is to interfere with the sense of self. Effective understanding and use of
languages(s) enables the child to make connections between ideas, people and
things, and to relate to the world around.
If we wish to launch any sound programme for language teaching in
schools, it is important to recognise the inbuilt linguistic potential of children
as well as to remember that languages get socio-culturally constructed and
change in our day-to-day interactions. Language(s) in education would ideally
build on this resource, and would strive to enrich it through the development
of literacy (scripts including Braille) for the acquisition of academic
knowledge. Children with language-related impairments should be introduced
to standard sign languages, which can support their continued growth and
development to the fullest. A recognition of the linguistic abilities of learners
would encourage them to believe in themselves and their cultural moorings.
“A language basically like a reference grammar plus dictionary. It is a
stock of items and a system of rules for combining those items into sentences
of the language”. There are so many languages in the world. One of the
International languages is English. It is very important for us to learn
English, because to communicate with foreign people we use English. In
order to communicate English well, we should have English proficiency both
in written and spoken.
DEFINITIONS ON LANGUAGE

5. According to Spair “Language is an exclusively human method for
communicating thoughts, feelings, and wishes; it is not rooted in instinct, and
it employs a system of freely structured symbols”.
In the words of Bloch and Trager , “A language is a system of arbitrary
sound symbols by means of which a social group interacts”.
According to Hall “Language is the institution used by human beings
for communication and interaction by means of conventional and voluntary
oral-auditory symbols”.
According to Chomsky “Henceforth, I will understand language to
comprise a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each of which is finite in length
and consists of a finite set of elements”.
According to Benjamin Whorf “Language shapes thoughts and
emotions, determining one’s perception of reality”.
Oxford English Dictionary defines language as “Words and the methods
of combining them for the expression of thoughts”
According to Edward Sapir , “Language is a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of
voluntarily produced symbols.”
According to Bolinger, “Language is species specific.”
According to Rita Mae Brown “Language is the road map of a culture.
It tells you where its people come from and where they are going”
According to H.A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and
characteristic forms of human behaviour.”
ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN HUMAN COMMUNICATION
Language has crucial role in the life of every individual. The role of
language in our lives is incomparable. It is not just restrained to being a

6. means of communicating one’s thoughts and ideas to the rest, but has also
become a tool for forging friendships, cultural ties as well as economic
relationships. Throughout history, learned men have reflected on the
importance of language in our lives. Language is an extremely important
way of interacting with the people around us. We use language to let others
know how we feel, what we need, and to ask questions. We can modify our
language to each situation. For instance, we talk to our small children with
different words and tone than we conduct a business meeting. To
communicate effectively, we send a message with words, gestures, or actions,
which somebody else receives. The role of language in the life of the individual
and for the human civilization can be stated as follow:
Vehicle Of Thought: language is the vehicle of our thought. We think through
language. Thought is called sub-vocal speech. The thinking process is
disturbed if the individual has deficiency in language.
Medium Of Expression: Language is the medium of expression of our feelings
and experiences. In other words we express our feelings and experiences
through language. He expresses his feelings and experiences through signs and
gestures.
Medium Of Communication: We communicate with one another through
language. With the advent of the concept of globalization, people all over the
globe communicate with each other and exchange ideas. Though technological
advances have served as a medium for communication, you cannot deny the
role played by language. Understanding of a common language has helped
people to communicate, despite being from varied parts of the
world. Language has become a major tool of communication between
countries, cultural groups, various companies and organizations, communities
and friends.

