A research conducted by Tashieka King on the role women played in resisting enslavement. The research shows that women has contributed significantly to make their life of enslavement better.

1. CXC
Caribbean Examination Council
Caribbean Advance Proficiency Examination
Internal Assessment (IA)
Slavery System: Character and Dismantlement
Women in Resistance
Candidate Name: Tasheika King
Teacher’s Name: Miss Roper
Centre: Titchfield High School
Centre #:__ __ __ __ __ __ __
Candidate #: __ __ __ __ __ __
Territory: Jamaica

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CXC
Caribbean Examination Council
Caribbean Advance Proficiency Examination
Internal Assessment (IA)
Teacher’s Name: Miss Roper
Centre: Titchfield High School
Centre #:__ __ __ __ __ __ __
Candidate #: __ __ __ __ __ __
Territory: Jamaica
Slavery System:
Character and
Dismantlement
Women in Resistance
Tasheikaking 1/1/15 History

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Contents
Titles Pages
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
What methods were employed by women in their resistance efforts towards enslavement?..... 6
What caused women to be in a better place to carry out resistance activities?......................... 12
To what extent were the women methods of resistance towards enslavement effective? ....... 14
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 17
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Endnotes ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Bibliograghy………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………17-18

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THEME:
Slavery System: Character and Dismantlement
(WOMEN IN RESISTANCE)
Thesis Statement:
Women played a significant role in the resistance of slavery in the British West Indies.
Research Questions:
I. What methods were employed by women in their resistance efforts?
II. What caused women to be in a better place to carry out resistance activities?
III. To what extent were the women’s methods of resistancetowards enslavement effective?

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Introduction
Slavery or involuntary servitude was practised across Africa from pre historical times to modern
time; in many parts of the world. In Africa, domestic slavery was voluntary for payment of debts
or punishment for crime or to reduce economic hardships or if one was captured in a tribal war.
This was nothing compared to the Transatlantic Trade introduced in the sixteenth century.
Enslavement in the New World was called Chattel Slavery. Chattel slaves were properties, with
absolutely no rights, whose very own body and soul are owned. This type of slavery was initiated
by the Europeans after the genocide of the Indigenous people and the failure of the
Indentureship scheme.
Due to the sugarrevolution in the West Indies in the seventeenth century, the Europeans needed
a source of labour that was cheap, reliable and easily accessible. Thus, they went to West Africa
where they captured and forcefully took the natives from their homeland and brought them to
the New World to work on the cotton, tobacco and sugar plantations.
The enslaved were forced to endure the harsh conditions of slavery, long hours of working,
inhumane punishment, insufficient food and psychological, physical and sexual abuse (especially
women).Enslavement was so dehumanizing that the enslaved people tried to adopt whatever
means they could to merely feel likehumans. The plethora of methods employed by the enslaved
are known as methods of resistance. There are two types of resistance methods; insurrectionary
and non-insurrectionary. These methods are carried out by both men and women.
Insurrectionary resistance was typically employed by men to reclaim their freedom or to show
their dissatisfaction with enslavement. These includes open rebellions, killing enslavers and

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livestockand setting the estates afire. Women were more prevalent in the in non-insurrectionary
methods of resistance such as pretending ill, destroying estate tools and machinery and
malingering, poisoning, hiding and run a ways.

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What methods were employed by women in their resistance efforts towards enslavement?
The lifeof enslavedon the plantation was too harsh to endure. Enslavedendured long hard hours
of work with little or no food along with brutal punishments. Mary Turner refers to the practise
called the ‘11 0’ clock flag’. On a plantation in the Guiana at 11 0’ clock enslaves were brutally
‘terrorised’ with a cart whip for underperformance.1 (See appendix, figure 1)
One enslaved woman, Rosa, pregnant at the timereceiveda severe flogging which caused
her to lose the unborn child. According to the report also noted by Alvin Thompson, Rosa
miscarried and invisible strips were seen on the child, but the plantation management
concluded that the event was due to an attempt by Rosa to abort her unborn child by
eating green pine (Browne Carter, 2013).2
Despite the efforts of the enslavers to totally control and subjugate enslaves, enslaved never
totally accepted the lives’ they were forced into, especially since enslavements was so harsh. The
experiences of women in enslavement were especially unbearable. Slavery was organised on the
basis of race or gender, thus women experienced slavery different from enslaved men. Their
“experiences as enslaved women were more complex, both in their private and public life.3”
Enslavedwomen tried to resistslaverywith alltheir willand both their minds and bodies. Women
resisted the ordeals of slavery using methods that were specific to their gender.
“Enslaved women had the capacity to bear children and so they had to extend their
resistance into the sexual zones4.”

