The following research paper addresses the grander impacts that a developing economy, and thereby society, has on the greater global marketplace. The central theme of this research paper pivots around the importance of a developing economy to successfully embed three elements into its cultural and political law: Government and Governance, proper land enforcement, and public awareness through the aid of Non-Governmental Organizations.

1. 2016
Globalization & Conflict
THE IMPORTANCEOF STRONG GOVERNANCE, ENFORCEMENT,
AND PUBLICAWARENESS
ROBERT-IAN GREENE
DREXEL UNIVERSITY
ECONOMICS 322 | SEMINAR
PROFESSOR SYROPOULOS

2. i
Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 1
Government Policies...................................................................................................................... 2
Direct & Indirect Costs of Poor Governance......................................................................................3
The Conflict Trap.............................................................................................................................6
Corruption & External Influences.....................................................................................................8
Property Rights & Enforcement................................................................................................... 11
Environmental Degradation...........................................................................................................12
Public Awareness ......................................................................................................................... 15
The How, What, and Why of NGOs ................................................................................................16
Models.........................................................................................................................................18
Accountability...............................................................................................................................19
Concluding Thoughts.................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix....................................................................................................................................... 22
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 25

3. 1
Introduction
There are arguablyonlytwobranchesof economicsthatmay findtheirrootsdrudgedwithinthe
realmof resource reallocationin timesof contestation:Peace andConflictEconomics.Peace Economics
isa highlyspecializeddivisionof economicsthatholdsitscentral theme setforthwithinthe societal
organizationof persons.Inparticular,itishow those personsdesigntheirrespective political,economic,
and cultural ideals tofurthertheirsocietal andeconomicwell-being.Similarinstructure,butnotideals,
isthe alternative combative branchof ConflictEconomics.Conflict Economicsisanequallydedicated
divisionof economics,yet,ratherthanallocatingsuchresourcestowardsthe meansof political,
economic,andcultural development –isinstead a reallocationof resourcesemploying meansof (often,
but notalways) violentconflict.
The ongoingtheme of thisresearch paperwill build uponthe acceptedconceptsof Conflict
Economics.Advancing uponthe mere definition,ConflictEconomicsdiffersquitesubstantiallythanthe
traditionallyacceptedmeansandgoalsof mostintroductoryandintermediate economic teachings.For
instance,traditional economicsbuildsnecessaryassumptionsoff of anon-violentsociety,inwhich
propertyrightsandenforcementare equallyassumedtohave beenembeddedwithinsuchasociety.It
isunfortunatelyquitethe alternative stance while workingonthe advancementof ConflictEconomics
and theory.
ConflictEconomicsissaidtobe setwithinamodel of contestbetweentwoplayersatitsmost
fundamental analysis.Itintroducesthe ideathattwoplayersneeddecidebetweenthe productionof
resourcesandthe productionof wartime weaponry,oftenconstruedtobe toolsof seizingthe resources
producedbythe alternative player. Forthe purpose of thispaper,referencesare made onseveral
occasionsto whatis referredtoasthe Resource ConflictModel.Itiswiththismodel thattwopartiesare

4. 2
saidto challenge one anotheroveragivenresource.The player whowinsthe game claims the entirety
of the resource,leavingthe alternative playerwithnothing.
It isinarguable inthe mere evaluation andassessmentthatmanydevelopingnations,
unfortunately,face thisveryResource ConflictModel in aggressive terms. Ithasbecome myburdento
clearlyillustratehow numerous modernanddevelopingeconomicnationsare seeminglystuckina
downwardspiralingpitof chaos.Iplanto do so through evaluatingthe importance of three main
variables:StrongGovernmentPolicies,PropertyRightsandEnforcement,andthe significantrolesof
Non-Governmental Organizations.Moreover, Iwill promote the ideathatthe degradationof such
variablesmay subsequentlyleadtoapoor economicoutcome ona global scale.
GovernmentPolicies
Before anyadvancementismade inthe discussionof the importance of governmentpolicy,itis
of vastimportance tohave a stronggrasp of the differencesbetweengovernmentandgovernance.
There are three particularsectorsinproperlymanagingcivil society, where thereisagreat importance
of eachsectorto each other: government,private,andcivil society(Mostashari).“We have evolved
froma governmentaswe knowit,”saysProfessorFrank VramZerunyan,Professorof Practice of
Governance andDirectorof Executive EducationatUniversityof SouthernCaliforniaPrice School of
PublicPolicy,“we nolongertalkaboutgovernment,we talkaboutgovernance…[whichis] the
interactionof the three sectorstoadvance any society,”(Civil NetTelevision).
In the considerationof nationstatesinwhichthere is neitherastronggovernment nortolerable
governance,economicdevelopment becomesstagnantorevenregressiveinnature. Thisispreciselythe
case forwar-tornAngola,where there isaconstantstruggle to maintainpowerbetweenthe
governmentandrebelliongroups. Asmaybe deduced,intimesof conflictthere are directimpacts
associatedwithtrade regimes,andsubsequently,economicstability. Itmaybe of some aidfor the