7. Communication With Other Countries: Different countries communicate with
each other through language only. International community’s exchange their
views through English language because English is international language.
Moral development: Language is also connected to the moral development in
a child. The process begins when the child is about 18 months old. The child
learns the right and wrong by listening to what his parents or other adult
authorities tell him. Imagine teaching the child the difference of right or
wrong without the tool of language! Language is the code of our consciousness
and helps us see what we may be agreeing to and creating in our world. On an
less than conscious level, every day we use language by confirming and
denying circumstances.
Developing And Grooming One’s Personality: Language aids in developing
and grooming one’s personality as a whole. Since learning a language is part
of our knowledge, it becomes one of the key factors in competitiveness. In the
advanced industrial society of today, the basic knowledge of a single or more
language has become indispensable.
Human Developmental Process: Language is one of the key factors of our
human developmental process, which sets us apart from the rest of the animal
kingdom and knits a strong feeling of kinship amongst us. A baby is born
without language, but even without formal training, by the age of five, the
child knows several hundred words and grammar of a particular language.
This is an inherent human tendency, which is extremely important for further
growth. Any discrepancy seen in learning a language at such early stage might
indicate certain illness in a child.
Child’s Growth: In the developmental trajectory of a child, language plays an
important role since it is connected with various aspects of a child’s growth.
Learning a language is directly related to emotional development. For

8. instance, a baby gazing at his parent’s face is responded by cooing and few
words of love by his parents. This retains in the baby’s mind and when he is a
little older, he begins using language to express his emotions as well.
Bases of Education: Language is the bases of all education. School education is
predominately language oriented. Reading, writing and arithmetic are all
based on language proficiency.
Medium Of Literature: Language is the medium of literature. All great
literature are produced through the medium of language. Language thus
helps us to read literature, understand and appreciate the work of great
writers and poets.
Growth Of Civilization: Language contributes to the growth of our
civilization. Language and civilization are inseparable.
Development Of Peace: Language contributes to peace process. International
understanding and international peace have been possible through the
medium of language.
CONCEPT OF LINGUISTICS
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. There are three aspects to
this study: language form, language meaning, and language in context. The
earliest activities in the description of language have been attributed to the 4th
century BCE Indian grammarian Pāṇini, who was an early student of
linguistic and wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his
Aṣ ṭ ādhyāyī.
Linguistics analyses human language as a system for relating sounds (or
signs in signed languages) and meaning. Phonetics studies acoustic and
articulatory properties of the production and perception of speech sounds and
non-speech sounds. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, deals
with how languages encode relations between entities, properties, and other

9. aspects of the world to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to
manage and resolve ambiguity. While the study of semantics typically
concerns itself with truth conditions, pragmatics deals with how context
influences meanings.
The formal study of language has also led to the growth of fields like
psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language
in the mind; neurolinguistics, which studies language processing in the brain;
and language acquisition, which investigates how children and adults acquire
a particular language.
Linguistics also includes non - formal approaches to the study of other
aspects of human language, such as social, cultural, historical and political
factors. The study of cultural discourses and dialects is the domain of
sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and
social structures, as well as that of discourse analysis, which examines the
structure of texts and conversations. Research on language through historical
and evolutionary linguistics focuses on how languages change, and on the
origin and growth of languages, particularly over an extended period of time.
Areas of study related to linguistics include semiotics (the study of signs and
symbols both within language and without), literary criticism, translation, and
speech-language pathology.
LINGUISTIC VARIATION
Language variation is an important part of sociolinguistics. Languages
vary from one place to another, from one social group to another, and from
one situation to another. They are Geographical variation, Social variation,
and Contextual . We talk and write about languages, dialects, sociolects,
accents, jargons, registers, and so on and so forth, but none of these terms can

10. be taken for granted and many of them are difficult to define in a satisfactory
way. Let us discuss about the different forms of language variation.
1. Geographical Variation - Language And Dialect
We often talk about the Chinese language, the Hindi language, the
Arabic language, and the Fula language, without thinking about how
problematic these terms are. Of course, they are not at all meaningless, but
their meanings are often rather different from what is generally assumed.
Geographical variation shows the variation in language and the dialects of a
particular country or region.
A DIALECT is regarded as a geographical variety of a language,
spoken in a certain area, and being different in some linguistic items from
other geographical varieties of the same language. This definition of dialect is
in common use among linguists, and differs from its usage.
2. Social Variation - Sociolect And Slang/Jargon
We are not surprised to hear that people who live far from each other
speak more differently than people who live close to each other, because those
who live close to each other have more contact with each other than those who
live far away from each other. The terms closeness and distance originally
come from the spatial domain but metaphorically they have been transferred
to the social domain. For example, we talk about the varying social distance
between individuals in a society, and differences in social distance correlate
strongly with language variation.
There are hierarchical social structures in most or all societies, but not
everywhere of the same type. In large parts of Europe, for example, society
started to change about 200 years ago from a hierarchy of rank or station to a
hierarchy of class. In the rank society, people are born with a certain rank,