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In the mid 1800’s when there was an increase in the price of enslaved and production due to the
abolition of the slave trade. As a result, the health of enslaved became of more importance to
enslavers, especially women. In Beckles article, ‘To Buy or To Breed’, Beckles suggests that the
enslavers embarked on a different management plan, whereby they encouraged enslaved to
reproduce.5 Enslaved women became aware of this, and to end the perpetuation of slavery and
to resist the use of their fertility for the planters’ gain, thus they resort to gynaecological
resistance. They induced herbal concoctions to abort their unborned child. “The planter, Thomas
Thistlewood revealed that a slave woman called Mountain Lucy drank contrayerva to abort her
pregnancy.”6 In some cases mothers would also commit infanticide. This way they can prevent
their child from suffering the ordeals they were suffering. Thus, throughout slavery plantation
management reported that there was a high infant death rate and low birth rate.
Enslaved women also prolonged their lactating period. This allowed them to excuse themselves
from work to nurse and breast feed their child. Since plantation management was trying to
improve the health of women; breastfeeding mothers were entitled to extra food allowances and
were allowed to go to work later and leave earlier. Enslaved mothers took full advantage of their
motherhood to gain these benefits.
A number of women from Orchard Plantation, Dido, Rosetta, Lizzy, Augusta, and Tuba,
were indignant that their masters had directed their children to be taken from them and
weaned from the breast. The women claimed that their babies were too young to be left.
When the magistrate investigate they found that the infants were at least a twelve month
old each.7

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Enslaved women also aborted their unborned child. This gave them control of their fertility and
prevent the production of a new labour force for enslavers. Brian L. Moor (2001) maintained that
“Slave exercised effective control over their reproduction. They practised abortion prolong
lactation, they draw extensive on their midwives’ knowledge of birth process in order to depress
their fertility deliberately. Additionally, enslaved women took advantage of their menstrual cycle
and pregnancy. They prolonged their menstrual cycle and sometimes pretend to be in pain. The
also pretend to be ill when pregnant, here they would get to absent themselves from work or do
little and minor task.
Enslavedwomen alsoformed relationships with the Whites, though sometimes they were forced,
to gain social status, material possessions or special treatments. Thomas Thistlewood diary
(1999) reveals the relationship of Thistlewood, a Jamaican planter and one of his female slaves,
Phibbah. She got gifts and liberties other slave didn’t. In some cases they would also get their
freedom. For example, Phibbah; Thistlewood helped her to get her freedom. She got money to
nut her freedom and land in his will8. Also, Old Doll of the Newton plantation in Barbados
manipulated her relationship with the enslaver to gain concessions and security for her
offspring9.
Shepherd (2000) stated that “sex, gender and genderization process, however, remain viable
factors when we consider that women and men were the main target of rape and such added
horrors as involuntary prostitution.” Enslaved women were rented out has prostitutes to
garrisons and sailors. They couldn’t do anything to prevent this situation because “laws did not
allow slaves to refuse social demands by owners, but did provide for the punishment of