5. 3
readerto once againconsiderthe aforementionedResource ConflictModel,where thereare seemingly
onlytwoviable optionsforthe playerstoengage within:the production of economic-progressing
resourcesorthe productionof economic-regressingwarfare weaponry. The ensuingdiscussionisthe
introductionof twoeconomictheories:one identifiedas the role of governmentandgovernance and
theirrespective impactontrade regimes, andtwobeingatheoryknownas The ConflictTrap.
Direct & IndirectCosts of Poor Governance
As hadbeenbrieflydiscussed,there isakeendifference betweengovernmentandgovernance
insensesotherthanthat of the processof governing. Governmentoftenreferstothe governingbody
itself,while governance oftenreferstothe act of governing the three varioussectorsof private,
government,andcivil society.Initsmostelementary form, itisthe membersof the governmentthatare
engagedingovernance. However,aswill be exemplifiedthroughpresentdayAngola,thereisastrong
relationbetween the strengthof agovernmentandtheirrespectivegovernancetothe societal well-
beingof theirnation,which accordingly abuses the international market.
An article presentedatthe “Guns andButter: The EconomicCausesand Consequencesof
Conflict”, Globalization and Insecurity:Reviewing Some BasicIssues,bringsfortha correlationbetween
conflictandeconomicstabilityintermsof trade andresources.There are of course resourcesthatare
tradedon an international level thatembodythe foundationformanyother finished trade goods – for
example,oil,diamonds,land,waterresources –are all “… subjectto contestation, albeitdomesticallyby
rival groupsor internationallybydifferentcountries,”(Garfinkel).
The effectsof contestationmaybe evaluatedinseveral interpretations,all interconnectedwith
globalizationinone functionoranother;however,Iwouldaskthe readertodraw hisor her attentionto
the direct andindirect costs of conflict.Moreover,the termconflictmaybe consideredambiguousin
that ithas many characterizations.Forthe purpose of discussionandargument,Ilargelyintendfor

6. 4
conflict to be interpreted bymeansof anyactiondirectlycausedbyone partyto anotherto slow,or
impede,the economicdevelopmentand societal well-beingof another.
In timesof conflict,itiswidelyacceptedthat substantial directcostsare moldedin suchforms
as armingindividualswithdefensive oroffensiveweaponry,aswell as anycostassociateddirectlywith
the destructionof developments.Whatstemsfromthese direct costsare,of course,the indirect
consequencesandcosts.Suchmightinclude regressed ordiscontinuationof production,individual
consumption,and investments.Yet,tounderstandthe desirefordestructionandeconomicimpedance
of one partyto another,one mustunderstandthe underlyingreason of conflict.
Resource Wars,a termusedto distinguishthe conflictassociated withageographical location
and ownership,actsasthe underlyingfoundationforthe aforementionedconflict.Paul Collier, Director
of the DevelopmentResearchGroupat the WorldBank, stated “[In] contrastto the cold warera, today’s
conflictsare lessaboutideologiesandseizingthe reinsof state thanaboutthe struggle tocontrol or
plunderresources –capturingsites richinminerals,timber,andothervaluable commoditiesor
controllingpointsthroughwhichtheypassonthe wayto markets,”(Renner).
What may be visuallyrepresented inTable1 withinthe appendixsectionof thisreport,isthe
estimatedrevenuesfromconflictresourcesamongstelevennations;amongwhichliesAngola.Angolais
rich intwo natural resourcesthatare arguablynon-renewable withcurrenttechnological standards:oil
and diamonds. The extractionof these tworesources,captured withinatime lapse between1992 and
2001, amountsto a staggering$4-4.2 billion inrevenue.“Endowedwithamplediamondandoil
deposits,”saysRenner,“Angolashouldnotbe onthe bottomrungsof the world’ssocial ladder… instead
of a blessing,Angola’snatural resource wealth hasturnedoutbe a curse,” (ibid).

7. 5
The majorityof the Angolanpopulationhaslivedinmiseryandterrorwhile bothgovernment
and rebel UNITA forces leadershave devotedmostof the revenuefromsellingAngola’sresourcesto
buyingdefensiveandoffensive weaponry,aswell as liningtheirownpockets;thusillustratingsome of
the directcosts of such resource wars. Aside fromthe directcostsof resource extractionthroughillegal
and oppressivemeasures,there are seeminglycountlessindirecteffects.Amongsuchindirectcosts
include populationdisplacement, whichiswhere anindividual (orgroupof persons) has(or have) been
forcedto leave hisorher habitual place of residence.This forced migration,sotospeak,isby and large
instigated throughthe struggle of power, whichleads torebel groups assumingrolesof political
organizationsandleaders.
Populationdisplacementinwar-torncountriesoftenoccursas a resultof several independent
variables:fear,force,andnecessity. Itiswidelyacceptedthatthe eventof acivil war doesnotsolely
affectthose participantsengaginginfighting;rather,itdisruptsthe entire societyaroundit.“Those who
are mostaffectedbycivil war,”says Renner,“are those whohave no say whetherornotthere should be
a war,” (ibid).Thisidentificationlargelyshadowsthe variablesbrieflymentionedabove.Itisthrough
fearof havingone’sbasichumanrightsviolatedthatone maybe displaced;itisthroughforce thatone
isrequiredtoabandonhisor her village andfamilyandgiventhe commandtoshoot;lastly,itisthrough
necessitythatone leaveseverythingandeveryone behindinthe off-chance of survivingjustanother
Ample resource endowments can have negative economic consequences, as
countries grow overly dependent on these resources, allocate inadequate
capital and labor to other sectors—agriculture, manufacturing, and
services—and underinvest in critical social areas such as education and
health. The result is a failure to diversify the economy and to stimulate
innovation and the development of human skills
Anatomy of Resource Wars, Michael Renner