11. and there is low social mobility. In the class society, people are also born into a
certain class, but there is a high social mobility. These differences influence
the language situation in a society. In the rank society language differences do
not play an important role. People learn to speak the variety they hear in their
social network, and continue to speak that way for the rest of their lives. Their
rank is primarily determined by their family background, and people cannot
change their social status by changing their language. Highest in the hierarchy
you often find an aristocracy In the class society things are quite different.
Many people climb in the class hierarchy, and as a part of their effort to
change their social status, they change their language in the direction of
people higher up in the hierarchy. Sociolect And Slang/Jargon of each
country shows the social variation.
Sociolect
In the traditional European rank society people generally spoke the
dialect of their home area, and there was only minor variation between the
ranks. On the basis of a person’s language variety you could easily locate her
or him geographically, but not at all to the same degree socially. In the end of
the 18th century and in the beginning of the 19th, this society started to
change, as a consequence of industrialization, which created new social
strata—particularly a working class and a bourgeoisie or middle class—and
opportunities for people to improve their economical and social status.
Language varieties that are used by particular societal strata are referred to
as SOCIOLECTS. It should be emphasized, however, that most language
varieties have a particular geographical as well as social distribution, although
the geographical variation is generally larger among the lower classes than
among the middle and upper classes
Slang And Jargon

12. We defined a variety as a set of linguistic items with similar social
distribution. For dialects and sociolects, this set of linguistic items includes
features of vocabulary, grammar, as well as phonology. For certain other
kinds of varieties, especially those referred to as slangs and jargons, the set
includes only a relatively small set of vocabulary items. Slang may be
characterized as a very informal language variety that includes new and
sometimes not polite words and meanings. It is often used among particular
groups of people. JARGON is a set of vocabulary items used by members of
particular professions, that is, their technical terms.
3. Contextual Variation
While social variation to a large extent—although not exclusively—is
variation between individuals belonging to different societal groups,
contextual variation is variation within the individual: we all vary our
language between contexts.
Language Varieties in the Classroom
The topic of linguistic variety needs to be explored in classrooms with
the same intensity and focus as issues of class, race, culture and gender. In the
same way as critically aware teachers tend to disdain school and classroom
practices based on narrow class, racial, cultural, or gendered norms, the same
teachers need to question policies and practices that privilege one language
variety and its users ahead of other varieties and their users. At the same
time, schools in local contexts still have to get on with the job of teaching a
language-based curriculum that uses some language variety as its main
pedagogical vehicle.

13. LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION
Language is central to education: it is the means by which educational
content is communicated; it is an object of study; it is an object of beliefs that
are important in education; it is a key element of students’ identities; it poses
potential problems in education, largely because of the beliefs we have about
it; and it is a valuable resource for those who know how to make use of it.
Language is a means of education in that it is the primary medium of
communication between students and teachers and between students and
textbooks. Language is an object of education because it is the material out of
which texts are woven, and because language itself is the object of study in
writing and speaking courses. We focus on language as we learn to edit our
essays and speeches. We develop our vocabularies and learn the meanings,
uses, and conventional spellings of words. We learn to control the genres
required for various disciplines and the specific characteristics expected in
those genres, for example, personal essays, academic papers of various sorts,
business letters, reports, and magazine articles.
Language is also an object of study in so far as we develop our skills in
using it to communicate, to acquire knowledge from lectures and books, to
integrate new information with old, to replace false beliefs with new true ones,
and to increase or decrease our estimates of the likelihood that some belief we
hold is true. Language is also an object of our beliefs. Many people believe
that some forms of English are good and others bad; that some languages are
beautiful and others ugly; that some languages are limited in what they can
express when compared to languages such as English; that people who speak
certain varieties are uneducated, perhaps stupid, and unworthy of certain
types of work. Beliefs like these constitute ideologies about language.