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recalcitrant, disobedient, rebellious, and unruly slaves” (Shepherd, 2000)10. However, they took
advantage of this situation, where they save the money they gained and formed relationships
with these me. Welch (2003) showed that females secured their manumission by forming
relationships with these men.
Africans were accustomed to small scale farming, “In West African society’s women were
dominant in the small scale internal marketing of foodstuffs.11” Women’s leadership in this area
in the Caribbean persisted.According to Beckles and Sherperd (2010) in Jamaicawhere they were
lands for cultivation, enslaved were given provision grounds. They cultivated these garden plots
and sold produced at the market. This allowed enslaved women to feel independent and most of
all improve their quality and quantity of food (see appendix, figure 2).
They did all these things (cultivation) despite the opposition of their owners and the laws
in somecolonies. When the enslavers tried to abolish the huckster’s market used to abolish
in Antigua this sparked off riotous behaviour by enslaved women.12
Resistance through culture is another way in which enslaved resisted the punitive conditions of
enslavement. Women made a great contribution to the cultural resistance. Some enslaved
women practised voodoo which helped to foster courage and invincibility in enslaves. For
example, the Nanny of the Maroons (see appendix), a legendary obeah woman from Jamaica.
Furthermore, these women were also herbal doctors, who would provide concoctions, herbal
tea, baths, other medical care and ritual elements. This helped to improve the health of many
enslaved. Also, women would cook their traditional African dishes, comb African hairstyles, wrap

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their heads in their traditional African styles, and sing African songs to their children, hence,
practising retention and passing on their culture to their children. (See appendix, figure 3)
The family was a prominent institution during enslavement. It was a critical institution that
helped the enslaved women to survive the horrors of enslavement. Enslaved women played vital
role in these families. (See appendix, figure 4) They provided affection and care to enslaved
children during their rough childhood. They alsosupported other family members. Mothers often
lived alone with their children, though they weren’t any men in the family they held the family
together during the struggles of enslavement. Beckles and Shepherd (2010) tells us of a family
that was matriarchal, that is Old Doll’s family. Old Doll and her family managed to become elites.
“It was certain that it was Old Doll’s social authority that held the family together as a surviving
unit.13” (See appendix, figure 5)
Enslaved females were known for expressing their dissatisfaction with enslavement. Robert Dirk
argued that the females were the ones to voice their complaint the loudest when there was
discontent on the plantation. “Women earned the reputation of being the main cause of protest
and ‘more manageable elements of the workplace.14” A plantation owner Jacob Belgrave in
Barbados reported to the authorities that he was verbally abused by a gang of enslaved women,
in April 1816 before Bussa Revolt.
M.G. Lewis (1834) stated that the female slaves tongues’ assaults were a plague in the life of
drivers, overseers, and managers who were often told the minds of the enslaved women, their
quarrelsome nature was so bothersome it did need to take the form of physical attack.

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Women also made up satirical songs that were used to mock the whites. They even mocked at
some white preachers whom they regarded as hypocrites, who was ‘winking at the enslaved
females yet they claimed to be fixated on ‘saving their souls.’
“Hi, de Buckra, hi!”
Massa W-f-e-da come ober de sea
Wid him roughish heart and him tender look,
And while him palaver and preach him book
At the negro girl he’ll winkie yeye .
“Hi, de Buckra, hi!” (Shepherd 2000)
Enslavedwomen alsoskilfullyevaded work. They adopted clever and subtle methods to get away
from work.
“They realised, for instance, that illness can be developed into a nearly fool proof
technique for escaping their labour in the field and they became accomplished actors and
actresses in assuming the roles of actors.”15
They would pretend to be sick, prolong their illness or worsen their sickness, so that they would
be exempted from work.
Lewis (1834) wrote ‘there were about thirty invalids’ of whom were only four were cases
at all serious, the rest had a ‘lily pain here Massa’, and evidently only came to the hospital
to sit and idle and chat away the time with their friends.16

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What caused women to be in a better place to carry out resistance efforts?
Enslaved women were in a better position to carry out the resistance methods employed by
them. It was easy for them to get away with gynaecological resistance such as prolonging their
menstrual cycle, lactating period and aborting their pregnancy. This is because it was difficult for
enslavers to prove this. According to Beckles and Shepherd (2004) “planters in these
circumstances would only note with concern the numbers of working hours lost by his female:
there was a relatively little control he could exercise over the women who would not hesitate to
employ nature’s way of withholding her labour.17”
Additionally, women’s senseof importance as captives became significantas shewas now valued
as a mother who would bear slave children, who would become valuable labourers for their
masters. Since the slave trade was abolished and it was difficult to source cheap slaves to buy,
the planters soon had to breed slaves. Therefore, this made the women feel powerful, thus they
felt they had the right to show their dissatisfaction with the harsh treatment of enslavement.
Furthermore, since the female enslaved were important for supplying new labourer their health
became of importance to the enslavers. The women’s punishment was reduced to less severity
and sometimes their master would make their wrongdoing pass and not punish them. This
made the enslaved females braver to resist enslavement because they felt that since they were
now valuable to the enslaver they would be punished less harshly.