8. 6
day. It is inarguablythe lackof propergovernmentandtheirgovernance thatleadstothese
displacementevents –and byextension, whatultimatelyleadstocivil war.
There are generallythree(3) recognized ideasthatsociety considers beingthe rootcausesof a
civil war.“Those on the political righttendtoassume that it isdue to long-standingethnicandreligious
hatreds…political centertendtoassume thatit isdue to a lackof democracy…and those onthe political
lefttendtoassume that itis due to economicinequalities,”(Collier).However,whenlookingatany
available evidence,notone of these three aforementionedexplanations mayillustrateanystrongcause
and effectrelation,which iswhatleadstothe observationthatmoderncivil warisheavilyconcentrated
inthe poorestof countries.There existsacyclical illnessthatwaris directlycorrelatedandcausal to
increasingpovertyamongstanationasa whole; butmoreover,itisthatverypovertythatincreases the
likelihoodof acivil war,ergoproducingwhatmaybe referredtoas a ConflictTrap.
The Conflict Trap
As mayhave beendeducedthusfar,civil warisincredibly destructiveforanyeconomy.Somuch
so that civil warisoftenviewedaseconomicdevelopmentinreverse(Collier).Similartothe Resource
ConflictModel presentedatthe beginningof thisresearchpaper,the conflicttrapisfoundeduponthe
ideasthatthere isa ceasedproductionin beneficial industries –suchas education,agricultural,etc. –
and an increase inthe productionof war driven tools– guns,ammo,soldiers, anddestruction for
instance. Numerically speaking,duringtimesof conflictindevelopingcountries, thiscausesadouble
loss:once fromthe lossof what the revenue andresourceshadbeen previously contributingtowards,
and twoto the lossfrom the damage that isbeinginflictedfromthe destructiveproduction of
weaponry.
Duringa war,major targetsformilitaryoperationsinclude significantstructuressuchas
telecommunications, roadsandbridges,airports,andports.Asa by-productof doingso,publichealth,

9. 7
inessence,disappears.Publichealthinthisparticular interpretation,of course, referstothe availability
of food,water,andbasicmedications. Subsequently,mortalityratesbegintospike.These incidences
affectthose whoare not directlyinvolved inthe way – the innocentbystandersandciviliansthathad
beenmentionedearlier. In2005, the infantmortalityrate had beenestimatedat187.49 per1,000
births,makingitthe highestinthe world(Mobekk).
In termsof directinvestment,be itdomesticorforeign,individualsnolongerfinditbeneficial to
participate because of the fearof displacement,destruction,andoverall economicstructural instability.
What ultimatelyoccursfromthislackof investment,isadecrease in GDPgrowth.In slightrelationto
thiselement,isthe ideaof a money vacuum.A moneyvacuum impliesthatthere isanexternal,or
foreign,investmentopportunity thatispromisingafarsaferinvestment forthose whoare still willingto
take the risk; yet,thisislargely done abroad furtherslowingthe economicactivityof the nation
experiencingcivil warconflict.GraphicallyrepresentedasFigure 2underthe appendix sectionof this
paper,isthe GDP percapita before andaftera civil warfor six distinctcountries.“Duringpeacetime, the
average developingcountrywithlessthanUS$3,000 per capitagross domesticproductin1995, spends
about2.8% of GDP on the military.Duringthe civil war,thisincreasesto5%,”(ibid).Thisincrease in
militaryexpenditure will likelybe withdrawnfromanybudgetexpectedtofulfill publichealthneeds,
whichmay alsorelate topublicinfrastructure,suchasroads,publicschoolsandhospitals,andsoforth.
While onthe topicof long-termeffects,there are manyvariablesthatneedbe consideredas
directand indirectcostsof civil war.For instance,landminesorothermilitarygrade defensive measures,
are still embeddedwithinthe natural terrainwhichcausesunimaginable impedance toefficient
activities.Moreover,the lastingeffectsof psychological damage done tothose thathadbeendirectly
involvedincivilwaractivitiesofteninclude conditions suchasPostTraumatic StressDisorder,orPTSD.
Thiswill inevitablycause notonlyadisturbance tothe local communitythatmayverywell have little to