14. Language also represents one of the key elements of our students’
social, cultural, and personal identities. Writing explores values our students
may not be able to explore otherwise. As their writing improves, the range
and sophistication of these identities increases. Teachers have potentially
powerful effects on students’ lives. Our response to our students’ language
will influence their attitudes. Young children have a fascination with language
and almost no inhibitions about it. Adults, in contrast, typically display
considerable anxiety about their language. They often have “strongly negative
attitudes towards their native speech pattern”. This anxiety is known as
linguistic insecurity.
Language is a potential problem to the extent that it—or our beliefs
about it—impedes students’ learning. If we believe that students who speak
English with a Latino accent, or who speak Black English (a.k.a. “Ebonics”),
will be unable to keep up in our classes, then very likely they will not, because
teachers’ expectations strongly affect students’ success in school. Because
teachers respond to students’ language on many levels, they must develop a
critical awareness of their own linguistic preferences, prejudices, and beliefs—
everyone has these beliefs, even linguists. They must also be able to critically
evaluate textbooks, dictionaries, style manuals, computerized style analysers,
and newspaper articles on language, because these also embody assumptions
about language, many of them just plain wrong, often destructively so.
Language is a potential resource for Teaching Critical Thinking.
Nature Of Classroom Language
Within the realm of education, there are three basic types of formal
classroom discourse. The three basic type of class room discourses are
Lecture, Recitation and Discussion. Over time, it is possible for any given

15. course to include all three of these forms of interaction. It is possible for a
course to be taught by means of any of these modes of interaction, or by any
combination of them. Each mode has its own distinctive traits, as well as
advantages and disadvantages.
Lecture
The first and least-interactive mode of teaching is the lecture. In a
lecture, material is conveyed in what is intended to be one-way uninterrupted
discourse, as though delivering a speech . Although it is seen in face-to-face
(FTF) situations, this is also used to describe the delivery of content which
cannot be questioned or altered, such as books, radio, television, audio tape,
videocassettes, and some forms of multimedia. In a classroom, lecturing by a
teacher would be performed by reading a lesson while soliciting no interaction
from the audience.
Recitation
The most typical form of classroom interaction is recitation, which has
two predominant characteristics. First, the teacher is the predominant
speaker. Although students are now permitted to interact with the teacher, the
teacher will guide and control the class by means of asking questions, giving
instructions, and giving information .The second characteristic of recitation is
that the interaction between the teacher and students will follow a regular
pattern. The teacher will initiate some form of action, usually a question, the
student will respond, and the teacher will acknowledge the student's response
. These two characteristics of recitation are interrelated.
Discussion
The third form of classroom interaction is discussion. Like recitation,
discussion has several observable characteristics . The first attribute of
discussion is that rather than being dominated by the teacher, the students do

16. most of the talking. Unlike a lecture or recitation where the teacher will do all
or two-thirds of the talking respectively, the students in a discussion will
generate half or more of the talk .
The second characteristic of discussion is that although the students are
participating in the discussion, it will not follow the initiation-response-
feedback model of recitation. Rather, there will be a mix of statements and
questions by a mix of teachers and students . This form of interaction is the
ideal educational process for it permits the student to validate his or her "
emerging knowledge through collaborative and sustained interaction with a
teacher and other students". The modern classrooms are dominated by
students dialogues than teachers. Because the new teaching approaches like
constructivism gives more importance to student’s opinions and views.
Language has a dominant role in today’s classroom.
LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN INDIA
The linguistic diversity of India poses complex challenges but also a
range of opportunities. India is unique not only in that a large number of
languages are spoken here but also in terms of the number and variety of
language families that are represented in those languages. There is no other
country in the world in which language from five different language family
exists. Even though they are so distinct structurally as to merit classification
as different language families, namely, Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-
Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman and Andamanese, they constantly interact with each
other. There are several linguistic and sociolinguistic features that are shared
across languages that bear witness to the fact that different languages and
cultures have coexisted in India for centuries, enriching each other. Classical
languages such as Latin, Arabic, Persian, Tamil and Sanskrit are rich in their