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In most case, the boldest enslaved to who resisted enslavement the loudest were the ones who
were in a relationship with their master or plantation management (example, book keeper or
overseer). As a result, they knew they wouldn’t be punished or if they were it would be
anything too unbearable. There was a case in Jamaica where a slave, Harriet was tried for
attempting to poison her master’s coffee. She was sentenced to execution but was pardoned
subsequently and transported from the island. (Beckles and Shepherd 2000). This was probably
because she was in a relationship with someone of the plantocracy. Therefore, this shows that
these women had a better advantage to resist enslavement than men.
Shepherd and Beckles (2000) stated that women showed little fear of their superiors and did
not hesitate to answer back. This was because the enslaved knew that their White superior was
lusting after them. This cause them to lose respect for their authority.
One factor underlying their insolence was their knowledge that these same white
overseers and book keepers who were placed in command over them found them
attractive and often took them as their house keepers or common law wives, and often
also fathered their brown children.
Shepherd (2002) gave an example of an enslaved woman showing disrespect for authority.
Reference is made to Miss Whanice who flew at the overseer’s throat. Another, illustration is
Sally, Thistlewood‘s mistress, who when run away wouldn’t be punished.
Additionally, women were in a better position to carry out some of the resistance methods such
as poisoning the master or stealing from the great house. This is because they had access to the

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enslaver’s home, since they sometimes formed relationship with the master or worked in the
great house as a cooks, house keeper or nannies.
Additionally, the women were in a better place to carry out cultural resistance because in most
cases they was the headed of the family and highly respected among enslaved. This position as
the head of the family allowed them to pass on their African cultures to their off springs. Also
women were in a better place to improve their economic situation because they had already
played an important role in the agriculture in West Africa. Therefore, they were familiar with
subsistent farming.
To what extent were the females’ methods of resistance towards enslavement effective?
The methods of resistance employed by enslaved women were tremendously effective. As a
female enslaved they found the courage to confront and survive the daily terrors of
enslavement. From these methods of resistance such as voluntary and involuntary prostitution
and involuntary or voluntary relationships with whites female slaves managed to gain what
they desired the most, their freedom as well as other concession to make their lives more
bearable. The relationship that the enslaved females had endured with their enslaver. Thomas
Thistlewood favourite mistress, Phibbah can highlight this, because Thistlewood directed that
Phibbah’s freedom be secured for no more than £80 in his will. Also, that Phibbah gets the
service of an enslaved and land and house (Douglas Hall, 1999). This shows the effectiveness of
these forms of resistance to slave because it allowed these women to make their life more
comfortable or even to gain the freedom they dreamt of. Shepherd and Beckles (2000) informs
that in 1811, the Rector of St. Michael Parish Church, commenting on the very ‘rapid increase’

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in the number of slaves freed by whites since 1802, suggest that out of every four, at least three
was female. (See appendix, figure 5) This therefore emphasises that these methods of
resistance by women were very effective.
Additionally, gynaecological resistance such as abortion, was effective because it was difficult for
these females to get caught. Moreover, they were able to exercise control over their sexuality
and deprive the planters of new labourers. Furthermore, prolonging their lactating period was
also effective because the enslaved mothers not only got the opportunity to avoid the harsh and
tiresome work, but they got extra time to bond with their child and take care of their child. This
however reduces production thus, contributing to the effectiveness of the resistance.
Another resistance method that was very effective was the cultivation of crops. This was quite
effective as enslaved women got to improve the nutrition of themselves and their family. It also
gave them a sense of independence and they were able to sell their surplus goods at the market
and get money to buy their manumission.
The role mother’s played in the families during enslavement was effective in helping enslaved to
survive the ordeals of slavery. The women brought love and joy to the families and to nurture
and cared for other members of the family mainly their children. The women were in most cases
the head of the family because men were typically absent from the family and they weren’t
anyone to help them with their struggles of enslavement, yet they managed to hold the family
together. Therefore, this was also incredible accomplishment of the women that helped them to
cope with the ordeals of slavery. This is evident with Old Doll who managed to achieve an elite
position within society through her support and strengths as a mother.