10. 8
no understandingof this disorder.Withoutpropercare and treatment,those individuals affected may,
insome circumstances, become aliabilitytothose around them.
It isimportant,however,tokeepinmindthatthe conflicttrapis “… a tendency,notaniron
law1
.Middle-income countrieshave alowerprobabilityof fallingintoit.A previousconflictseemsto
increase the riskformiddle-incomecountriesbythe same factoras for low-incomecountries,”butas
middle-income countries have alowergeneral risk,they systematically have betterchancesof
maintainingpeace beyondthe firstpost-conflicttime era(ibid). Moreover,asmaybe inferredfrom
middle-income countries,thereisanofferedperiodof political stability,whichalludestoafinding
discoveringthatinten-yearincrements,there isasignificantjumpanddropincivil warprobability.This
conceptmay be more clearlyfollowedthroughthe aidof a graphical representationlabeledFigure3
offeredunderthe appendix.
Thissubsequentlyleadstothe question, whatoutletsarethere? There are in fact several
optionsdiscussedthroughoutthe literature reviewingprocess:intervention,targetandeliminate any
rebellionfunding,and lastly,transparency. Albeit,linkingthese aforementionedelementsall togetheris
the divisionof corruption.
Corruption & External Influences
It wouldnotbe wrong forindividualstobe discontentwiththe current rolesunderwhich
corporationstake to ensure the resourcestheypurchase,andinsome casesharvest,are done sounder
properqualitycontrols.Itmayevenbe arguedthat several corporations,knowinglyor not,playa
significantrole inperpetuating the existence of illegal resource extraction and, throughextension,
corruptedgovernance.
1 An iron law is a lawor principlethatis meant to be both indisputableand unavoidable.

11. 9
Trade of conflict diamondsamounttoan aggregatedbilliondollarrevenuestreamforsome
corporationswithinthe Fine Jewelryindustry.These profitshadbeenreportedlyusedbywarlordsand
rebel figurestobuyoffensiveanddefensive armsduringtimesof internal conflicts,suchasinAngola;
and where one warmightend,eventemporarily, the unrulyexistence of conflictdiamondsstill persists
today. For a clearerdepiction,considerFine JewelryindustryleaderDe Beersforinstance.
De Beers currentlyholdsthe largestshare of diamondownershipanddistribution,amounting to
two-thirdsof the world diamondsupply(Johnson). The reasonforthisnearmonopolyisrootedinthe
company’shistory.De Beerswas“… one of the firstcompaniesinvolvedinthe miningfordiamondsin
Africaimmediatelyfollowingtheirdiscovery,”saysJohnson,“…[De Beersfounder] Cecil Rhodeshad
completedhismonopolywiththe formationof acartel,the LondonDiamondSyndicate,whowere the
biggestdiamondmerchantsof the time.Hissyndicate allowedhimtoperfectlymatchsupplywith
demand,”(ibid).
Nonetheless,establishingnearmonopolisticcontrol overanindustrythatfailsto establisha
growingdemandisarguablynothingtofretabout.It had notbeenuntil 1947 when the diamondmarket
transferredfromanembellishmentof royalty –to a symbol of love: A diamond isforeverhad
subsequentlychanged the marketanddemandforever. Directlyfollowingthiseventhadbeenthe surge
indemandfor diamonds;ultimatelyleavingDe Beerstoexpanditsmeansof excavatingandcultivatinga
greatersupply.
The documenteddiamondhistoryof SierraLeone issaidtohave begun in1935 whenDe Beers
legallytookcompletecontrol of the miningprospectsinSierraLeone for anextendedperiodof 99-
years.Despite the assortmentof legal measures taken,illegalsmugglingof diamondsoutof SierraLeone
had inevitablyoccurredandlargelyclusteredwithLebanesetraders(ibid).Ithadbeeninthe 1950s that

12. 10
the governmentof SierraLeone hadvirtuallybeendefeated,announcing to“foreigninvestorstoprovide
theirownsecurityforboththeirpersonnel andmines,”(ibid).
It had beenthroughsuchextensive illegal smuggling thatleadtothe depletionof manyfinancial
resources andultimatelyto the governmentof SierraLeone lesseningthe total distribution of its
influences andthusconcentratingitspresence intwoparticularregions:KonoandFreetown.Konois
knowninformallyasa diamond districtwhileFreetownisequallyknownasthe exportcenter.The
increasedpresenceof governmentfigureswithinthesetwodistrictshadfallaciouslycreatedanillegal
diamondpipelinebetweenSierraLeone andLiberia. Ithadbeenaroundthese twokeyareasthatviolent
conflictsflourished,especiallywhenrebelliongroupRevolutionaryUnitedFront(RUF) hadbecome
aware that “…whoevercontrolsthe diamondminescontrolsSierraLeone,”(ibid).
It has beenthe linearconsequenceof these eventsthathadledto suchcatastrophic unfolding
of botheconomicand humanwrongdoings.Underthese influences,civilwarperpetratorshave
committedunimaginablyheinouscrimesagainstformermaninsuch waysof rape,murder,and bodily
mutilation.Indocumentedcases,ithasbeenestimatedthatthe civil strife rangingfrom1991 to 1999
had claimed well over75,000 lives,causinganadditional halfmilliontobecome refugees,andan
astounding2.25 millionpersondisplacement(ibid).
Notsoon enoughhasbeenthe acknowledgmentof firstworldcountriesof sucheventsandtheir
efforttomitigate the dilemma.Stemmingfromthisprocesswasthe introductionof the Kimberly
Process,underwhicha certificationsystemis emplacedtoassure adegree of monitoringadiamond’s
originfromthe mine to the distributor.Moreover,the UnitedStateshastakenmeasurestoensure
purityinoriginandminingprinciplesunderthe Clean Diamond Act,banninganydiamondsthatcome
froman unknownorigin.While goodonpaper,the twoprocessesare farfrom resolvingthe conflict in
reality.