17. inflectional grammatical structure and aesthetic value, and can illuminate our
lives, as many languages keep borrowing words from them.
Today, we know for certain that bilingualism or multilingualism confers
definite cognitive advantages. The three-language formula is an attempt to
address the challenges and opportunities of the linguistic situation in India. It
is a strategy that should really serve as a launching pad for learning more
languages. It needs to be followed both in letter and spirit. Its primary aim is
to promote multilingualism and national harmony.
Home/First Language(S) Or Mother-Tongue Education
It is clear that through their innate language faculty and interaction
with the family and other people around them, children come to school with
full-blown communicative competence in their language, or, in many cases,
languages. They enter the school not only with thousands of words but also
with a full control of the rules that govern the complex and rich structure of
language at the level of sounds, words, sentences and discourse. A child knows
not only how to understand and speak correctly but also appropriately in her
language(s). She can modulate her behaviour in terms of person, place and
topic. She obviously has the cognitive abilities to abstract extremely complex
systems of language-from the flux of sounds. Honing these skills by
progressively fostering advanced-level communicative and cognitive abilities
in the classroom is the goal of first-language(s) education. From Class III
Literature can also be a spur to children’s own creativity. After hearing a
story, poem or song, children can be encouraged to write something of their
own. They can also be encouraged to integrate various forms of creative
expression.

18. At the primary stage, child's languages must be accepted as they are,
with no attempt to correct them. By Class IV, if rich and interesting exposure
is made available, the child will herself acquire the standard variety and the
rules of correct orthography, but care must be taken to honour and respect
the child's home language(s)/mother tongue(s). It should be accepted that
errors are a necessary part of the process of learning, and that children will
correct themselves only when they are ready to do so. Instead of focusing
attention on errors and 'hard spots', it would be much better to spend time
providing children comprehensible, interesting and challenging inputs.
It is indeed hard to exaggerate the importance of teaching home languages
at school. Though children come equipped with basic interpersonal
communicative skills, they need to acquire at school cognitively advanced
levels of language proficiency. Basic language skills are adequate for meeting
situations that are contextually rich and cognitively undemanding such as
peer-group interaction; advanced-level skills are required in situations that
are contextually poor and cognitively demanding such as writing an essay on
an abstract issue. It is also now well established that higher-level proficiency
skills easily transfer from one language to another. It is thus imperative that
we do everything we can to strengthen the sustained learning of Indian
languages at school.
Language education is not confined to the language classroom. A science,
social science or mathematics class is ipso facto a language class. Learning the
subject means learning the terminology, understanding the concepts, and
being able to discuss and write about them critically. For some topics, students
should be encouraged to consult books or talk to people in different languages,
or gather material in English from the Internet. Such a policy of languages
across the curriculum will foster a genuine multilingualism in the school. At

19. the same time, the language class offers some unique opportunities. Stories,
poems, songs and drama link children to their cultural heritage, and also give
them an opportunity to understand their own experiences and to develop
sensitivity to others. We may also point out that children may effortlessly
abstract more grammar from such activities than through explicit and often
boring grammar lessons.
While many of the differently abled learners may pick up basic language
skills through normal social interactions, they could additionally be provided
with especially designed materials that would assist and enhance their growth
and development. Studying sign language and Braille could be included as
options for learners without disabilities.
Second-Language Acquisition
English in India is a global language in a multilingual country. A
variety and range of English-teaching situations prevail here owing to the twin
factors of teacher proficiency in English and pupils' exposure to English
outside school. The level of introduction of English is now a matter of political
response to people's aspirations rather than an academic or feasibility issue,
and people's choices about the level of its introduction in the curriculum will
have to be respected, with the proviso that we do not extend downwards the
very system that has failed to deliver.
The goals for a second-language curriculum are twofold: attainment of a
basic proficiency, such as is acquired in natural language learning, and the
development of language into an instrument for abstract thought and
knowledge acquisition through (for example) literacy. This argues f or an
across-the-curriculum approach that breaks down the barriers between
English and other subjects, and English and other Indian languages. At the