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In comparison with the enslaved men the enslaved women’s method of resistance were more
effective because it allowed them to secure their freedom as well as for their families. For
example, Phibbah and her family. Additionally, since the women’s method of resistance were
more discrete they were able to get away with resisting enslavement because most time their
efforts were unknown. For instance, when women would feign illness or prolong their menstrual
cycleso that they could do less work or absent themselves from work. Theseacts would normally
go unpunished because they are unnoticed. However, when men destroy plantation equipments
and malinger or refused to work these are often noticed which obtain harsh punishments.
Furthermore, women method of resistancehad a more long lasting and devastating effect on the
plantation than men’s method of resistance.

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Conclusion
The enslaved women in the British West Indies faced the most dehumanizing situations in their
everyday lives. These women refused to accept the life they were forced to live. The experiences
of women in enslavement was especially unbearable. The experiences as enslaved women were
more difficult than men’s, both in their private and public life. Despite this enslaved women
sought to live a more comfortable life by resist the ordeals of enslavement with all their will and
both their minds and bodies. They used methods that were specific to their gender,
gynaecological resistance such as abortion, prolonging their menstrual cycle and lactating
periods. Also other insurrectionary sexual resistance such as prostitution and concubinage. They
employed other economic, cultural and family orientated resistance. Due to several factors led
to the women being in a better place to carry out these resistance methods. The success of these
resistance methods shows the effectiveness of these resistance method.

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Appendix
Woman being flagged while being breast feed
Figure 1. Source:Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2004. P.
Women selling produce at the Sunday Market
Figure 1. Source:Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2004. P.156

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Figure 1.1 Source:Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2004. P.156
Enslave Women Dancing
Figure 3.

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Caricature of Barbadian Enslaved Family
Figure 3. Source: Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.
Women’s Unseen Efforts Behind Men

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Figure 4.
Old Doll’s Family Tree
Figure 5. Soucre:Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2004. Print. P.

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Table Showing Record of Slave Manumission in Barbados in 1809- 1832
Figure 6. Source: Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World.
Kingston [Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.
Nanny of the Maroon
Figure 7. Source: Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2004. Print.

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Endnotes
1 Browne, David V. C, and Henderson Carter. Atlantic Interactions. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian
Randle, 2013. Print.
2 Browne, David V. C, and Henderson Carter. Atlantic Interactions. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian
Randle, 2013. Print.
3 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. Print.
4 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. Print.
5 Browne, David V. C, and Henderson Carter. Atlantic Interactions. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian
Randle, 2013. Print.
6 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Kingston
[Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.
7 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Kingston
[Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.
8
Hall, Douglas, and Thomas Thistlewood. In Miserable Slavery. Kingston, Jamaica: University of
the West Indies Press, 1999. Print.
9 Browne, David V. C, and Henderson Carter. Atlantic Interactions. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian
Randle, 2013. Print.
10 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Kingston
[Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.

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11 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. Print.
12 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. Print.
13 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Kingston
[Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.
14 Lewis M.G and Andrew Spottiswoode. Journal of a West Indian Proprietor. London: John
Murray, 1834. Print.
15 Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Kingston
[Jamaica]: Ian Randle, 2000. Print.
16 Lewis M.G and Andrew Spottiswoode. Journal of a West Indian Proprietor. London: John
Murray, 1834. Print.
Moore, Brian L. Slavery, Freedom and Gender. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West
Indies Press, 2001. Print
17Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd. Liberties Lost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. Print.