13. 11
The elementthatneedstobe broughtto the forefrontof discussion isthe monopolistic
allowance of De Beersdiamondindustryshare.Hadthe diamondindustrybeena trulycompetitive
market,as De Beershad made a claimto on several occasions,conflictdiamondswouldhave agreat
adverse effectonthe entiretyof the marketandwouldsubsequentlybe dealtwith.Moreover,in
observinganyface-value legalcontractsthatDe Beershadbeena party of in diamondextraction,are –
inmost instances,ineffectfromthe nineteenthcenturywithgovernmentsthatare largelyinexistent
today. It isthisveryinstance that providedthe foundationfor misconstruction of landownershipand
right.Withoutsuchrecognitionandenforcement,future chaos isinevitablyabound andbringsforththe
vast importance of PropertyRightsandEnforcementprinciples.
Property Rights & Enforcement
Seeminglyinterconnected withresource dispute andeconomicconflict,isthe relationof justly
enforcedpropertyrights. Inmanyvaryingcircumstances,itbecomesdifficultto abide bythese
principles, oftenbudding aseriesof disputesoverrightstoa landone possess,especiallywithinnations
whichthere is such political instability,seenineitherpolitical corruptionorlackof governance.
Typically“…propertyrightseitherare notwell-definedorare costlyto enforce….Suchas those reflected
inthe resourcesregularlyexpendedinlitigation….Rentandrevenue-seekingactivitiesstemmingfrom
trade restrictions,”(Garfinkel).
Many disputes relatedtolandownershipand itsadministration are founded inthe lackof
enforcement.Thisisclearlyillustrated bythe actionsof the RussianParliament,where avote hasbeen
made infavor of landlaw forurban areas has beenconducted,yetthishasseeminglybeeninexistentin
termsof implementation.Onthe otherhand, the “…hopelessconflictof toomanycontradictorylaws,
basedon differentlegal traditionshave notbeenresolved…”bymanyhistoricallyrichnationssuchas
Chinaand India(ibid).Buddingfromthese ineffective principles isathreatto a nation’ssocial stabilityas

14. 12
well asitseconomicgrowthinthe future. As maybe deducedthusfar,“…fromcivil wars,to
distributional conflict,tothe private appropriationof land,insecurityandconflictare associatedwith
large costs,”be those costsdirector indirect,individualorsystematic(ibid).
Priorto the discoveryof consequencesassociatedwithimproperlandownershipanditslinked
impactson the economicstatusof a nation,itisimportantto brieflydiscussthe intended
interpretationsandresultsof landownershipconfusion. Suchconfusionof landownershipinsecurity,
and therebydirectandindirectcosts,mayoccur inperhaps twoall-encompassingcategories:domestic
and interstate.Furthermore,Iwillaskthe readertoconsiderprimarilythe indirectcostsof resource
extractionwhilstreadingthissection,of whichare presentedasanarray of environmentdegradation
variables.
Environmental Degradation
Throughoutthe mid-1990s, the Kenyaneconomyhadexperiencedan impressivegrowthjustshy
of 5%; particularlysince economicgrowthhadbeencalculatedas one-tenthof the 1995 growth justa
fewyearsearlierin1992 (Osano).Itmay have beencommonpractice toconclude thatthe economic
performance foretoldapositive pictureof the growthandprospectsof the country, yet – whenone
looksmore closely –there are several elementsthatshouldraise concern.
While economicallygrowing,environmental degradationandpollutionseemtohave been
growingat a similarrate.
“Forest area has declined, wetlands have decreased and wildlife numbers have fallen.
Water and land shortages are widespread, other renewable and non-renewable
natural resources are being rapidly depleted. We also see a growing use of toxic
chemicals and discharge of waste and effluent into the soil, water and air.” – Osano