20. initial stages, English may be one of the languages for learning activities that
create the child's awareness of the world. At later stages, all learning happens
through language. Higher-order linguistic skills generalise across languages;
reading, (for example) is a transferable skill. Improving it in one language
improves it in others, while reading failure in one’s own languages adversely
affects second-language reading.
English does not stand alone. The aim of English teaching is the creation
of multi-linguals who can enrich all our languages; this has been an abiding
national vision. English needs to find its place along with other Indian
languages in different states, where children's other languages strengthen
English teaching and learning; and in "English-medium" schools, where other
Indian languages need to be valorised to reduce the perceived hegemony of
English. The relative success of "English medium" schools shows that
language is learnt when it is not being taught as language, through exposure in
meaningful context. Thus English must be seen in relation to other subjects; a
language across the curriculum is of particular relevance to primary
education, and later all teaching is in a sense language teaching. This
perspective will bridge the gap between "English as subject" and "English as
medium". We should in this way move towards a common school system that
does not make a distinction between " teaching a language" and "using a
language as a medium of instruction".
Input-rich communicational environments are a prerequisite for language
learning, whether first or second. Inputs include textbooks, learner-chosen
texts, and class libraries, allowing for a variety of genres: print (for example,
Big Books for young learners); parallel books and materials in more than one
language; media support (learner magazines/newspaper columns, radio/audio
cassettes); and "authentic" materials. The language environment of

21. disadvantaged learners needs to be enriched by developing schools into
community learning centres. A variety of successful innovations exists whose
generalisability needs exploration and encouragement. Approaches and
methods need not be exclusive but may be mutually supportive within a broad
cognitive philosophy (incorporating Vygotskian , Chomskyan, and Piagetian
principles). Higher-order skills (including literary appreciation and role of
language in gendering) can be developed once fundamental competencies are
ensured.
NEED FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
English is a foreign language for the Indians and to be very precise
India has several languages of its own. In India, Hindi is a nationalized
language, however approximately all the states have their individual mother
tongue. Well….this is not it. Each mother tongue has a number of local
touches and so do Hindi, furthermore in such a state gaining knowledge of a
new language that to a foreign one turns out to be pretty hard. Learning to
speak English easily is nowadays a need. It is no more a matter of reputation
or style; however it is of greatest need for a good career and to flourish in
one’s job. Lot of accomplishments in life is enormously dependent upon the
way you perform yourself with the worldwide patrons and delegates,
particularly in the international companies. Even in the management jobs the
important people also call for an ease in English.
Skill to read and write English appropriately is very important,
particularly for higher studies in a foreign country and also for good standard
of books as well as study materials. It will be incorrect to say that the books
accessible in Hindi or the diverse mother tongues are of poor quality; however
it is also true that the books obtainable in English on diverse subject matters
are in wider choice. In India ease in English works as an additional benefit. It

22. is very common in India that in childhood the need to study English is not felt.
Particularly, the lack of communication power in English does not trouble
until one reaches a point where to become successful, one should be confident
in English.
Advantages of Learning English
English, is an international language in the world. Most people are
using this language on the daily life. It is an important language because we
use this language to communication with other country's people. We also use
English in many places. For example, it is used in the international business,
computer language, movies, and so on. English is a common language and you
can use English to become an international person. First, you could get the
news faster than the others could. Second, you should understand other
countries for using English. Third, you would depend on English to read the
latest books or magazines in the world. Therefore, it can let you gain more and
more knowledge for studying English.
English is an international language. When you go traveling, you will
speak English to ask the roads. When you play the computer, you will use
English took to other people. In addition, you can know many friends in the
world. So, learning English is a good way to communicate for foreign
people. English is a general language because we have to use this every day.
For example, there are many new technologies, new computers, new
machines, and so on. So we need someone who will read, speak, listen, and
write English very well. Besides, many companies need good office employees
to do international business.
Benefits Of Second Language Learning
Second-language acquisition, second-language learning, or L2 (language
2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-