15. 13
Thisanalysisand acknowledgmentleadstothe conclusionthatKenya’snatural resource base isrunning
dry. The takeawaypointisthatenvironmentaldegradationisnota topicto scoff at, evenforthe
thickheadedapproachof it’ssomebody else’sproblem, asthere are grave economicconsequencesin
future costsand growth.
Remainingwiththe study of Kenya,inobservingthe natural resourcestheyhave available,it
becomesclearerwhateconomicactivitymaybe linkedwiththe country.Firstandforemost,are an
abundance of raw materialssuchas land,water,minerals,and timber.Whatisimportanttonote under
thisdiscovery,isthatall of the country’sprimaryexcavatedmaterialsare prone toceasedproductionif
contaminationorenvironmental degradationoccurs:landbecomesclustered, faulty,anddead;water
becomestoxic,killinganysourcesof life withinsuchwaterwhile also effectingthose personsand
animalsthatconsume it;mineralsare oftendirectlyassociatedwithmining,whichdisplacesindividuals
as well asoften voidinganyfuture agricultural activitiesonthatlandif ithad beenfeasible initially;
lastly,lumberbeingarenewable resource isstill anresource thattakesyearsfor maturityandby
extension,anabundance of othernatural resources suchaswater andnutrientdense soil,to sustain
healthy growth.
OutlinedinFigure 4inthe appendix,is thatthe total economicworthof a givenresource isfar
greaterthan the mere directoutputsthe resource generatesforproductionandconsumption. For
instance,many(if notall) environmental resourcesprovidetosome extentanecologicalgoodand
service foranother;thismaybe done throughmeansof floodcontrol,carbonappropriation,and/or
climate control.Depletingsuchnatural resourcesthroughmeansof environmental degradationwill
inevitablyeliminate the directandindirectuse andvaluesof suchresources.
As maybe alludedto,the declineinthe availabilityof resources, and,therefore, environmental
quality,impactseconomicactivitiesthroughthe decline of the mere quantityof goodsandservices

16. 14
available forlong-termproductionandconsumerism.“We see adownwardspiral of economic
opportunities,”saysLucyEmerton,environmentaleconomistrepresentative of AfricanWildlife
Foundation,“…asthe environmentbecomesmore andmore degraded[there are] implicationsforboth
economicefficiency…andequity,”(Emerton).
Finally,to illustratethe directandindirectcostsof environmentaldegradation, one mustalso
note that these followingelementsovertime seeminglybuilduponone another,consequently
becomingincreasingly worseasnopreventative measuresare taken:
1. Direct economic costs in terms of production and consumption opportunities
foregone
2. Direct economic costs in terms of preventative expenditure
3. Direct economic costs in terms of replacement cost, and
4. Indirect economic costs to other production and consumption activities
Firstly,asnaturallyoccurringenvironmentalresourcesdecline inquantity,andtoa certaindegree
qualitywhenconsideringthe rate atwhichuse exceedsnatural regeneration,the supplydrops
significantly. This,inturn, hasa directeffectonthe abilitytoproduce,whichconsequentlyhasa
decliningeffectonsupply.
Secondly,asa resultof conditionone,adecline inecological servicesisapparent.One directcostof
such an event,are the projectspartakentoprevent.Forexample,soil erosion: avariable thatwould
likelynotneedtobe talliedhadproperlandmanagementbeenconsidered.
Third,I wouldaskthe readerto considerdeforestationasaprime example:Deforestation“makesit
necessarytoproduce an alternative,non-woodsourcesof fuel andconstructionmaterialsandatthe
same time to replace some of the environmental functionof forests,”suchasdownstreamfloodcontrol

17. 15
infrastructure (ibid).Thismayleadtoa plethoraof directandindirectcostsinand of itself,all of which
may have beenavoidedhadinitial cautionsbeentaken.
Lastly, as environmental resourcesdecline,there are wide-spreadeffectsonvariousarraysof
productionandconsumption,andwhile the very same activitiesdonotdependdirectlyonaparticular
environmental resource.Forexample,bio-engineeredagriculturalseedproductsthatbenefithumans,
yetharm vast numbersof birdsandsmall animalsdisruptthe eco-systemwhichmayinturndisrupta
largerelementthatwe ashumansdependupon;ultimately,we are onlyprovidingourselveswitha
disservice inthe long-run.Aswe are becomingincreasinglyself-destructive fortemporaryself-gain,a
questionposesitself forthe masses:Whoistospeakout andtake a standfor those whowill notor
cannot.
Public Awareness
Publicawarenessof arguablyanysocial oreconomicconflictisof extensive importance andis
oftenthe preliminary stepinthe processof mitigation.Whereitmaybecome a predominantly known
elementinthe domesticsense,oftenreachingawarenessof those directlyaffected,the spreadof
acknowledgmentmustgobeyondsuch constrictedboarders.Toreachinternationalrecognitionand
concern,ergoinitiatingasense of indirectaffection,isthe ultimate goal forconflictrecognition.The
primaryproblem indoingsoisthe physical actionof speakingout andhavingitheard everywhere.
It isthroughthe aidof Non-Governmental Organizations(NGOs) thatundeniablyfacilitatesthis
processof mass-publication.Inthe followingsections,Iwill explainthe fundamentalbackgroundand
essence of these NGOs,providesubstantiallygreaterdetail onthe importance of theirexistence,the
formsto whichan NGO maytake,and lastlyillustratingthe accountabilityof these organizations.Itis
throughthis discussion andunderstandingthatIhope to implementthe currentmeasuresof what
processesare beingdone tomitigate these nationsexperiencingcivilconflict.

18. 16
The How, What, and Why of NGOs
As I hadbrieflymentionedearlier,anorganizationclaimingtobe anNGO is,ineffect,calling
itself aNon-GovernmentalOrganization inthe mostliteral sense.However,if one were toconsiderthe
currentglobal market,there are plentyof organizationsthatare Non-Governmental Organizations,and
such a statementwouldn’tbe incorrect;however,itisbecause of thisveryreason,andthe tax benefits
associated withbeinglabeledasanNGO, there hasbeen manyconsequential in-depthinvestigations in
the search forfraud.Currently ineffectare twoprimary categoriesof NGOs:NGO in the traditional
sense,henceforthreferredtosimplyasNGO,andthe newer.NGOcampaign.It isimportantto note that
a memberof one categorymay applyformembershiporrecognitionas/underthe other. However,
there are variancesinthe criteriatowhichmandate whatcategoryyou maywant to be
member/organizerof.
There are of course many benefitslabelingoneself asanNGO.Most recognized,are tax
exemptions,including“…the paymentof anyothertax or dutyleviedbythe government,” inadditionto
any personwhomakesa validdonationtobe eligible tohave the identical amountdeductedfromtheir
income tax payment.However,the criteriatolabel oneself atraditional NGOis,forthe mostpart, quite
feasible;infact,there are only eleven (11) elementsthatone mustprovide documented proof of togain
properdocumentationindicatingNGOstatus:
1. Proposedname andaddressof NGO
2. Name,addressandoccupationof each director
and member
3. Resume orbrief biographyoneachdirectorand
member
4. A clearmissionstatement
5. Aims, Objects, andPurposesof the Organization
6. OrganizationStructure
7. Bylaws& Policies
8. Type of programof activitiesintendedtocarry
out
9. Projectedfinancialstatement
10. Full detailsof grantsandgrantors, and
11. Lettersof supportfrom establishedorganization
that share similarinterestsandgoals

19. 17
However,itisimportanttonote that such criteriawill inevitablydifferona per-countrybasis(Wango)2
.
Alternatively,the secondarystructure anNGOmaytake isthroughthe confinesof the .NGO
campaign– aimedatlimitingandregressingthe ill-willedorganizationsclaimingtobe of NGOstatus,
receivingdonationsandmaliciouslybenefitingoff of the kindnessof others.Assuch, the .NGOcampaign
had made theircriteria,ergoeligibility,farmore rigorousandmandatedasmay be discoveredthrougha
brief overviewof the followingsevencriteria.
Firstly,the organizationmustbe fundamentallyfocused onactingonbehalf of publicinterest.
Thisalludestothe organizationdirectlyorindirectlysupportingsuchsectorsaseducation,health,
environment,and/orhumanrights.Itisthe memberbase of the NGO communitythat worksfor the
goodof man,supportingandpreservinghumanandplanetrights.
The secondcriterion isthat the organizationmustbe a non-profitfocusedentity.Whilemany
traditional NGOsmayengage incommercial-basedactivitiesand/orproduce revenueinsome sense or
anotherinsupportof theirmissionorgoal,membersof the .NGOuser-base donotrecognize profitsor
retainanyearnings.
Third,a memberof the .NGO communitymusthave strictlylimitedgovernmentinfluence.
Traditionally,manyNGOsoutside of the .NGOdomainhad an interestininteractingwithgovernments
for fundingpurposes.Ashadbeen discussed, however,interactionandacceptance of anyother
governmentorcorporate entityoften leadtothatgovernmentorcorporate entityhavingsome
influenceoverthe policiesof the organization.Thismaybe veryharmful tothe originallyemplaced
policiesandprocedures thatthe .NGOhadinitiallyimplemented.Thiscriterionislargelyreiterated
2 As there is a vastlevel of detail,advancingpastthe scopeof this project, if the reader care to seek additional
information on establishingan NGO, I strongly encourage downloadingthe followinglink:
http://www.wango.org/NGONews/July08/HowToStartAnNGO.pdf

20. 18
underthe fourthcriterion,whichstatesthat members of the .NGOcommunityshouldnotbe political
partiesor representativearmsof any government;furtheringthe ideal that.NGOworkisstrictly
voluntary.
Fifthly,amemberorganizationof the .NGOcampaignmustbe able to fullyandclearlyillustrate
that theyare infact continuallypursuingtheirstatedmissionsonaregularbasis.Moreover,the lasttwo
elements,criteriasix andseven,statesthat the .NGOmustbe bothstructuredandlawful.Thisindicates
that membersof the .NGOcampaignmustoperate and function underthe statedbylaws,code(s) of
conduct andgovernance structure.Thisseamlesslyflowsintothe ideathatthe organizationsmustbe
lawful whileactingwithintegrity.
Witha thoroughunderstanding of the structural makeupof NGOs,we maynow begintodiscuss
the nature of a textbook NGO’swork,discoveringwhatactivitiestheypartake in, how theypartake in
them,whytheydowhat theydo,and whatbenefitsoccurbecause of theirpresence.
Models
In reality,the role of anNGO may be one or many.That is to say,the organizationmay aimto
divvyitsresources withoutbiasorprejudice,ormayrather concentrate itsresources ona single sector
and activity.Ithas become quite evidentthroughoutanextensive literaturereview thatNGOsare
generally categorical as pertheirprimaryresource expenditures.WhatIhave foundwithconsideration
of NGOsunderAmericangovernance,is thattheyoftenembodyone of three characteristics,ormodels:
Whistle-blowers,Lawmakers,andServiceSupplier.
Whistle-blowerlabeledNGOsare indicativeof the largerencompassingbodydevotedtoAnti-
Corruption.Thissectorwithinthe greaterNGO environmenthashada majordevelopmentinthe last
decade as perthe protectionsforwhistleblowersworldwide fromalegal liabilityperspective. The
primaryincentive behindWhistle-BlowerNGOsisto sanctionor advance the transparencyof not only