23. language acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) is also the scientific discipline
devoted to studying that process. The field of second-language acquisition is a
sub discipline of applied linguistics. The following are the main benefits of
second language learning.
1. The Ability To Communicate In A New Language : The main benefit a
person gains when committing to learn English or any language is the ability
to communicate with the language itself and create connections with a wider
range of the world’s population.
2. The Brain Undergoes A Change In Electrical Activity : Before this study it
was believed this change in brain functioning only occurred when students
had obtained a high level of language ability in the new language, but this
study revealed this change may occur at the earliest stages of language
learning.
3. Superior Memory Function : Language learning showed an increase in
memory capacities, this was especially strong in short-term memory. This is a
huge benefit because it allows the brain to keep information in the brain for
longer durations while thinking processes are activated.
4. Increased Mental Flexibility : The article explains this keeps mental path
ways “opened up” which allows a person to use “differing avenues for
thought.” Language learning helps “exercise” the brain to keep it flexible and
agile.
5. Increased Problem-Solving Abilities : A person also benefits from language
learning by gaining increased problem-solving abilities in all of the following
areas: abstract thinking skills, concept formation, creative hypothesis
formulation, strengthened capacity to identify, understand and solve
problems; the ability to focus on a task by filtering out distractions and
extraneous information and an increase in multi-tasking ability.

24. 6. Greater Comprehension For How Language Works And Is Used :
Language acquisition also benefits a person by creating a greater
comprehension for how language works and is used. The study found
individuals with multilingual communication were able to better read and
interpret social situations, which improved their performance in social
settings.
7. Prevents The Deterioration Of Brain Functioning Over Time : Individuals
who were multilingual had a decreased rate of 2 to 4 years in the development
of age-related cognitive problems such as dementia.
8. Increased Ability In Digital Literacy : The culmination of all these
advantages results in one last benefit: an increased ability in digital literacy.
Because of these quickened mental abilities individuals which are multilingual
have a noticeable ability to stay up to date with modern technologies. Clearly
having increased mental agility due to language acquisition helps the average
language learners better stay adrift all of the technological and informational
changes constantly evolving in today’s world.
Writing Across The Curriculum
As one of the longest running educational reform movements in higher
education in the US, Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) has prospered in
a variety of educational settings, from elementary and secondary education to
community colleges, liberal arts colleges and research universities . In its most
general sense, WAC refers to the notion that writing should be an integral
part of the learning process throughout a student’s education, not merely in
required writing courses but across the entire curriculum. Further, it is based
on the premise that writing is highly situated and tied to a field’s discourse

25. and ways of knowing, and therefore writing in the disciplines (WID) is most
effectively guided by those with expertise in that discipline. WAC also
recognizes that students come to the classroom with a wide range of literacy,
linguistic, technological, and educational experiences, but that all students can
learn to become more proficient writers.
WAC as an initiative can be transformative for learning, teaching, and
research. For students, WAC promotes engaged student learning, critical
thinking, and greater facility with written communication across rhetorical
situations. For teachers, WAC promotes thoughtful pedagogy and curriculum
design as well as community among faculty that transcends disciplinary
boundaries. For researchers in writing studies and across the disciplines,
WAC promotes cross-disciplinary scholarship on teaching and learning, as
well as scholarship on the values and ways of thinking in the disciplines and
the ways those ideas and actions are communicated in writing.
TYPICAL GOALS OF WAC PROGRAMS
WAC programs develop for various reasons and may take many
different forms. WAC programs sometimes emerge organically from
interactions between the writing centre and faculty across campus . WAC
programs share at least some of the following goals:
• To sustain the writing of students across their academic careers. While likely
not the only objective, the desire to increase the amount and frequency of
student writing, as well as offer students more sustained instruction in
writing, in more courses, spread out over their academic careers, is
foundational to WAC programs.
• To increase student engagement with learning. Results from the National
Survey of Student Engagement show significant correlation between extensive
writing and both higher order thinking and integrative learning , affirming a