21. 19
governmentbutalsocorporate wrongdoings.A studyconductedbyPricewaterhouseCoopershad
concludedthat“…fraudis on the rise and thatstrong protectionsforwhistleblowersare the keytoany
anti-corruptionmeasures…the developmentof these principlesforwhistleblowerlegislationisthe
turningpointinthe global fightagainstfraudandcorruptionbecause itputsteethand substance into
international anti-corruptionlaws,”(PwC).
LawmakerorientatedNGOsare predominantly engagedwithanarrayof legal-orientated
activities withparticularemphasisonthe passingof billspertainingtocivicparticipation,improvement
inthe qualityof governance,overcoming the democraticdeficitandactivitiesof the like.These are
unfathomably importantasthese organizationsare,inat leastinthe bestinterestof doingso,providing
a voice on behalf of those wholackthe necessarymeanstobe heard.Thisis effortlesslylinkedasa
directsolutiontothe aforementioneddifficultyinpublishingawareness.
Thirdly are those NGOswitha primaryinterestinpromoting,ormitigating,acause througha
directand personal involvement.Considerthe SouthernAfricanNGO,GenderLinks.The organization
promotesgenderequalityandjustice acrossa15-country wide region,andhasbeenrecognizedas“a
small organizationwithlarge footprints,”(Sang). Where these organizationsare unable toproduce or
purchase all of the materialsandproductsnecessaryto fulfill theirgoal,NGOswithinthis
characterizationoftencall upon those tomake charitable donationsinreturnforbeingaddedtoa
publicizedandrecognizedsupplierdatabase.
Accountability
Lastly,itis worth verybriefly discussingthe role inwhichNGOsplayinprovidingaccountable
solutionstoenvironmental, international,andpublicissues. Itmaybe arguedthat, initsmost
elementaryinterpretation “…NGOsare respondingto…[a] democraticdeficitbycreatingthinktanks…
publishingcritical work…[and] therebyprovidingspace formore debate inthe publicsphere,”

22. 20
(Lehman).These goalssetforthbythe organizations,particularlyreferencingNGOs, cannotbe carried
out bylearningethical rulesby force of habitanddevelopingmore procedure.Whatisrequiredisa
democraticstructure that appropriatesthese idealswithauthenticity –where suchan authenticity
involvesmakingthese democraticvaluesourown,therebyembodyingthe veryprinciplesof the
organization.
Concluding Thoughts
Throughoutthe variousphasesof orchestratingthisarticle,myview on the developingworld
had beenundoubtedlytransformed.Nevertrulyinvestigatingthe mattersthatare broughtforthon
mediachannelsorsponsoredadvertisementsseekingdonationsfornon-profits–has beenadisservice
at its mostbasicroot. Strictlyspeaking,Ihave come totwo extreme endsof thoughtwhenitcomesto
the discussionof developingnationsandtheireconomies:emotionallydrivencommentsand/oractions,
and those actionsfoundedinthe realmof logical analysis.Where Idonotdiscreditthose individualsfor
theirstance on the subjectmatter,Imust wholeheartedlyobjecttothe extremes,andallocate fora
middle ground.
It had beenmyprimaryintentiontoillustrate the civilstrife thatis stranglingthesenations,
havinga wide seriesof horrificdirectandindirectcosts – rangingfrommismanagementof currency to
the violationsof humanrights.More unfortunate isthe ideaandvaliditybehindthe effectsof the
discussed ConflictTrap.Thisis,andof itself,anargumentstressingthe importance of proper
government,stronggovernance,andessential necessityof NGOs.
At the root of civil andpolitical strife, shatteringboth society anditseconomies,liesthe lackof
properpropertyrightsandtheir due enforcement.Thisisespeciallytrue forsuchdevelopingnations
that rely uponthe abundantpoolsof natural oil,the lushgreeneryof untouchedforestry, orthe
untappedstoresof pristine waters.Itisthroughimproperenforcementandpolitical regulationof such

23. 21
industriesandnationsthatallowforthe mismanagementof extractingprinciples, whichoftenresult in
irreversible andcatastrophicallydamagingoutcomes, leadingtoa plethoraof directandindirectcosts,
furtherstagnatingthe growthof that nationas a societyandas an economy.
Lastly, onlysince the introductionof Non-Governmental Organizations have developingnations
begunto receive the publicationandawarenessnecessarytosparka change withina single lifetime.
While itisdifficulttosuggestatthiscurrentstage where foreignaidisacceptable andwhere itisnot,I
believethroughsponsoringatrulyinsightfulNGO,we may,atthe veryleast,provide hope tosome.

24. 22
Appendix
Figure 1

25. 23
Figure 2
Figure 3

26. 24
Figure 4

27. 25
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