26. long-held tenet of WAC that increased attention and support for student
writing lead to further engagement with course content and increased
retention.
• To increase student writing proficiency. Writers become more proficient as
they write across a wide range of rhetorical situations, genres, purposes, and
discourse communities, and compose using a range of media. WAC programs
strive to create opportunities for this range of writing experiences across a
student’s academic career.
• To create a campus culture that supports writing. WAC programs often seek
to promote a cultural shift on campus in how writing is perceived and valued,
and thus may sponsor speaker series, faculty writing retreats, and platforms
that highlight student writing such as writing awards, student conferences, or
venues for publishing student work.
• To create a community of faculty around teaching and student writing.
WAC seeks to break down the silos that can divide disciplines by creating
common ground through its focus on teaching and learning, often
accomplished through cross-disciplinary faculty development programming.
LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
The theoretical basis of language across the curriculum derives largely
from
the Bullock Report (1975) , and the work of people like James Britton, Nancy
Martin, and Douglas Barnes . Languages Across the Curriculum (LAC) is a
curricular enrichment program that provides students with the opportunity to
use their skills in languages other than English in non-language courses. It
aims to infuse foreign language across the curriculum, thus building on the
skills of language proficient students in courses where authentic foreign

27. language sources are not a regular component of the curriculum but would
complement the course material. Thus, students can extend their knowledge
of a second language beyond foreign language courses and apply those skills
to course materials, research and projects in non-language disciplines. In
addition, the inclusion of authentic course-relevant source materials in
another language enriches course perspectives and prepares students more
fully for the cross-cultural and multilingual demands of a global society.
A Language Across the Curriculum (LAC) approach is one that
integrates language learning and content learning. LAC is an approach to
learning that focuses on improving language proficiency in all subjects in
order to enhance students’ learning and outcomes. In our school, which is a
100% EMI, this means a focus on English language. LAC acknowledges that
language education does not only take place in specific subjects such as
English Lessons, but language learning also takes place in each and every
subject; in every learning activity; and across the whole curriculum.
LAC emphasizes that language development is the responsibility of all
teachers across the school and in all subject areas. It involves a focus on the
use of English in each subject, as each subject area has both similar language
to other areas and its own specific language usage and style. Each subject area
also has its own specialized vocabulary and different writing genres.
Language cannot be effectively learnt without a context while learning
in all subjects is dependent upon language. In view of the above, language and
content are closely interrelated. In fact, content subjects provide a context for
language while effective language development facilitates the learning of
content subjects. It is therefore necessary to integrate language and content.
Aims of Language Across The Curriculum

28. Most university students lack curricular opportunities to develop
foreign-language competencies in their areas of academic interest. At the same
time, international students lack opportunities to employ their non-English
language skills during the course of their education. Language Across the
Curriculum addresses these problems by enlisting international and multi-
lingual students as Language Resource Specialists (LRSs) to prepare target
language materials for use in courses that would not usually include such
materials. The long-term goal of Language Across The Curriculum is to
establish a campus-wide expectation that students will be able to make
meaningful use of any language they know in any class at any level anywhere
in the University curriculum. Following are the ultimate aim of Language
Across The Curriculum.
 Encourage students to incorporate language and cultural knowledge
into discipline-specific research .
 Incorporate language and cultural knowledge into discipline-specific
study and research.
 Foster, maintain and enrich the language abilities of all students (native
and non-native speakers)
 Extend intercultural information and international perspectives on
course subject matter
 Underscore the intricate connections between language, culture and
meaning
 Heighten long-term motivation to maintain and enhance language cross-
cultural knowledge
Benefits Of An LAC Approach

29. Language cannot be effectively learnt without a context while learning
in all subjects is dependent upon language. In view of the above, language and
content are closely interrelated. In fact, content subjects provide a context for
language while effective language development facilitates the learning of
content subjects. It is therefore necessary to integrate language and content.
Following points indicates the benefits of Language Across The Curriculum
approach in education.
1.For the school: To ensure that there is an organisational structure in the
school which helps to formulate and implement language policy across the
curriculum. This enables teachers to contribute and get support in dealing
with language in learning issues as well as to work for a common target.
2.For the teacher: To use the language to teach more effectively and help
students learn more effectively
3.For the students: To minimise the problems of adjusting to the new medium
of instruction and to learn the subject content better.